Commission of the European Communities

physical sciences
ADVANCED STEAM TURBINE POWER
PLANT TECHNOLOGIES
AND THE MATERIALS IMPLICATIONS

Commission of the European Communities

physical sciences

ADVANCED STEAM TURBINE POWER

PLANT TECHNOLOGIES
AND THE MATERIALS IMPLICATIONS

P.R. Sahm, E. Fiender

Foundry-Institute
Aachen Institute of Technology

DG XII JRC, Petten Establishment

Directorate-General
Science, Research and Development

1985

EUR 10040 EN

Published by the
COMMISSION OF THE EUROPEAN COMMUNITIES
Di reet o rate-G e n e ra I
Information Market and Innovation
Btiment Jean Monnet
LUXEMBOURG

LEGAL NOTICE
Neither the Commission of the European Communities nor any person
acting on behalf of the Commission is responsible for the use which might
be made of the following information

Cataloguing data can be found at the end of this publication

Luxembourg, Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, 1985

ISBN 92-825-5549-6

Catalogue number:
ECSC-EEC-EAEC, Brussels Luxembourg, 1985
Printed in the Netherlands

CONTENTS
SUMMARY
1.

DEFINITIONS ANS SCOPE OF THE STUDY

1.1 SUBJECT OVERVIEW
1.2 OUTLINE OF SCOPE

2.

STATE OF THE ART TRENDS

2.1 THE POWER CONVERSION SYSTEMS
2.2 PLANTS AND EFFICIENCIES
2.3 NATIONAL EFFORTS
2.4 MATERIALS TECHNOLOGIES

3.

FUTURE R & D
3.1 ECONOMY OF STEAM POWER PLANT
3.2 TURBINE DESIGN AND ENGINEERING
3.3 MATERIALS AND COMPONENT MANUFACTURE TECHNOLOGIES
3.4 TECHNOLOGY MIX (R & D IN MATERIALS PROCESSING)

4.

CONCLUSIONS

5.

REFERENCES

PREFACE
The Joint Research Centre of the Commission of the European Communities, Petten Establishment,
is executing a High Temperature Materials Programme. It provides a scietific service to European
industry, being concerned with materials information, data handling and direct research projects
for relevant areas in energy and industry, including power generation and utilisation, which
require materials for long term service in high temperature aggressive environments. The
programme, through its Information Centre project promotes, coordinates and conducts studies
to evaluate materials behaviour in critical areas of industrial processes.
During the past half century, European power producing industries have made a large investment
in materials research to improve the efficiency and reliability of steam turbine plant. However
many problems remain which will be intensified by the continuing drive towards these twin
objectives. The present study was therfore commissioned as part of a data gathering exercise for
the planned further review of the technological requirements for high temperature materials
R&D. Its aim was to evaluate the potential for improving the effiency of steam power plant by
operating with higher steam inlet temperatures, to assess the associated technical problems and
to identify R&D requirements. Specific objectives were to:
- examine the current status of knowledge on the thermodynamic and engineering concepts for
a high effiency steam turbine to operate at 700C or higher, probably with supercritical steam
at ca. 30 MPa,
- assess the incentive for an Advanced Steam Turbine, for instance in respect of the cost
benefits which would arise from the succesful use of these conditions,
- identify the problem areas where critical material R&D is needed to enable the target
conditions to be used reliably and safety for a design life of 250 000 h.
The HTM programme acknowledges the scientific input made by the authors and wishes to take
this opportunity to express its grateful thanks to them for the conscientious and industrious
manner in which they tackled the study and responded positively to the objectives.
M. Van de Voorde
Programme Manager
J.B. Marriott
Technical Coordinator for the study
Commission of the European Communities
Joint Research Centre
Petten Establishment

CEC Contract No. 320046

This report was prepared by Prof. P.R. Sahm and Mr. E. Fiender, R.W.T.H., Aachen, Germany,
under contract to the Commission of the European Communities (Joint Research Centre, Petten).
Copyright remains exclusively with the Commission of the European Communities.
No extracts from this report may be reproduced without the prior written consent of the Director
of the Petten Establishment of the Commission of the European Communities.
The source must be Acknowledged.

SUMMARY
Assuming the background of a relatively conventional scenario of
steadily rising energy costs and increasing environmental constraints
steam turbine cycles employing primary and reheat temperatures in the range of
750 to 800C at pressures of 500 to 600 bar appear to be reasonable to thrive
for as thermal efficiency gains of at least 5% may be realized. In terms of
feasible cost increases of plant both with respect to invested per kWh and
tolerance limits for R & D money expendable over a period of about 10 years,
R & D towards this goal seems interesting.
Befor: starting out on a conscious effort in "materials and technologies for
post-next-step steam power plant" (the "next step" is currently well underway
on a national effort basis at least in two economic world regions: USA and
Japan), another 3 year period of more detailed preparatory studies seems appropiate.
The "next.step-steam-power-plant", underway within US and Japanese national
efforts, does not lean on substantial technological breakthrough (except possibly
for the steam raising process in Japan). It thrives for temperature and pressure
ranges about 560C and 240 bar, but not more than 650C and 350 bar) that have
been utilized for a number of years in smaller, industrial type power plants.
While the problems here may be characterized by
transfer of experiences with medium size units (50 to 150 MW)
to large units (800 to 1300 MW)
the problems of "post-next-step-steam-power-plants" are
entering fully a class of materials, i.e. austenitic steels, with
which little or no large scale experience has been collected so far.
Simultaneously, this may mean entering looking for new materials technologies
or switching from one to another class of materials processing or, in effect,
taking on new processing sequences ("technology mix") not heretofore practiced.
The advent of CAD-CAM makes computer simulation and modelling an important
partner of this

R & D effort.

1.

DEFINITIONS AND SCOPE OF THE STUDY

Consumer preference for electricity as a clean, versatile energy source has

been clearly demonstrated in recent years, and increased electrification of
industry is inevitable. Electricity has unequalled ability to speed automa
tion and increase productivity, and new microprocessor technology will increase
that ability further. The competitiveness of industry will thus depend in
some measure on the price of electric power. Whilst a number of ways of
raising steam are available, e.g. by burning coal or oil, by the fissioning
of uranium in reactors cooled by water or COp the steam turbine/generator
remains the most widely used vehicle for turning heat into electricity.
Efficient steam turbines are therefore a cornerstone of prosperous economies.
1.1

SUBJECT OVERVIEW

Figure 1.1 a indicates the importance of the steam turbine in terms of conver
ting the world's energy resources into electricity. It illustrates its unique
significance for both the entire earth's and the individual nations' economies.
Because coal appears to be particularly suitable as a fossil

fuel source for

the steam plant energy conversion process, Western Europe as one of the world's
four coal rich regions, figure 1.1 b, must be concerned with more efficient
future technologies.

In simplest terms, figures 1.2 a to 1.2 d present the water steam cycle of a
steam turbine power plant including an overall view of the entire process with
auxiliaries in figure 1.2 d. The theoretical basis for this energy conversion
process was laid down by Carnot in 1824. It yields a theoretical efficiency which,
in practice, can only be asymptotically approached due to various losses along
the technical process loop and the non-useable heat content of the liquid. Fi
gures 1.3 a to 1.3 c illustrate these loops and simultaneously indicate the
essential terminology utilized in the description of the technical process.
Figure 1.4 expands on the definition of the Carnot efficiency.

... quoted from COST statement, 1981

2:
O water
O coal
O lignite
+ mineral oil
gas
nuclear

5i 100

BC

0
V

* .
C

Bc
E*

6G

a m
Ha

$
**$

;>
20).

$^
o o o o o o o o o o O
o o

i i a Q a Q o o o o Q o o Q Q n o o o a n O n n o o o p ) ! ; '
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
r
1
J' >

1950

1958

1954

1962

1966

1970

1974

year

Distribution of coal

resources

Th. Bhm et al. 1977

100

so
Western
Europe
Middle East
/
8
NDrth Atnco

st-nm turbine

20
Japan

^^
SouthAfncaf

gas turbine

10 -

hydroelectric

13%

all other
1960

production

11%

consumption

Energy production and consumption

U. Renz 1982

1965

_l

1970
year

1975

1%

1980

USA electric power generation

installed capacity

W G . Steltz 1980

Figure 1.1: In terms of

energy conversion processes the steam turbine
power plant is based
mostly on coal combustion
(a); for countries having
to import most of the energy resources (b) high
efficiency processes are
particularly relevant; for
countries well equipped with
coal resources high efficiencies are mandatory due
to cost comparison with other
energy conversion forms.

generator

S tedin rai s ing uni t

(a)

(SIW)

Schroeder
1962

stack
y/7777
coal yard

V///'
pulverizers

777?

electrostatic
precipitator

'////
'
'/////
i.d.fans SO2 absorbers

>)////

R.I. Jaffee
1979

Figure 1.2: The principle of a steam turbine electricity generating plant

stems from the ability of superheated water vapor to perform work. The steam
cycle, illustrated in (a) and (b) requires a series of engineering designs and
materials (c) that have to cope with extreme mechanical stresses and environmental attack (e.g. corrosion) while being exposed to elevated temperatures,
but also, in turn, burdening the environment (atmosphere and water) with nonnatural emanations like NO and SO, see also figure 1.2 d.

Figure 1.2 d: The flow chart of the lignite steam power plant at Miederauen of RWE illustrates complexities
of interconnections.

reheater

1
electric
Lrtfi generator

i
condensate boiler feed
pump
pump
5.000

1.250

I
1

low
pressure condenser
turbine
1.000

.5 ..ooo =51.000
c

Q)

r>
cr

-C

11

-3.000 & 750

Q.
1/1

)
CD

"
C
ZJ

CU

-J

-2.000 a

=3
1/1
1/1

500

E
Q'

-*-

CX

1.000

250

W. Hossli 1969
Figure 1.3 a: Steam temperature, pressure and volume are the critical factors
in the design of a steam power plant. The curves show how these three factors
vary throughout a typical system. Pressure is highest at the exit of the feedwater pump leading to the boiler. At the entrance to the-high-pressure turbine
the pressure has dropped somewhat to around 2,400 lbs/in in this example. Thereafter it falls rapidly as it passes through the turbine cascade. The steam
temperature is raised to 1,000 F in the superheater and again in the reheater,
finally plunging to about 80 F as it leaves the low pressure-turbine. The specific volume of the steam varies over the greatest range and is therefore plotted on a logarithmic scale. At eh inlet to the high-pressure turbine one pound
of steam occupies about 0.3 cubic foot. When the steam leaves the turbine cascade, it occupies about 300 cubic feet.

Iff g? g

q.j

heat into economizer

q2 heat into vaporizer

q3 latent heatot evaporation
into vaporizer
q,

L
s.

kJ/kg K

superheat into superheater

(b)

qT usable energy
q non usable heat content
of liquid

L 5 6 7
s. kJ/kg K

Figure 1.3 b and c: The steam turbine cycle delivers energy by an efficiency which
is determined by that amount of heat which is being cycled above ambient temperature T a (b). The sketch in (c) indicates the various heat inputs and outputs along
the cycle.

10

\ \

QT * = constant

T)th,

g lqnl

\V\

"12 = ^V X\V3
} ,
\

l^iil
" ^ J i = const.

\ O\q34=0^
/ J V .. _ J u = const.
qjl at Tu = const\

compress, adiabatically (q 12 = 0) from p, to p 2

temperature rises from T T T to T T

^ 3

expand, isothermally (Tj = const) from p~ to p 3 ;

heat qjis added

^ 4

expand, adiabatically (q 34 = 0) from p 3 to p.

temperature decreases from T, to Try

compress, isothermally (TJT = const) from p, to p,

heat qrj is extracted

Figure 1.4: The pV diagram illustrates the theoretical Carnot effi

ciency to be arrived at from comparing heat input and output by
fol lowing through a cycle of pressure and volume changes (Carnot
cycle).

The history of steam plant electricity through its approximately 80 years of

existence, figures 1.5 a and b, reflects a relatively steady rise in tempera
tures and pressures of the working fluid. It is particularly noteworthy that
much of the progress made with respect to rising efficicencies was closely
linked to improved materials and their technologies. Figure 1.6 exemplifies
the development of alloyed steels for turbine parts, in particular blades,
rotors, and casings.

11

During this period European power producing industries have made a large i n
vestment in materials research to improve the efficiency and r e l i a b i l i t y of
steam turbine plant. However, many problems remain. Some of these are associated
with the steady growth in unit size of turbines which, for example, leads to
requirements for larger forgings and castings with associated problems of
quality and properties. Furthermore, the use of high output units leads to
very high costs of outages (plant shut-down) which results from unplanned re
pairs when component f a i l u r e occurs. For the same reason there is pressure
from the u t i l i t i e s to increase times between scheduled maintenance periods.
The need to minimise losses due to outages has led to increased e f f o r t s to
improve component r e l i a b i l i t y and thereby to reduce direct operating costs.
Other problems arise as a consequence of the changing circumstances in which
the e l e c t r i c i t y generating industries in many industrialised countries now
operate. For example, elderly plant o r i g i n a l l y designed for base-load operation
has frequently to be used for peak-lopping with rapid start-up and shut-down
which can be highly damaging to c r i t i c a l components. The l i f e t i m e of plant
working in t h i s way cannot readily be estimated. Also, benefits in increased
efficiency resulting from higher operating temperatures, p a r t i c u l a r l y in the
smaller industrial turbines, place new demands on t r a d i t i o n a l materials and
provide the incentive for the development of improved alloys*

Besides such a straightforward house-keeping a c t i v i t i e s ( r e l i a b i l i t y , remnant

l i f e , maintai nance) future R & D has to center on improving today's technical
status both on the level of the
simple evolutionary scale ( i . e . improvements made on local and small scale)
and, i f at a l l possible, even more so on the
more-than-evolutionary scale, i . e . preparing for the next generation(s)
of steam turbine e l e c t r i c i t y production.

* quoted from COST 505-statement, 1981

12

r
600

bar

300

highly alloyed steels

rcast

pioneer p l a n t s

iron

'

250 h

550

average"pTats

40I500

'y.
thermal efficiency

30
20r
350

101300
1900 1910

1920 1930

1940

1950 1960

1970

1980

1990 2000

year
^ a d o p t e d a n d extrapolated from data by K. Schroeder 1962 and K.J. Irvine 1975

Figure 1.5 a: Since steam turbines came into use around 1900 a rapid development
of higher power and efficiency units took place. When 1300 MW units were i n t r o
duced efficiency was less emphasized for the sake of keeping components under
bearable operating conditions, including the low temperature steam nuclear
power plants.

13

IM

'a:

WO

]SX

mo

mo

;;:

cx
U

t.
.

\
^ 1 au s ten i tes
=low a l l o y ^ s ^
j creep
ow alloy s t e e l ^ ^ s i s u n ^

L.

. e

tu c
< <>
3 5
01 C
Ol o

chemical prepurification
and evaporation

chemical softening

,, . v
full size \
boiler

vertical tube
boilers

i.
Ol

b O l e r

1910

flow boiler

mo

t0

three

t h r e e t o four

soot

mo

::::

y..

nx

'.:

gas,

hard coal, high _ o i l ,

_ a s h content
__Z

brown
__ coal

__ hard coal.

type?^

^ number of turbine cylinder: one . , , t w 0

kW/m

radiant

piston steam engine

NV

xjeionisation
v
^

,.;

: .

. Schroeder 1962

Figure 1.5 b: The development of steam turbine power plant resulted in an

interplay of various elements such as systems, construction, material, feed
water quality and steam raising units.

14

heat resistant steel high temperature

resistant steels

50
E 40
E 30
eh

(NI

^^

_*

a 20

".
O

ai

(_

_c

I
C

o
o
o
o
o

400

500

600
700
temperature, C

1.CoCr20Ni20W
2: X40CoCrN2120
3:GX8CrNiNb1613

800

10

.^

O"
^ ~ +

.i.

rvi

oi > M
u o

rj

>.
D

t_

^-

550C

K. Roesch and K.Zimmermann 1966

Figure 1.6: A n i n t e r e s t i n g example of the sequential improvement of low

a l l o y s t e e l s ' creep r u p t u r e behavior f o r elevated temperature use i n
steam t u r b i n e s has been given by K. Roesch and K. Zimmermann. Higher
temperatures r e q u i r e higher a l l o y e d s t e e l s .

bearings

rotors

AEG P u b l i c a t i o n 1963

Figure 1.7 a: This "opened machine" view presents the main t u r b i n e components
o f concern i n t h i s s t u d y .

15

It appears as if, presently, both the political and economic scenarios have
set the stage for a next more-than-evolutionary step (see section 2.1).

1.2

OUTLINE OF SCOPE

In the l i g h t of the aforesaid, an overall objective for future R & D should be

to improve the efficiency and r e l i a b i l i t y of steam turbines by better knowledge
of materials behavior in conditions relevant for service. The specific technical
objectives should then be:
- to improve the efficiency by better or new desiqns
3

of turbine components

- to ensure that materials with adequate performance

\ ,
future
\
\ oriented

{ . . ^.

\ objectives!

are available to meet new demands

J
- to provide an improved basis for the estimation of remaining \ house
life in conservatively designed turbine equipment*
> keeping
' objectives
In particular, the future oriented objectives demand that the study is aimed to
wards evaluating the potential for improving the efficiency of steam power plant
by operating at higher steam inlet temperatures and pressures and towards asses
sing the associated technical problems for the sake of identifying R & D require
ments. Specific objectives are to:
- examine the current status of knowledge on the thermodynamic and
engineering concepts for a high efficiency steam turbine to operate
at > 650C with supercritical steam at ^ 24 MPa,
- assess the incentive for an "advanced steam turbine", for instance
with respect to the cost benefits,
- identify the problem areas where critical material technology R & D
is needed to enable the target conditions to be used reliably and
safely for a design life of > 250 000 h.
The study is concerned with all important areas connected with the turbine com
ponents in the steam path, figure 1.7 a. These include main piping and valves,
cylinder casings and rotors, moving and static blades, seals. The condensor,

adapted from COST 505-statement, 1981

16

feed heaters and the like have been excluded from detailed consideration, as
has the generator. The steam raising unit (SRU) may be a conventional pulverised fuel boiler (PFB), a fluidised bed combustor (FBC), or an integral
coal gasifier (ICG), figure 1.7 c. In all cases coal derived fuels are used.
The study will also refer to the combined gas/steam cycle, where it appears
to be relevant to the steam inlet conditions given for the "advanced stage".
The SRU itself, figure 1.7 b, is not being considered, although attention will
be paid to superheater areas, both on the fire side and the steam side.

2. STATE OF THE ART TRENDS

The present state of development in steam turbine power conversion systems is
rather diversified depending on the local (national, political, economic etc.)
scenario. The fundamentals of the steam power-electricity cycle have been presented in chapter 1.1. Here, a short comparison of different national scenes
will be given in order to gain a "3-dimensional" viewpoint. Before this, however,
a more generalised look at the various power conversion systems, in the final
consequence all relying on the steam turbine process, appears to be in order.

2.1

THE POWER CONVERSION SYSTEMS

Taking into account that for high overall efficiencies, see figure 1.3, the
absolute temperature difference must be as high as possible, numerous nonconventional schemes have been proposed. Figure 2.1 indicates the wide variability of efficiency-to-cost interactions. A detailed evaluation of the data
of figure 2.1 is claimed to suggest the following systems worthy of further
R & D-pursuit (L.H.Th. Rietjens 1982):
- combined gas turbine - steam turbine cycle,
- magnetohydrodynamic steam cycle,
- liquid metal Rankine cycle,
- high temperature fuel cells.
Presently these processes show relatively high costs - due to the early stage of
their development. Costs are likely to be lowered with progressive stages of R & D.
Further cycles worthy of consideration are the
- high temperature reactor (see figure 2.2)

17

RWE publication 1967

1

economizer
y evaporator

3J

II

4 HP superheater
5 wall superheater II

6
7
8
9
10J
11

wall superheater III

bulkhead
final superheater
reheater I
II
Ljungstrm air preheater

Figure 1.7 b: This cut through a present state of the art pulverised fuel
"once-through-boiler" (system Sulzer) indicates main components. The piping
of concern in this study has been specifically narked by .

18

Figure 1.7 c: The t o t a l size of

the steam raising unit decreases
substantially with more modern
processes of coal energization.
Therefore, improvements in the
process are highly desirable.
The example presupposes a 660
MW u n i t .

Fluidized Bed
Combustion SRU
for A tmospheric
Pressure
Fluidized Bed
Combustion SRU
for 16 bar
Conventional
Steam Raising
Unit (SRU)

K.H. Krieb and W. Ratzeburg 1978

50m

90

80

'

70

Lowtemperat ure
fuel cells (HBTU fuel)

I CCMHD/steam
SRC luel

--' 7\

Supercritical CO, V
\ /
h /
S
(LBTU
Vf S \
(Lb
integrated
*
gasifierl
\
f. I
I
V /
High-temperature
\
'
1
"*
fuel cells (LBTU)
V
I J.
l_
5 0 CGT (HBTU fuel) N
j

'

7~i

"GT (coal fired (AFB)) (

,
Low temperature,""^^/
fuel cells
4 0 7i(hydrogen fuel) I

LMR/5Ieam (coal (PFB) and

LBTU integrated gasifier

10
10

20

30

\
V . OCMHO/steam
/ . (coal and SRC fuel)

/ *1

N \

> '/
\
\ )*1_
~
/
' _ If
' V - - . ' It
I
(HBTU fuell /
>
I
/
T'
OGT/organic
Combined cycle
(clean fuels)

. CCMHD/steam
v\' (coal fired)

./ ;

s\

\
"

\!
\

Pressurized
combustor

LMR/steam (coal fired (PEB))

^CGT/organic
lired(A FB))
ff ^^ ^l cl cooaall lired(A
FBI)
/ Advanced steam (coal fired)

A V

20

N. ,-

L.H. Th. Rietjens 1982

LMR steam (coal fired (AFBI)

iv

60 - ^ N

30

Figure 2 . 1 : A summary
of results obtained from
ECAS- study shows a large
variety of power conver
sion systems to be consi
dered when designing f u
ture scenarios.

I ^^LMMHD/steam
r*
(coal fired)
I
I
I
I
^v ^Supercritical CO,
I \ (coal AFB)
I
\
I
.CCMHD steam
7 (coal firedl

rr

241 bar
537C

350Opsl/1O00F/10OO'
Steam system (conventional furnace)

Combined cycle
(LBTU integrated
gasifier)

40

Overall energy efficiency

(a) General Electric results.

50

60

19

and, of course, the

- high temperature conventional boiler steam turbine,
object of this study. In most of these cases the very high temperature steam
can be procured. Due to the different steam raising methods involved, the materials technology problems also require different approaches. Although in this
study only the conventional, coal-based techniques are being considered, the
other possibilities must be kept in mind for future assessments. Schematic overviews of these steam turbine cycles be they already utilized or still in development have been put together in figure 2.2. To the greatest extent the systems
considered in figure 2.1 rely on steam turbines to convert the heat into electrical energy, thus emphasizing once more the central significance of the steam
turbine.
Examining figure 2.1, it has been pointed out that the various scenarios are
quite different in their approach, particularly with respect to which kind of
energy sources are to be harnassed. Thus, for example, the rather technical
question, whether the future will include the use of higher temperatures or
not, will also depend to some extent on the political scenario, particularly
where democratic processes of opinion formation are involved. Figures 2.3 a to c
present a possible sequence of arguments concerning this point. In this connection special mention must be made of modern day constraints being introduced by
environmental considerations, figure 2.3 c. The removal of SO^ waste gas, for
example, being evolved when burning coal in the steam raising unit, has had a
decisive impact on the increase in energy cost - over and above the oil crisis.

2.2

PLANTS AND EFFICIENCIES

besides questions such as: "which large, overall direction will have to be taken
in the future", detailed differences within the more conventional approach may
already yield sizeable efficiency gains. Referring back to figure 1.2 there are
several areas within the entire plant cycle which appear worthy of further optimization. The two most promising items are the steam raising unit and the steam
turbine. Likely SRU systems to be considered are presently
- conventional pulverized fuel combustion,
- Integrated gasification combined cycle (ICGCC),
- pressurized fluidized bed combined cycle (PFBCC).

20

PRESSURIZED
I
COAL GASFICATION I COUPLING
PLANT
LINK
gasifier steam
I gasifier air
>r air
I ?mrriMtt

COMBINED
CYCLE PLANT
20 bar 320C
I

air throttle
valvt
coal

steam
turbine
condensor

combined cycle plant

K.H. Krieb et al 1979

exhaust
waste
heat |

teed
heater

. nuclear
| material

tJr
electrical sfr
energy

nuclear reactor
steam power plant

seed,

MHD
generator

G. D i b e l i u s

waste
heal

seed

1974

MHD
generator

cyclic
heatexchangers
compressor
closed c y c l e
MHD-steam power p l a n t s

compressor steam
generator
open cycle

L.H.Th. Ri etjens
1982

Figure 2.2: While the "combined cycle" (gas and steam turbine) is presently
already being used (smaller units), both the high temperature reactor and
the MHD systems are yet under development.

21

S
Fertigung

Inbetriebnahme

D=^0^^>
l'Mll

1986

I1

1989

>

!1

Blau I.andtj^allien

(a)

Rot: B ufklr<M|;\wjMrn

EinwellenSattdampfturbosatz 1300 MW

Uran (Weltvorrate 15600Mrd t SKE bei Nutzung durch Bruter)

nC

Einvvellen
Zwischenuberhitzungs
Dampfturbosatz
800 M W

Vergasung

''T

\-\\

I M

pnHCUl

G a s - u n d Dampt ( G U D - ) Proze
m
mit Gasturbosatz
Gasturbosat 2 200 MW
Dampttuibosatz

2O0MW

Kohle (Weltvorrte 5 5 0 M r d t SKE)

I f

II

\ . n

IJJ

II

\ .

-,

Gas-und Dampl( G U D - ) Proze

mit
mit Gasturbosatz
Gasturbosat 2x200MW
Dampfturbosatz

200 M W

Erdgas (Weltvorrate 9 0 M r d t SKE)

rfW-l-n
xr ~rr
rOJ
Erdl (Weltvorrate 140Mrd t SKE)

(b)

1988

I
1

1987

0
"WS

1964

1983

198?

1981

Eriahrungs
ruchtauf

Mort ige

Material
beschaffung

Enl wie It lung.

Konstruktion

Kombinierter Proze
mit Gasturbosatz
100 M W
TS0"

Zwiscnenuberhttzungs Dampfturbosatz
700 M W

Figures 2.3 a to c:
The diagram in (a)
above illustrates,
how, for example, in
Germany a new technical concept of energy
conversion, from the
inception to finalization, may take as
long as two election
periods - indicating
possible political
difficulties for its
realization; due to
the various possible
choices of energy
sources (uranium, coal,
gas, oil) there is,
figure 2.3 (b), unfortunately, no clearcut singular optimal
concept for energy
conversion, and therefore it remains, to a
certain extent, open
to opinionated decisions;

22

PULVERIZED COAL
COMBUSTION WITHOUT
DESULFERIZATION

PULVERIZED COAL
COMBUSTION WITH
DESULFERIZATION 90%

PRESSURIZED COAL
GASIFICATION; NO
DESULFERIZATION

COAL CONVERSION
BY "GUD" PROCESS

COAL GASIFICATION
WITH HIGH TEMPERATURE
REACTOR

188.6! Schwefeldioxid
53t Schwefeldioxid
191 Schwefeldioxid

19.4t Schwefeldioxid

,r

1000 MW

1000 MW
E HTR

If

1000 MW

fe*.
I KohleI I vergasungs\ 7 anlge

Kohlevergasungsanlage

372,2t Gips

: CaSO^

92t Schwefel : S

621 Schwefel : S

84t Schweleil :. S I

(c)
Figure 2.3 a to c, continued: the l a t t e r point becomes p a r t i c u l a r l y relevant when
discussing effects of waste products on the environment: figure 2.3 ( c ) ; adopted
from W. Tral, 1980.

best nuclear units

best fossil units

1940

1950

source: FPC/NRC
I
I
1960
1970
1980
year

W.G. Steltz 1980

Figure 2.4: Heat rate

trends in US-American
steam power plant have
levelled out at around
8000 BTU/kWhr f o r the
best f o s s i l units. For
further improvement
considerable steam tem
perature and pressure
increases would be
required.

23

They represent essential efforts in their own right and are not subject of this
study. The steam turbine appears

to be the other most rewarding area of endea-

vors, i.e. improving the steam turbine efficiency through raising steam temperatures and pressures. The trend of improving heat rate, figure 2.4, could thus
obtain another jump downwards.
Of considerable importance in the power industry is the price of electrical
energy supplied to the consumer. In the USA the price per kWh has steadily
decreased over the forty year period from 1930 to 1970, figure 2.5, both in
current dollars and relative dollars considering 1972 as a base. This trend
dramatically changed in the early 1970's as fuel prices and inflation rates
escalated. Thermal efficiency has progressively assumed greater importance
both to the consumer and to the utilities. Penalty clauses dependent on
achieved heat rates versus contractual values are commonplace, dollar value
penalties of % 50,000 to % 100,000 can be imposed on the manufacturer for
every Btu/kWh if his equipment is proven deficient. The utility also places
enormous value on vendors' quoted heat rates, evaluating them at rates of up
to % 250,000 per Btu/kWh on new equipment. The message is clear, thermal
efficiency is of paramount importance in the design of steam turbines and
related equipment. Statistical and potential values are given in figure 2.6.
The rate of improvement of turbine cycle thermal efficiency is obviously
decreasing - increases in blading efficiency, reduction of ducting losses,
etc., are becoming more and more difficult to achieve. Power plant and
machinery designers are working hard to achieve small improvements - considering the worth of energy. What then are our options leading to thermal
performance improvements and the management of our energy and financial
resources? Are exotic processes the answer - MHD, solar power, the breeder
reactor, fusion? - Or perhaps the use of alternate fluid sub-posed cycles,
combined gas and steam turbine cycles, or even increases in steam conditions
of steam power plants, see figures2.1 and 2.2. Significant changes will be
required in the future and the trade-off parameters will be the energy source
and cost.

2.3

NATIONAL EFFORTS

In the following a look at several national efforts may help to gain better insight into the present state of "future thinking".
quoted from W.G. Steltz 1980

24

()

ib)

10
8

projected
historical

00 r

construction period
interest

300

environmental
protection

If
*

200

CL

2
current dollars

source: EEI/BLS
J

Li

1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990

year
I

W.G. Steltz 1980

construction
time

45years
KTrenkler 1978

Figure 2.5: The constantly dropping price of electricity in the US has picked
up since the oil crisis 1973 and requires more attention on efficiency of the
energy conversion process (a). Costs for everything, in particular, investment,
environmental protection, and mortgages for :the duration of construction have
risen dramatically (b).

(a)

(b)
unit size trends
steam plant additions
average size
of additions

net heat rate

C
3

1950

1960

1970

55

1980

60

65

70

75

year

year
H. Trenkler1978

W.G. Steltz 1980

(c)
,2.5 MW

18000r

tf =520C
t =520C

1 16000
*

14000
without reheat

e 12000
_ 10000
with reheat
8000

10

20

50
100
200 300
inlet pressure, bar

500

Krieb and W. Ratzeburg 1978

Figure 2.6: While the maxi

mal unit size has reached
1300 MW the average size
adjusts to between 600 and
800 MW units (a). Actual
heat rates are located
around 2350 kcal/kWh
(^9200 btu/kWh ^9700
kJ/kWh) the layout heat
rates being about 10%
lower (b). For present
day parameters (520C,
300 bar) the optimally
economic heat rate is
not much better than
9500 kJ/kWh (c).

25

USA I A recent study conducted by EPRI on "Improving Thermal Efficiency of Conventional Steam Electric Power Plants" nay serve to set the scenery for further
enquiries (see D.V. Giovanni and A.F. Armor 1981).
The "best average" plant, referred to as BASE plant, characterizes the present
("best average") status in the USA, figure 2.7 a. The studies were set up to
examine the case for better efficiency with pulverised fuel fired boilers which
would then be an evolutionary improvement rather than the stepwise change needed
with Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle, i.e. gas and steam (IGCC) and
Pressurized Fluidized Bed Combined Cycle (PFBCC).
It is said that most conventional steam plants with coal-fired drum boilers have
a net thermal efficiency of 33-34%. Those in the 300-800 MW range have an inlet
steam temperature of 53bC (with reheating of the steam to this temperature between high pressure (HP) and intermediate pressure (IP) units). The next stage
of the study presents the preferred high efficiency design that is commercially
available today. It uses proven materials at a performance level that

is well

established by field experience. Statistics are presented to show that contrary

to general opinion, experience over the past ten years with "once-through" supercritical boilers shows that they are as reliable as the drum boilers of the
more conventional plant related to above.
The operating conditions of this "base plant" are 24 MPa pressure, 538 C inlet
steam temperature with 2 reheats to 5b0C and 56C. The net thermal efficiency
is 37. These improvements in the "base plants relate to better design, control,
inspection etc. ano more confident material selection", figure 2.7 a.
An ADVANCED PLANT is then proposed, figure 2.7 b. It does not presuppose "technological break-throughs".
The two studies have different approathes. The higher efficiency of the Westinghouse design does not seem to be directly due to materials. It appears that they
have a more serious materials problem in the very high pressure turbine than
General Electric. They allow for this "to concentrate any metallurgical and mechanical problems due to higher temperatures at the HP end where components sizes
are smaller". It is said that "the technology is limited by the metallurgical
properties of critical components". The concepts require previously unproven materials, material applications at larger component sizes than previously tried, modified designs of components.

26

BASE P l a n t General

General

Specifications

Electric,

BSW Team

Gross R a t i n g , MW
Auxiliary

Power, MW

NET RA TING, MW
Auxiliary

Power,

% of

T u r b i n e Heat R a t e ,
NET HEA T RA TE,

Gross

Btu/kWh

NET THERMA L EFFICIENCY, %

Throttle

Pressure,

Throttle

Temperature,

Throttle

F l o w , Ml b / h r

1st

psig
F

(C)

(C)

2nd Reheat T e m p e r a t u r e ,

(C)

Feedwater T e m p e r a t u r e ,

Condenser
Turbine

last

Generator
Boiler

Backpressure,

(incl.

Thermal

(C)
deaeator)

i n . Hg

stage l e n g t h , i n .

Efficiency,

(cm)

Efficiency, %

Excess Combustion A i r , %
Air

P r e h e a t e r E x i t Gas Temp, F

FGD E x i t

Gas T e m p e r a t u r e ,

Stack Gas T e m p e r a t u r e ,

Thermodynamic c y c l e s for the

672

697

BA SE

(C)

(C)

CO

6.1

765S

7530

9350

9190

1ooo(538)
4.7

Number Feedwater H e a t e r s

4S

3 5 o o (21)

Reheat T e m p e r a t u r e ,

Final

742

53

36,5

(MPa)

C Team

725

7.3

Btu/kWh

Westi nghouse,

37,1
3 5 o o (24)

1025 ( 5 5 2 )

looo(538)
4.5
1025 ( 5 5 2 )

1050 ( 5 6 6 )

1050 ( 5 6 6 )

553 (290)

550 (288)

1.5

2.5

33.5 (85)

31 (79)

98.7

98.65

89.5

88.5

17

22

300 (149)

290 (143)

120 (49)

120 (49)

170 (75)

170 (76)

plants

1050 F
1025 F

from
. bote
3500_p3i
1000 F

1st RH
2ndRH

r r

boiler

Westinghouse base plant

1025 F

1050 F

taa

'TO?

GE base

plant

Figure 2.7 a: Base

plant specifications
indicate present
steam turbine con
ditions as seen by
two main US turbine
manufacturers.

27

General E l e c t r i c ,
Advanced P l a n t General

B4W Team

Specifications

725

Gross R a t i n g , MW
Auxil f ary Power, KW

'.
674
1.0

NET RATING, MW
Auxiliary

Power, i of Gross

Westinghouse,
C Team

824

51
73

5.2

Turbine Heat Rate, B tuAWh

7300

7180

NET HEAT RAIE. B tu/kWh

8875
38,5

8330

T n r o t t l e Pressure, psig (MPa)

4500 ( i n

T h r o t t l e Temperature, *F

1050 (566)

4500(31)
1100 (593)

NET THERMAL EFFICIENCY,

CO

4.4

T h r o t t l e Flow, M l b / h r
1st Reheat Temperature, *F

CO

2nd Reheat Temperature, *F

CO

Final

Feedwater Temperature, *F

CO

Nu'noer Feedwater Heaters ( i n c l .

Condenser B ackpressure,

deaerator)

i n . Hg.

Turbine Last Stage Length, i n .

Generator
Boiler

Efficiency,

(cm)

Thermal E f f i c i e n c y ,

Excess Combustion A i r ,

5.1

1075 (579)

1050 (566)

1100 (513)

1050 (566)

580
9
1.5

604
9
2.5

33.5 (85)

31 (79)

98.7

99.1

89.5

89.3

15

A i r Preheater E x i t Gas Temp, *F

FGO I n l e t Gas Temperature. *F

CO

CO

FGO E x i t Gas Temperature, *F

Stack Gas T e n p e r a t u r e , 'F

41

CO

CO

300 (149)

270 (132)

235 (113)

220 (104)

120 (49)

120 (49)

170 (76)

170 (76)

Thermodynamic cycle schematic for the A DVA NCED plants

1050 F
60F

Westinghouse advanced plant

IQ5F

! 100 F

GE advanced plant

BFP

Figure 2.7 b: Ad
vanced plant speci
fications indicate
a next possible
developmental step
as seen by two main
US turbine oanufac
turers.

28

It is claimed that, * under various scenarios, present worth lifetime savings

from $ 58,000,000 to over $ 145,000,000 are achievable, depending on the eco
nomic scenario and the type of utility (public or investor) owned. The most
probable econimic scenarios, in which fuel inflation exceeds general inflation
by 1 to 2%, show 1ifetime .savings ranging from $ 70,000,000 to $ 100,000,000.
Thus, the savings for the first such plant would offset the development cost by
approximately five times

. Figure 2.8 sums up the technical and economic con

clusions of this study.

EUR] The present status in Europe has not been summarized in a way comparable
to the EPRI-sponsored study. The European status is mul ti level led according to
the multiplicity of national scenes. Despite the resulting divergent national
attitudes an attempt has been made here to generalize the European situation.
An approximate present state of the art may be sensed from data compiled in
figure 2.9. On the one hand, nuclear power has, despite the large sizes involved,
called for a rather conventional design (due to low steam temperatures available),
on the other, remarkable steps into the higher temperature regimes have been taken
with the small industrial type steam turbines, figure 2.9. The latter permits the
extrapolation of possible "advanced type" power system;
According to experiences gained with small units, figure 2.9, it may be rather
safely extrapolated that a temperature range of 550C and pressures up to 350 bar
may be built today. Designs for these machines are available since tbe 1950's
(H. Haas et al. 1982). In central Europe the small high - or p-niachines, figure
2.10, were mostly used as topping turbines by the chemical industry. ' Such units
typically in the range 10-60 MW, are also being employed to drive equipment such
as compressors, ships and the like. Here, there is an interest to move to higher
temperatures, motivated by efficiency and saving of space and for capital costs.
A typical advanced unit could be 20 MW with turbine stop valve (TSV) at 750 C
and 104 bar, giving ca. 50% turbine cycle efficiency. In coal fired ship propulsion this would equal the efficiency of diesels with cheaper fuels

The philosophy of "centralizing" technological data in a way indicated below,

see at SU, is pursued by individual companies of the industrialized western
countries in that they all have introduced or are introducing "the piecing
together" of plants with the help of standardized modules, similar to what
will be shown below for the SU as a whole.

adapted from D.V. Giovanni and A.F. Armor 1981

** ...** adapted from J.B. Mariotte 1981: GEC statements

29

CONCLUSIONS
1. There Is no statistical difference between the a v a i l a b i l i t i e s of operating
supercritical and subcHtlcal pressure power plants.

High availability and

high thermal efficiency are not mutually exclusive.

2. The optimal, commercial ly available coal-fired steam-electric plant is
characterized by steam conditions of 3500 psig, 1000*F/102S*F/10SO*F (24 MPA,
538/552/56. The typical heat rate for this 3ASE plant Is 9250 BtuAWh
( I . e . , 37J thermal efficiency) Including FGO, a wet cooling tower, and other
cormion environmental controls.
3. An approximate IOS reduction 1n heat rate ( i . e . , heat rates below 8500 Btu/kWh
and over 401 thermal efficiency) 1s technically feasible and economically
worthwhile.

The ADVANCED plant 1s similar to the BASE plant and is

characterized by steam conditions of 4500 psig (31 MPa) and temperatures to

1100'F (593'C).

In addition, heat rate reductions are achieved by the

u t i l i z a t i o n of waste heat within the plant, Improved component efficiencies,

and optimized system design.

The optimum size plant is approximately 750 MW.

4. The ADVANCED plant is cost effective relative to the BASE plant, and much more
beneficial when compared to the subcritical plants commonly being purchased
today.

For the economic premises used In the EPRI studies, the overall

lifetime savings for the ADVANCED design were typically $100,000,000 for one
unit.
5, An evolutionary-type research and development program to realize the economic
benefits of the ADVANCED

plant would cost approximately $25,000,000 and

require approximately 5 to 7 years.

No technological "breakthroughs" are

required.
6. The operational versatility .of the ADVANCED plant is comparable to that of
fossil plants in operation today in terms of turndown capability, permissible
rates of load change, startup procedures and times, and load shedding
capability.
7. The BASE and ADVANCED plants retain their high thermal efficiency at reduced
loads and are relatively insensitive to variations in ambient temperature.

In

contrast, the performance of combi ned-cycle type power generation options

characteristically varies to a larger degree with ambient conditions.
8. The BASE and ADVANCED plants are economically and technically competitive with
other power generation options when equipped with environmental controls for
S0 2 ,

particulate matter, N0X, thermal discharge, solid waste disposal, and

liquid effluent discharges.

9. The ADVANCED plant Is comparable 1n terms of thermal efficiency with IGCC and
PFB.

I t has a unique advantage weetngarveaototionaryImprovement".

10. The development of ADVANCED plant technology 1s warranted at this tie.

Figure 2.8: Conclusions of the

EPRIstudy are that, with a re
latively low R & D capital in
vestment, a large effect may be
achieved in efficiency improve
ment at little technical risk.

EPRI

IU

t h l W * Irr lCll%l t> t . ^

>

Siw tacine fun ruw

D** V. fiiff>ft*i
*0 F, Uv
Cteme

fcM

U"

t H I C

O w l *

feu;
.*.

Umuti
. ;

t S f A B C H
-

LMII

;-?;

N S i T U T t

30

Fin
Oper
Unit
No. ation
1 1951 Bayer Leverkusen 42
2 1955 Bayer Leverkusen 43
I 1956 Chemische Werke Huele
4 1956 Fuldmuehio Reisholz
S 1957 Feldmuehle Arnsberg
I 1957 BASF Ludwigshaien 1
7 1957 BASF Ludwigshafen 42
t 1957 Power Plant Neuhof 44
9 1957 Power Plant Herren
hausen 46
10 1957 Power Plant B remen
Haien 1
11 1957 Power Plant B remen
Haien 42
12 1957 Bayer Leverkusen 45
13 1956 Bayer Dormagen 44
14 1959 Power Plant Hartingen 43
IS 1959 Power Plant Hartingen 4
16
17
It
IB
20
21
22
23
24
25
2
27
26
2S
30

1959
1960
1960
I960
1962
1963
1963
1964
1964
1965
1966
1966
1966
1967
1967

Forges de la Providence
Bayer Uerdingen 41
Erdoelchemie 41
PoWer Plant Tocopilla
Bayer Leverkusen 47
Bayer Uerdingen 42
Erdoelchemie 43
Erdoelchemie 5
Bayer Dormagen 45
Bayer Flittard 41
Bayer Flittard 43
Power Plant Schelle 42
Power Plant Schelle 43
Erdoelchemie 47
Bayer Uerdingen 43

Main/
Reheat
Steam
Temp.
F/T
1112/
1184
1112/
1112/
1112/
1112/
1112/
1112/968

Maln
S leem
Press. Rating
kW
psig
2120 11OO0
2100 14000
4230 17000
2100
2100
2190
2320
2540

11000
7000
29000
29000
B10O0

1040/977

2540

51000

1040/968

2540

84000

(a)

2540 64000
2100 14000
2100 21000
3330 107000
3330 107000
1420 10000
9000
4160
2810 18000
1022/
1058/1004 1740 50000
2100 14000
1184/
9000
4160
917/
2810 17000
1036/
2810 17000
10367
2120 21000
1112/
2810 17000
1036/
2810 17000
1036/
1022/1040 2540 125000
1022/1040 2540 125000
2610 33000
1036/
4160 15000
977/

1040/968
1164/
1184/
1112/977
1112/977
1040/
977/

Steam Condi tions

Year
Commissioned

Unit Size
MW

Initial
Pressure
psi

Temp.

Reheat
Temp.
C

1947

30

600

454

1950
1955
1957
1959
1962
*1966
1966
1973

60
100
120
200
300
375
500
660

900
1500
1500
2350
2350
3500
2350
2350

483
565
538
565
565
593
565
565

538
538
565
565
565
565

* Supercritical B oiler
POWER PLANT DEVELOPMENT IN UK SINCE 1947, COURTESY CEGB

H. Haas et al 1982
INDUSTRIAL

(b)

Variante

3B

4n

Frischdampf"
Druck bai

186

245

300

300

300

Temperatur C

635

565

525

570

610

1. ZwischeriUburhiizer"
Druck bai

43.6

empi'iatur UC.

535

69

95

95

114

568

535

545

570

2. ZwtschenUberhitzer"

Duick bai
Temperatur C
spez. Warmeverbr.

(Rechg.)
(Jahresmittel wert)

kcal/kWh

2074

2052

20T2

2183

2163

2047
2154

2022

2190

2128

2119

76

83

103

112

138

147

3a. 4a

26
570

2080

Brennsloffeinsparung %

287 U C

27.5
570

2266

bei Variante

24
545

2153

Differenz bzw. Veibesserung W

Vorwrmtemperatur normal 260C

24
565

3,35

3.65

4.52

4.93

6,08

6,47

Alle Da mpfdaten beziehen sich auf Einlrittszustand vor Turbine.

280C

A. Schnei der
Figure 2.9: Industrial turbines and power plant turbines, when compared in t h e i r
r a t i n g s , give an approximate picture of present day steam turbine technology:
advanced f o r the f i r s t , conservative f o r the l a t t e r ( a ) . Extrapolating from the
f i r s t to use with the l a t t e r indicates possible heat rate improvements and fuel
savings (b).

31

(a)

+.J

H. Haas e t al 1982

(b)

\ I . W V H . M M I
l ' I R H O H . n o hein* Imiti l* Hr. n,
H .s* < ti. I l l be i W l i r i f l nit in operation heti il i* deli red t
lik T V A i 1*71. I l .Ir, f i r . l * . t..
aapoan umi. .

.t.. . . . , ih. iKe Meas, trae* ^ . e t i i i a l l * i n r o , h tartu ne ' d'

lerenl . i t e * lor ateei OM I d t f errai k* h < *>ee | * arfceanafclarari.
T W tinS*rt i l l ran on 4 aeJajrfd h* S a n t i n i ( f.*11 (atei.

W. Hossli 1969

Figure 2.10: The small industrial type steam

essential knowhow by which next generations
turbines, such as illustrated in (b), may be
to concepts indicated by the EPRIstudy (see

turbine unit (a) may deliver

of large power plant steam
designed, possibly according
above)

32

JAP

Japan, one of the outstanding energy consuming countries in the world, is

also confronted with the necessity of saving energy. To meet this challenge,
developments are underway towands an ultra high performance fossil fuel plant,
both coal gasification combined cycle power and "ultra supercritical" PFB plants,
The Electric Power Development Co., Ltd. (EPD C) is to undertake R & D in utili
zing coal for power generation in Japan. Having started 1981 technologies on
"ultra super critical steam condition" (U.S.C.) are to be developed. It is
aimed at performance improvement and efficiency increase by advanced steam
conditions in conventional coal fired power generation systems.
It is being expected that the U.S.C, technology will be commercialized in the
near future with an equivalent performance capability in coal gasification
combined cycle plant. In addition, adoption of lower consumption equipment
and high performance air preheater as well as others, will result in even
higher efficiency coal fired thermal power stations.
Figure 2.11 compiles data for both typical conventional as well as U.S.C.
type power plant. One may gather that design goals are comparable to the
generally accepted term of "... advanced conventional ..." type steam turbine
power plant.
SU 1 Last not least, a certain lead for the development in

the communist block

countries may be obtained from examining the data given in figure 2.12 a and b.
Electrical energy in the SU is based to about 85% on heat power stations. Al
9
together, approximately 150010 kWh are being produced presently. 3 basic types
of systems:
fossil fuel fired condensation turbines for power stations

WKW

power stations for heating purposes (back pressure turbine) HKW

nuclear power steam turbines KKW
Specialties of Russian steam turbine development, design, and operation are
summarized as follows
standardization of steam parameters is being attempted; both WKW and HKW
operate only with = 12.8 or 23.5 MPa; rated main and reheat temperatures
are strictly 540 to 565 C;
most WKW and KKW are being driven down to rather low vacua: 34 to 39 mbar.
An "advanced type plant" is said (B.M. Trojanowski 1980) to have been operated
for several years with the ratings 100 MW, 29.4 MPa, = 630 to 650C and
reheat temperatures to 565 C. This may be taken as being symptomatic for the
next developmental step to be taken in the SU.

33

COMPARISON BETWEEN CONVENTIONAL TYPE PLANT AND USC PLANT

Comparison I t

1.

Conventional type
3.bOO psl
1.O0O/1,OSO'F

USC type
4.SOO psi

l.iso/i,oo/i,

Design Condition
Rated output

1,000 MW

Steam condition

(at turbine inlett

246 kg/cm

Main steam pressure

Main steam

temperature

Reheat steam
Operation

temperature

620C

ibb'C

595C/S9SC

Constant

system

320 kg/cm

SJS'C

pressure

Sliding

pressure

80 kg/cm

Minimum operation pressure

Kind of coal
aituminuous,
Australia. Chinese.
American, South
African Coals.
Thermal efficiency
end)

2.

Bltuminuous*.
Australia, Chinese,
American. South
African Coals.

tat generator
41.79

43.92*

Boiler efficiency

89.561

89.46

Turbine thermal

46.89*

49.34

efficiency

B oiler

typ

I 1er,
single :
ne
.or..

Monotubt b o i l e r ,
r a d i a n t , do
. ssarf
.on.

3,ISO T/H

2,800 T/H

radiant,

Boiler evaporation at MCR

Main steam pressure
outlet)

(at SH
330 k g / c r

Steam temperature
Main steam

S4 3'C

625'C

Reheat

S69C

S98/S98*C

steam

Feed water
Mat u r i a l

of

287.S'C

temperature

Hu;h temjieratur

spctiun
SUS347KTB

! H u s h i n g SH tube

MITI

Fini.hiriv; Rll tube

SUS347HTB

Modified ASTM 13
7 i 3 4 7 H / H o d l f l c d 1714C UMC
MITI SUS347HTB

header

JIS STFA24
(AST* A'3S P22 Equiv.)

m., HM ovn l. t header

J I S STPA24
iASTM A33S t22 E q u i v . )

JIS SUS316HTP
(ASTM A312TP316H)

Cross compound, 4 flow

exhaust, regenerativ,
.t, condens
ino

Cross compound, 4 flow

exhaust, regenerative,
double reheat, condens
ing

ing SII o u t l e t

1.

316C

boi1

JIS SUSJ16HTP
(ASTM A312TP316H)

Turbine

44 ir.

Length of last stage blade

Number of casing
Exhaust

pressure

.inder

4 tyll
MgVac .

722 mnHgVac.

Trine ip*l part of M <

quality
teel or NiCrmo
Austenitic steel
Austenitic steel

Figure 2.11: Japan proposes a short term plan for an ad

vanced type ( i . e . "ultra supercritical") steam power plant;
T. Suzuki 1981

K.210
130

Type and Size

Producer
Year of Production of
the f i r s t A ggregate
Nominal and
Maximal Power
Rotational Velocity
I n i t i a l Pressure

LMS

K.300240

ChTGS

PT
R100
60/100 130/15
130/13

MIO

/no
no

PT135
/1B5
130/15

T175

30

MBO
/210130

T-250
/300240

K-22044

K-50065

K-50050

K 750
Bi

K 1000
80

K I0OO
80

ChTGS

LMS

LMS

LMS

LMS

UTMS

UTMS

UTMS

UTMS

LMS

UTMS

ChTGS

ChTGS

ChTGS

ChTGS

ChTGS

LMS

1980"

I960"

1984"

1970"

1977

1980

1973

1968

1961"

1973

1978

1979

1971

1989"

1970

IS75

1980

Ull

IH1

300
320

300
3 30

500
535

BOO
635

1200
1380

500

BO
'00

100
107

1 10
120

135
165

175
310

180
210

250
300

225
240

500
64!

500

750

1030

1000

ll

BO

50

50

50

50

50

50

50

50

50

50

50

50

50

50

50

25

50

2!

BO

MPl

12.76

23.54

2 3.64

23.54

23 54

23 54

13,75

12.75

12.75

12 75

12.76

12.75

12.75

23.54

4.3 1

37

6 il

B 37

6 il
TSO

b ! 7
TSD

017

2.3

640
b 686

Pressure in the
Adjustable Tapping

Heat Rate

GJ/h

Feedwater Temprature

Intermediate Super
heat Temperature

K500
130

1959"

MP

Intermediate Super
heat Pressure

KI200
240"

210
215

540
540
b b. 50

Temperature

K 800
240

MW
MW

Initial

LMS

K500
240

540
b 585

540

540

540

510

555

555
b 565

555

555

540
b 565

540
b 565

TSO"

B
3.

640
b 665

640
b 586

540
b 565

640

1.3
b 0.2 5

770

419

b
0.245

b 2.06
und bil
0.245

bit
0.3

2090

1170

bil

TSO

TSD

TSO

TSD

0.33

034

lit

B
O I

1.19

243

383

260

2B3

350

bil

02
0 2
1360
1090

Final Pressure
Number of Steam Paths
in LPStages
Typed Process Control
Length of Last
Stage Blades

240

266

285

fi

3.46

3.43

343

270

274

274

230

240

234

23!

253

226

166

225

190

222

3.63

343

3 58

1470

200

b 220
6.0

3 53

3 92

6 18

4 41

3 93

' u l l

mm

2"

DGB"

OGR

OGR

DGR

OGR

01

DU

OGR

765

1060

1200

960

665

Legend:

=
=
=
=
ChTGS =
UTMS =

250
b 2 80

250

TSD
DGR
DR
LMS

i.ia

DGR

DGR

DGR

DGR

DGR

DR

on

DR

O.

01

862u
1030

862

1450

1030

1450

756
840

The f o l l o w i n g designations are common in the SU:

modernised turbine
w i t h Baumann stage
iiionorotational
satuated dry steam
steam entrance valve control
t h r o t t l e control
Leningrad Metal Works
Charkow Turbine Works
Ural Turbine Machinery Metal Works

Letters designate type of t u r b i n e :

K: condensation t u r b i n e , R: back pressure t u r b i n e , T: heat
tapping t u r b i n e , P: i n d u s t r i a l steam tapping turbine
F i r s t d i g i t : nominal power i n MW ( f o r tapping t u r b i n e s :
numerator = nominal power, denominator = peak power f o r
operation i n condensing mold) second d i g i t : i n i t i a l
pressure i n kp/cm 2 . Next number: m o d i f i c a t i o n and f o r
Ptyped t u r b i n e s : pressure i n the upper tapping p o s i t i o n
i n kp/cm', f o r Rtyped t u r b i n e s : back pressure i n the
denominator.

B.M. Trojanowskij 1980

Figure 2.12 a: The date indicate the state of the art in steam turbine power plant in the Soviet
Union.

I
B
D
1200

35

lurbine produced by ChTGS, type K5002402; power 500 MW, initial pressure = 23,5 MPa, n = 50/s

IT .L

1L 1

lurbine produced by LMS, type k3002403; power 800 MW, initial pressure = 23,5 MPa, n = 50/s

turbine produced by LMS. type K1200240; power 1200 MW (maximal power 13a0 M W ) ,
initial pressure 23,5 MPa, 50/s

B.M. Trojanowskij 1980

Figure 2.12 b: These typical steam turbine power plant designs characterize three
size ranges of ratings: 500, 800 and 1200 MW.

36

2.4

MATERIALS TECHNOLOGIES

In this section a short review on materials utilized in the critical steam

power plant components and present-day technologies leading to these materials
will be presented. The components are, see figure 1.7:
- turbine rotors;
- turbines blades and discs, seals;
- casings (turbine/valves) / housings, seals;
- steam ducts (main piping) and superheater;
- bolts.
Figure 2.13 a to c contains an overview of general property requirements for
the components of interest. The figures delineate clearly the three broad regimes of requirements: both room and elevated temperature mechanical properties and stability against environmental media (corrosion). Better and more
non-destructive testing methods would help substantially in eyery

respect. If

one looks at the materials presently available, then roughly three groups may
be distinguished, figure 2.13 b. Figure 2.13 c adds a short description for
each of the steel-families. These figures should only be consulted in "zeroth
order" comparative fashion.
Obviously, the austenitic steels, being located at the higher temperature end,
presently appear to be very suitable materials for future developments. Because
austenitic steels require high quality - high cost alloying elements this development must, among other aspects, also be vitally concerned with improved,
though cheaper, materials and technologies. The difficultly of combinining
austenitic and ferritive components in one turbine cylinder, due to a large
difference in expansion coefficients, represents a problem area in its own
sight.
Rotors I Three basically different rotor designs are known in present steam
turbines, the "monolitically"-cast and forged, the welded, and the shrunk-on
type, figure 2.14. The large rotors required for modern steam power plants are
machined from forged ingots that can weigh from 200 to 400 tons. Not all manufacturers agree to the need of a centerline bore hole, figure 2.14 a. In the
case of welding together discs or shrinking them on a smaller

size shaft ob-

viously the ingot size to be started with requires less critical metallurgical
engineering than in the case of the fully forged rotor.

37

^^^components

HP andtttP and'
HP andl LP rotors i HP and nP and
IP
and
IP
IP
LP
compenjcondensor
IP
IP"
'valve
requi r e m e n t s ^ ^ ^ rotors LP discs casings blades blades piping |bolts
i n t e r i o r s : sators i piping
mechanical room temperature
s t a t i c stress

toughness

fracture toughness

LCF

(x)

(X)

HCF

(x)

()

I
X
X

crack propagation
static

crack propagation
cyclic

()

mechanical elevated temperature

creep rupture

toughness

fracture toughness

()

LCF

HCF

crack propagation
static

crack propagation
cyclic

x
x

x
x

'

()

, ,

environmental

gasmetalreactivity
(HTcorrosion)

corrosion local

corrosion SCC

(X)

corrosion cyclic SCC

(x)

erosive corrosion

erosive wear

NOT

IX

f r i c t i o n rear

X
1

(x)
X

,<*)

Figure 2.13 a: Critical requirements for steam turbine components are compiled
here and show that mechanical toughness and stability against corrosion are the
most generally pervading property requirements. Better nondestructive testing
methods (NDT) if available, would be particularly useful to monitor the state
of defects and thus help predict outages and life expectancy. ( ) signifies a
lower level of need.

38

30
KM
Q.
-if

E
E

i:

Figure 2.13 b,c: Three main

groups of s t e e l s may be dis
t i n g u i s h e d i n steam t u r b i n e
production the e s s e n t i a l
design property being creep
rupture s t r e n g t h (here 10
h r s ! ) - ( b ) ; both proper
t i e s f o r operation as well
as those necessary i n pro
duction have t o be taken
i n t o account ( c ) ; AEG
p u b l i c a t i o n 1963.

I
-

25 20

o
15
o
o 10 --

tN

a\

C^^

5 -

500

525

550

f
575

600

625

650

(b)

T, C
a: low t o medium a l l o y :
f e r r i t i c - T < 550 0
b: f e r r i t i c - martens i t i c
T = 550 to 610C
c: a u s t e n i t i c : T >

group a
low a l l o y - steels

600C

group b
high alloy
steels

ferritic-martensitic

group c
austenitic steels

creep strength

see figure 2.13 b

figure 2.13 b '

figure 2.13 b

price relation.

7
satisfactory

castability

good

satisfactory

forgeability

good

good

good

weldability

good, i n some cases prehea

t i n g and stress r e l i e f
annealing necessary
low; for crack t e s t i n g remo
val of casting skin necessary
i n s p e c i f i c locations

only w i t h ' c o n t r o l l e d prehea

t i n g and successive heat t r e a t
ment
very s e n s i t i v e ; complete remo
val of casting skin f o r crack
testing mandatory

good, i n most cases stress

r e l i e f amealing necessary

oxide s c a l e - s t a b i l i t y
up to about, C

560

650

c u t t i n g worxabil i t y

normal

d i f f i c u l t , due to hard surface

S t a b i l i t y gainst
erosion
chemical surface
stabi 1 i Ly (corrosion)

normal

normal

low cutting rate necessary

due to high toughness
sensitive

bad

good

excellent

f r i c t i o n Jim wear at
high temera tu re s

normal

good

tends to f r e t t i n g

stress and s t r a i n
relaxation behavior

normal

p a r t l y lower than group a

thermal expansion .
c o e f f i c i e n t m K~
10- b at bCCC

14,5 (normal)

12,5 (low)

d i f f e r e n t depending on spe
c i f i c a l l o y and thermal
treatment
18,5 (high)

thermal ;oniiuctivity

0,09 (normal)

0,07 (less)

0,035 (bad)

s e n s i t i v i t y against
thermal stresses

normal

more sensitive than group a

much more sensitive than

group a

thermal shock cracking

s e n s i t i v i t y in large
thick walled castings

insensitive

750

(c)

39

Figure 2.14: The three

basic types of rotor
designs are
forging from single
ingot (a),
shrinking of discs
onto shaft (b)
welding together
discs (c)

J.T.A. Roberts 1981

(b)

(a)

|>I

..

ti W0M
rii

ri

'.',V\ '..'.*. vfe

"SIL

I M I 7'N,

II

1 .5^:::.|
S

-.,.<:: ..:.:...;..I?

sO.VI
i Emmi

siCiRixmoK

\v

VC;
! l l V t /
MCHlCiMlON

SI iv MI S T I R I
OXIOt

M.J. May 1977

50^0305010 0 10 20 30 60 50
4X 0 / o
m X /o
J. Del orme et al. 1977

Figure 2.15: The conventional solidification of large ingots is accompanied

by heavy segregation throughout the entire volume. The different segrega
tional zones are indicated by the sketch (a)r quantitive results measured on
a 30 t ingot (b) show both negative and positive deviations from nominal com
position.

40

The problems in solidifying homogeneous microstructures for large ingots are

summarized in figure 2.15. The problem is that with increasing ingot size the
yield drops (from 80% with 10 to 20 tons ingots to less than 60% with 300 tons
ingots) due to gross segregation and inhomogeneous distribution of nonmetallic
inclusions upon solidification. Also, shrinkage porosity occurs in an unsatisfactorily controllable manner. This in turn, requires well predictable "porosity repair" by forging. Here, good NDT-methods would be most helpful, compare
figure 2.13 a.
Presently, several lines of steel melting and solidification practices are
being followed. Firstly, primary methods such as A0D or ladle metallurgy,
figure 2.16, or secondary, i.e. ingot remelting methods, figure 2.17, have
been added to the steel making repertoire.
The welded disc construction requires reproduceable joining techniques such as
submerged arc welding, for example, figure 2.18. This rather tedious, time consuming technology may possibly be replaced by more elegant methods, such as Ed
welding, see chapter 3.
The materials selection for rotors orients itself by the requirements of creep
resistance, lef, and toughness to be maintained under thermal gradients, see
figure 2.13 a. While HP- and IP - rotors operate at elevated temperatures and
large absolute temperature gradients, figure 2.19, LP-rotors must retain sufficient (fracture) toughness down to low temperatures to operate under high stress,
figure 2.20. They must also have sufficient resistance against corrosion by
water (droplets). In figure 2.21 are compiled examples of the essential steels
utilized in rotor production. Obviously, rather complex interactions must be
expected between materials selection, the technology utilized for rotor manufacture, and field behavior.
Bladesj Several, basically different types of blades must be distinguished:
those for the

high, an intermediate (not mandatorily), and the low pressure sec-

tion. While figure 2.22 gives examples for each, figure 2.23 indicates the flow
path for the steam, see also figure 1.2 d, and the function of the various components of figure 2.22. Within each of the sections, stationary vanes and moving
blades together determine the path of the steam and, to an important extent, the
energy conversion efficiency, figure 2.14. One should note the difference between
"action" or "impulse" and "reaction" type blade design and arrangement, figure
2.23, giving rise to the "diaphragm" and to the "drum" type turbine, respectively.

41

1^t

LIL

SLAG

in

&.

Union Carbide brochure 1980

Figure 2.16: Gases are injected into typical AOD vessel through multiple
tuyeres to refine the metal. Vessel is mounted on tilting trunnion ring to
facilitate charging, sampling, and tapping. In AODprocessed carbon and low
alloy steels sulfur levels of less than 0.0057 are common with a single slag
practice; in conventional arc furnace practice sulfur levels of 0.012 to
0.0257 are typical. Oxygen levels of 20 to 40 ppm are common as compared to
the 60 to 80 ppm of arc furnace product. If no nitrogen is used during the
decarburization of low alloy steels a final nitrogen level of 20 to 50 ppm
is obtained as compared to 70 to U 0 ppm that is customary in arc furnace
practice.

'BEST

1 RIPAN PUFCWNG
AXIAL HOU

CONVENTIONAL
INGOT

M.J. May 1977

MKHW

ElFUROOE

Figure 2.17: To improve on the simple

ingot solidification techniques, be
sides selecting a reliable metallurgi
cal technology to prepare a sound melt
(Low S or AOD), various remelting
schemes have been proposed: e.g. BEST,
a modified ESR (Electroslag Remelting)
or MKHW or even one of the VARtech
nologies (Vacuum Arc Remelting).

^dy

"1

SETUP FORCO
RtMtlt

^ ^ 1
PARTlAllV
RCRElTtO

RCAOY FOR
CORF. RF.MF.IT

42

contact tube
consumable electrode
conduction flux
iquid slag
solidified, slag

(a)

substrate
weld bead
iquid weld pool
arc
weld cave

00

Figure 2.18: Submerged arc welding is the prominent method for rotor welding (a)
It requires long and careful preheating of the work pieces and will require up
to several months manufacturing time per rotor (b).

43

1000

800

OJ'

range of cooling
rates for rim
ot rotor body

i_

Figure 2.19: D i f f e r e n t c o o l i n g
rates a f f e c t s o l i d s t a t e t r a n s
formation phenomena; the famous
G a l l a t i o n r o t o r f a i l u r e i n 1974
obviously was due t o d i f f e r e n t
m i c r o s t r u c t u r e s formed on account
o f c o o l i n g r a t e g r a d i e n t s . This
diagram r e f e r s t o a 1% CrMoV
s t e e l s u t i l i z e d f o r manufac
turing IProtors.

range of cooling
rates for core

of rotor body
range ot
cooling rate
between nm
>
o( rotor bod

g 600
OJ
Q.

777

upper bainit

" A OO

200
10

10000

1000
time, s

100

100000

(a)

Hot reheat steam admission temperature: 1112F(600C)

4b0

410 10

o
o

C. if"

IP rotor center line

Hot reheat steam admission temperature:1112F(600C)

IP turbine rotor cooling steam temperature: 806F (430C !
460

410 410

o o o

JLLI.LLl A
IP rotor center line
H. Haas et al 1982
60

50

rf
(b)

<*0.2
E S o m m 1976

Figure 2.20: The calculated

distribution of temperature
in an intermediate pressure
(IP) compactly forged rotor
is strongly influenced by
the use of rotor cooling
steam at the first stage (a);
tangential stresses in a low
pressure (LP) welded disc
rotor for 200% overrota
tion show very complex stress
distribution (b) even more
so than in (a)!

44

1. Hocliw.rmfc.lc Ucnlcgcruogcu
HtMMkWCM
DIN

cluBclM01B.tyK

Lit fer
mier
1M..I.J.
lu.,.
u.lal.J'J

1UU0 1010
Lu . . W.

130950

0,10

(Nb+T)10x,,C

10501100
La iHlsf W.

900950

9001000

900ViO

Wasiafurui.

1 Tu

17007

Si

Un

Ni

Mo

Suulllgc

Wuruicucli.mllu 'C

, .

S|>.itauitc.
fingliHicu

1.1. AeauailUtaa C k M n U U 4 t U > k > )

\ iC tSiia

1.1941

0.040.01

X l C i M N 11 11

1.4949

0,04

0.73

7.0

11,019,0

1.1

15,011,0

12,014,0

0,71

2.0

11,011,0

12.014.U

2,07,5

1.4911

0.040.10

X.Ci.NiM.

1.1919

0,040,01

X l C i K . U S 17 1]

1.1810

0,04

X t O r t i * . N I . It 16

1.1911

XaCiNiVKh.lt li

1.494S

X t S . 1 U VNb 1 k 11

1.191

0.040.10

0,60

SM

15,511,1

X 11 O N . S T i I i 11

1.4962

S 0,15

0,10

1.0

15,017,0

0.040.10

0,10

X t C N i N b l t 11
n u

10,012.0

0,10

S. 1.5

15,111,5

1.62,0

(Nb+T.)10x%C

0.10
(NI>+T)l0x%C
W 2,53,5

1 2 . 4,3

1,11,5

0,10
( N b + T . ) 10 X %C
V 0,100,85

12,114.3

Ti 0,400,60
W 2,53.0
'B 0I50.10
(Nb+T.)10x%C

0,040,10

0,60

15,511,5

15,117,5

1.62,0

X S NiCfTi 1111

1.4910

0.01

1,00

1.0

11,511,0

21,027,0

l.M.S

0.040.01

102UI100
Lu oder W.

0,10

1,5

11,515,5

26,030,0

1,52,0

Al 0.30
B Spuren
Ti 2,10
V 0.3U

Uc

10SOI1UO
Lu oder W.
1150850

15,117,5

1.19.16

1.1917

0.10

XtCtNitUMibltlt

X > N i & U . T i U IS

U00115U
Lu oder W.

|U
11001150
Lu .der W .

750100'C/
11 h/Lu

730100

lu
.,1.

1W0950

015915
Lu oder IV.

710110 c;
/Lu

710130

Ti 1.92.3

'] (rfaULll Z..JL. Ui|indn. Wwltuj vue a. Il' kfU*C

' I : ( i iCweiojtjejluhl; p kbfjuchnckt ; ti kUa|lMMcl ; wk w w i u L i h c r L n i i l .
>l t c KIXMM Lp/nun; E4Mc 16 50 kp/ma; Ei*c 1W kii/uu; 1 M *c 1S00C
i . u e i b i , , M ' C * HiEM kp/cu. Oi/i' / ' / ' * ^ > ^* 1.5 . dtitclbc gilt tuck W
Ouii'.Oti't yd Oj*.! 1

G. D i b e l i u s e t ' a l

1981

Figure 2.21 a: This t a b l e compiles examples f o r s t e e l s u t i l i z e d i n the c o n t r u c t i o n

of high temperature steam i n d u s t r i a l t u r b i n e s . A u s t e n i t i c s t e e l s show good forgeabi
l i t y and good w e l d a b i l i t y (see f i g u r e 2.13 c ) . G e n e r a l l y , 1% Cr Mo V s t e e l s are
used f o r forged HP/IP r o t o r s , 3,5% Ni Mo V s t e e l s f o r forged LP r o t o r s .

Anwwndung
bpf r i c h

MO /
MO /

ND
ND

Leyltirunga

Sir refc
gr e r u a
kg/mm*

typ

30

1 /. Nl

Lffjle ung.Ricirwen

Cr

NI

Mo

40

2 V. NI

0.20

0.20

0.4

0.20

MD

ND

SO

Cr Ni Mo

MD

ND

60

Cr Ni Mo

0.2O

1.5

0.5

H D MOT
bla e t w a 5 2 0 ' C

45

Cr Mo

0.22

1.5

0.4

HD 4 MDT
b l a e r o i S4Q*C

60

Cr Mo V

0.22

1.2

0.9

0.3

H D + MOT
b l e t w a 58CTC

60

12 V. O M o V

0.20

0.5

1.0

0.3

V.'
2.5

H D t M D T
bla t w o 6 5 0 ' C

Hochdruck. MDT

35

17/13 CrfJI

0.10

M , nr lei ., A r,ch Z.iscl.cnb.rr,!Uur, 0 . M D

1?

I3

17

M.tleldruck, N D

N.cd.id'uck

G. D i b e l i u s et al 1981

F i g u r e 2.21 b: Steels f o r welded t u r b i n e r o t o r s are q u i t e s i m i l a r t o those

f o r g e d , although i t t u r n s out t o be advantageous i f purer grades ( w i t h res
pect t o s u l f u r , oxygen, hydrogen) are p r o v i d e d .

45

Accessibility of horizontally

divided casinos of the

high pressure and reheat pressure cylinders of

KOOMW turbine

Section ot the intermediet* pressure cylinder

module ID SO

forged IP and HP section blade

D. Kalderon 1980

NC m i l l e d blades f o r HP or IP
section
F. Dietzel 1980

Figure Z.'cZ : The power stea.i t u r b i n e at i t s appear temperature and pressure end
consists cf the high and i n t e n e d i ate pressure sections (iP ano I P ) ; i n rtouern
uwchines the HP anu IPstage blades norua! l y cone u i Ih shrouds.

46

Rutor " a condenser turbine with blading, steam

regulator step, short and medium reaction stages
(partly shrouded) and lov/ pressure bladings

Spechtenhauser 1976

Steam entrance valve blade showing

pine tree root

Figure 2.22 B: A condensation turbine

combines all sections on one rotor:
HP, IP and LP. The steam entrance
valve consists of one row of blades,
sometimes manufactured in sections
if not made in one piece altogether.
Steam entrance valve blading for 10-MW-back
pressure turbine

Section of the low preuure cylinder

module LO 66

D. Kalderon I960

LP rotor: 400 MW, 3600 rpm: GEC brochure 1980

Figure 2.22 C: Wh ile high and intermediate pressure
section require relatively small blades and vanes
(see figure 2.22 A) the low pressure blades are
quite large. In mounting them onto the rotor (or
disc) they are normally interconnected by "damping
wires" (=anti-vibration).

PIC i L 19T8T IGE BLADE i- 9S eenllmeten I7.'> in. In-1 \i\t. r x r i o d i n i ili root.
\% ben in-l.ill. .1 i n d running, lh. rip >< lb* Madr ill I r . n . l ,il Will ..- l-r -.run.I. ..r I.I.
11,, -|.,| f ...un.I in -Iram umi.' llir rendition! rxi-lin in ihr Hirl.in.'.- Iii-I -lam. \. #

HOSSl 1

1969

48

(a)
moving
blades

>l

^-~7J
' J
' i ,
~ J

principal

y )

F. Dietzel 1980

construction

(b)

stationary
blades

rotating
blades 7

LMl'ULlSK ULAU1NC ^ one hiu general methods for extruding

kinclit' viierpy from steam in a turbine. In lhe stationary b I ude
steunt U. wceleruted a velocity iCjl about twice liiat of the
mu vini Itiliti* i U ) . Velocity i-, ublu ill ed Jt lhe expense of pret
suro (curves at right). The moving Illades extract kinetic energy
from the lust-nioving alcuni, ao thai it leaved wilh essentially nu
tungeiitiul component o velocity t.C.,1. I passing through one row
uf fixed blades and one rov* of moving blades, called a stage,
llie amount uf energy transferred to the rotor s proportional tu
the change in absolute steam velocity, lCu d{ iagram at lefl).

W. H o s s l i

1969

(C)
stationary
blades
rotating
blades^

Ci, C2: absolute steam velocity

Wi, W2: relative steam velocity
U:
velocity of rotating blades

HE ACTION BLADING is the other concept used iti Blenni turbine

design. Here the pressure drop per stage is equally divided between
fixed and moving bladea i curves ut right). In the F ixed blades steam
is ucceleruted lu 11 velocity iCx) only slightly greater t hun that
of the imiving blades (Vl. Continued expansion uf the steam in
the an..in. blades provides thrust and gives the steam u relative
velucity '. I equal und opposite to its furnier absolute velocity
(Cx). In reaction blading the energy, AC,,, transferred to the rotor
in a single stage {diagram ut lefts is unly about half that trans
ferred by impulse blading. Efficiencies, however, are comparable.

W. H o s s l i

1969

49

(d)

Drum turbine offers the simplest

arrangement of seals (black) when
reaction blading is used. Seals on
rotor and stator blades can be
identical because the pressure
drop across them is equal. Also
the seals are simpler in design
than those needed for impulse
blading.

Diaphragm turbine provides effective

seals (black) in turbines with impulse
blading, where the complete expansion
of steam per stage occurs in the
stator, or fixed, blades. This design
allows seals to be placed on as small
a diameter as possible. The moving
blades are usually covered by a
circumferential shroud, which may
also carry seals (not shown).

seals

W.Hossli 1969

Figure 2.23: (a) indicates the basic function of steam-blade interaction. Two
types of blading are being utilized, (b) In the reaction type turbine (DRUM
TURBINE) fixed and moving blades that constitute one stage are practically
identically designed; each accounts for about half of the pressure drop that
is converted to kinetic energy within the entire stage. Thus both stationary
and moving blades have the same shape simplifying design, (c) In the impulse
type turbine (DIAPHRAGM TURBINE) the fixed blades alone accelerate the steam
until its velocity in rotation direction is about twice that of the moving
blades. The moving blades are designed to absorb this impulse and to transfer
it to the rotor in the form of kinetic energy. Diaphragm turbines will need
fewer stages for the same power output than a reaction turbine; again yielding
an argument for economy. The efficiency, however, will be about the same as
for drum turbines, (d) Sealing in the two types also exhibits significant
differences.

50

Diaphragm and drum type turbines show advantages and disadvantages that, on the
whole, appear to be compensating with respect to each other. In turbine design one
of the major secondary problems is providing seals to keep the steam from leaking through the narrow spaces between the rotor and the stator. In impulse
blading the complete expansion in each stage takes place in the fixed blades.
It is thus desirable to place the seals on as small a diameter as possible.
This has led to a turbine design known as the diaphragm type. Because the
pressure differential is large the diaphragm needs considerable space in the
axial direction. Therefore the width of the fixed blade must be made larger
than it would otherwise have to be. A circumferential shroud is often placed
around each ring of moving blades. In reaction blading the pressure drop per
stage is less than it is in impulse blading; moreover, it is divided equally
between fixed and moving blades. Thus both blades can be fitted with similar
seals, and the seals need not be as effective as those needed on the fixed blades in impulse blading. The result is a drum turbine. Another advantage of the
reaction turbine is that the stationary and moving blades in each stage can
have the same shape, which simplifies design and yields manufacturing economies.
For more than 50 years these two kinds of turbine, the diaphragm turbine and
the drum turbine, have been in competition without either type's demonstrating
a distinctive advantage. Along the way the advocates of the two designs have
moved somewhat away from pure reaction or pure impulse arrangements.
* In steam turbines of low reaction type (less than 25% reaction at blade root
diameter), often referred to as "disc and diaphragm" turbines, leakage losses
in a turbine stage are relatively low, since not only is the pressure drop across
moving blade tips moderate, but the widths of stationary and moving blades are
very

adequate for the provision of large numbers of labyrinth seals, even when

considerable differential expansion between rotating and stationary components

must be provided for. Furthermore, sealing between the rotor and the stationary
blading is effected at reduced diameter between the turbine discs. Thus, the
highest levels of turbine efficiency are achievable if profile and secundary
losses are reduced to low levels by the aerodynamically advanced blading, see
again figure 2.24.
Low profile losses are not, however, a sufficient design objective for the
moving blades of large steam turbines. They must be combined with adequate
strength and flexural stiffness of the blade profiles if high overall efficiency
is to be obtained within an overall turbine design of high mechanical quality.
quoted from W. Hossli 1969

51

protile
arrangement

profile

JJ

200

7J

500

61%

1000

100%

J>J>

8000

179 %

33

t e s t blading f o r the deve

lopment of p r o f i l e 8000

rn

B3
~lJ

(Wsp = s p e c i f i c section
modulus)

42%

J>J>

eoo

Comparison o f the s p e c i f i c
section modulus of diverse
blade p r o f i l e s

Wsp
Wsp1000

development of efficiency
(compared to theoretical
maximum) and unit power
of s team turbines

J. Ldemann 1980

200

500

> > y>

800

1000

8000 profile

Figure 2.24: Both arrange

ment and shape of blades
essentially contributes to
the conversion efficiency
of the steam turbine cycle.
Throughout 70 years sub
stantial increase has
been realized.

52

The influence of blade profile strength and stiffness on the turbine efficiency
comes about in the following manner: small chordal width, possible with profiles
of greater strength, lead directly to higher efficiencies through large height
to chord ratios; even more importantly, they enable a larger number of stages
at lower mean diameter and with longer blades, to be accommodated within the
same rotor span, and thereby a further improvement in overall efficiency is
obtained. Stronger and stiffer moving blade profiles postpone the need for the
sub-division from single flow to double flow in the high pressure and inter
mediate pressure cylinders, and in such cases the number of stages that can be
accommodated in a single flow rotor of similar span and stiffness is up to
6o-7o% higher.
Turbine blades are exposed to the most stringent service conditions. These are
in particular: centrifugal stresses and hcf bending loads from pulsating steam
forces within boundary parameters that are dictated by elevated steam tempera
ture and steam chemistry and mechanical impact (corrosion - everywhere, erosion
- last stages).
The last and next to last stage blades in the low pressure turbine section, for
example, carry the highest load and develop most power. 1 /c more efficiency of
the last stage accounts for 1 /oo improvement in overall thermal efficiency.
The LP-blades are also the major sources of forced outage in fossil turbines,
figure 2.25.
Vibration is particularly troublesome in long blades. Resonance frequencies
and the location of nodal points have to be established for optimization of
damping behavior. Figure 2.26 shows a set-up for measuring natural frequencies.
Property requirements for last stage blades are thus particularly demanding:
highest possible yield point combined with good ductility in order to with
stand both high centrifugal stresses and hcf-conditions. The steel should re
sist chemical attack - under severe stress corrosion conditions. The material
should exhibit good damping capability, one reason why "damping wires" are
utilized, figure 2.22 c.
Last not least, last stage LP-blades have an erosional problem, figure 2.27.
Condensation of water forming droplets that impinge on the blade surface with
supersonic speed may help explain the relatively high outage rates alluded to
in figure 2.25.

quoted from D. Kalderon, 1980

53

'flBflfll.

shaft seal segment

seals between the stages of a 220 MW

condensing turbine

F. Dietzel 1980

Figure 2.24 e: In turbine design one of the major problems is providing seals to
keep the steal from leaking through the narrow spaces between the rotor and the
stator.

b.

en

Figure 2.25: The l a s t three

rows of blades i n the LP
section of the steam t u r b i n e
account f o r 70% of a l l blade
outage. Row N ( L - l ) alone
accounts f o r 40%.

.'
d-

Forced outage rate due to blades 1969 to 1977

(Edison Flectric Institute data)

R . I . daffee 1979

54

300
Hz

"

'

'

'

'

'

"

250 '

'

. ' ''

"

200

>..|

V''*

l'.
'

150

. .'//'. ,

50

| !....

'

f '..'
J.J \

1000

2000

3000

4000

.100
Hz
250

200

I
150

uo

^ _ !

~~""

50

1000

2000

3000

4000

A. Spechtenhauser 1976

Figure 2.26: Natural frequencies

as a function of rotations (rpm)
must be measured to determine
optimal damping characteristics.

55

W. Engelke, H. Scheffczyk 1977

Figure 2.27 a: Erosion becomes an important problem in the last

stage LP-blades because water condensation takes place. Stator
blades are sometimes provided with slits as water passage ways.
Last row moving blades are frequently protected by Stel li te
"shields".

56

The manufacturing of steam turbine blades so far has mostly been performed by
either forging or NC-milling and cutting (HP- and IP-stages) and by forging (LP).
Materials utilized in general are given in figure 2.27b. Between 10 000 and 15 000
blades, depending on type and size, are necessary per steam turbine. By value
they represent 20% of the overall cost of a steam turbine and stand for an even
higher percentage of manufacturing time (25 to 30% at Brown Boveri, Baden J. Ldemann 1980..
Seals,( figure 2.24 e, are important in that they have to help keep leakage
losses low. They should have the following properties:

good corrosion resistance

in the atmosphere at temperatures of up to 570C and pressures of up to 240 kgf

(cm ) , erosion resistance at steam flow velocities of 200 - 300 m/s, good running
in characteristics at peripheral velocities of up to 250 m/s, satisfactory and
stable mechanical properties at room and operating temperatures and withstand the
action of static and dynamic loads during the period between overhauls, the length
of which is at present being increased from 20.000 to 30.000 h, and finally, a
coefficient of linear expansion close to that of the metal of the diaphragm houx
sing.

Casings j Besides differentiating the overall-HP-, IP- and LP-housing, in addi

tion, inner and outer casings must be distinguished. Figure 2.22 A shows a particularly good example for the latter. Casings are manufactured by casting, welding,
or a misture of both, i.e. casting several selections to be welded afterwards to
yield the full size housing. Various examples are given in figures 2.28, 2.10 and
2.22 A. The production methods thus impose certain constraints on the material
selection in that weldability and/or castability have to be verifiable. While the
inner casing, figure 2.29 would normally be cast the outer casing of the LP-section
will normally be welded. Steam valves are always cast, figure 2.29.
Turbine and valve casings have to withstand high stresses under non-constant temperature conditions. Both thermal and mechanical stresses are encountered within
temperature gradient fields. Thus, static and dynamic creep stresses must be coped
with, see figures 2.13 a and 2.30. Due to the various service exposure profiles
different material selections must be made for the HP-, IP- and LP-sections, figure 2.31. The three types of steel alloy families utilized for the different temperature levels had been indicated in figure 2.13. Figure 2.31 shows the steel
alloys generally encountered in turbine and valve casings.
quoted from V.G. Zelenskii 1979

elevated temperature

room temperature
application
for

steels

yield
strength

tensile
strength

./mm2

N/mm 2

elon
gation

iiipact
strength
(DVM)

upper
tensile
temperature strength
limit
0,2 limit
at C

HI/

creep rupture
strength after
105hrs at or.:

N/mm

N/mm

5 .liCrTi 26 15

HP IP LP blades
bolts, cases

635

9301130

15

34

700

600 : 451

600 :

3 CrNiMoLMb 16 16

LP blades, live
steam valves

275

540740

30

41

700

600 : 152

600 : 221

12 C r N I W n

LP blades, nP
steam nozzles

245

540690

40

137

600 : U 7

600 :

discs, rotors,
bolts

590

330930

14

34

580

550 : 2t4

600 : 59

550
550
rotors, discs
LP blades, discs, 255

700350

31
31
69

500 : 365

550 : 104

500 : 36b

550 : 104

540740

17
17
30

650

600 : 147

600 : 172

35

103

700

600 : 132

600 : 152

55
27

850
800

600 : 726

650 : 314

600 : 696

650 : 265
600 : 402

27

870

700 : 745

600 : 569
700 : 2d4

950

550

10 13

22 CrMoV 12 1
28 CrMoNIV 4 9
30 CrMoiliV 6 11
X 3 Cr.NiHoVllb 16 13

rotors, discs

700350

1ive steam valves

X 8 CrNiMofJb 16 16

LP blades, live
steam valves

215

530690

.1 i moni c 90

HP MP LP blades

635
590

1030

735

980

1050

1200

ionic 30 A

MP LP blades,
HP steam nozzles

Nimonic 10$

HP MP LP blades

11 6 V 4

LP blades

980

16,5

20
5,5
7

Stahlschlssel 19/7 und U. wicker 19/4

Figure 2.27 b: A selec tior. of blade mater ials shows Febase and Nibase to prevail for all types of blades, but Tialloys
only having been used for the LP section.

58

(a)

J^

E. Somm 1976

(b)

E. Somm 1976

Figure 2.28: All-cast steam turbine casings represent an economic and technically sound approach, but may present problems in very large size construction (a). Steel plate welded casings are not limited by size considerations. However, NDT-inspection of weldments is very cost-intensive, (b)
shows a "mixed construction" with the inner casing having been cast and the
outer casing welded.

59

AEG 1963

(a)

AMAX 1977

GHH 1961

Figure 2.29: HP- and IP-housings: both inner and outer casing cast.

60

L P - housingouter casing welded,

inner casing cast.

AEG 1963
Live steam v a l v e s :

all-cast

F i g u r e 2 . 2 9 : Heavy c a s t i n g s are mostly encountered i n c a s i n g s , both f o r

t u r b i n e c y l i n d e r s (a t o c) and valves ( d ) . While the HP- and I P - s e c t i o n s
are always c a s t , f o r o u t e r and inner p a r t s ( a ) , the L P - s e c t i o n w i l l t y p i
c a l l y have an a l l - w e l d e d o u t e r sheet c a s i n g .

61

(a)

E. Somm 1976
temperature at a hot start

80
UO
00

t=80 min ^

=30mm ^

Tmzzl^

Tm (30min)

=r*

t r 80 min
30 min
t = 20 min

^-

min

outside

(b)

K.H. Mayer I960

Figure 2.30: Stress distribution may be calculated numerically by the

finite element method. It helps to visualize the effect of temperature
differences on occuring stresses (and strains) and may help optimize
turbine heating and cooling cycles as well as cooling requirements.

62

0 , 2 f rmanent
load 1n H / m /
Type

of

casting ( t e e l

Tensile
strength

Standart
N?

Symbol

elongallon
at

don
gation

20 C 200 C 300 " C 350 " C 400 C 450 " C 500 "Cl 550 " C

(L.=
5d0)

IN/mm'J

|N/mm'i

Impact v a l u e
ISOV

1.0619

4 4 0 bis 590

245

175

145

135

130

125

GS22Mo4

1.S419

4 4 0 bis 590

245

190

165

155

150

145

135

GS17CrMo5 5

1.7357

4 9 0 bis 640

315

255

230

215

205

190

180

G S 1 8 C r M o 9 10

1.7379

5 9 0 bis 740

400

355

345

330

315

305

280

GS17CrMoV511

1.7706

5 9 0 bis 780

440

385

365

350

335

320

300

GX8CrNi12

1.J107

S 4 0 bis 6 9 0

355

275

265

260

255

GX22CrMoV12 1

1.4931

6 9 0 bis 880

590

500

470

460

445

420

appiication

>l

>

GSC25

(a)

24

22

tiP outer casings, valve casings.

Ml'. IP uuter casings
HP, IP outer casings, valve casings
valve casings, outer and inner casings (HP, IP)
valve casings, HP, IP inner casings
inner casings (HP, IP)
inner casings, valve casings

22

24

160

20

24

240

18

40

260

15

24

18

35

375

320

15

2 1 (OVH)

Thyssen A G 1981

Tem
pe
rature

~
m

lc)

(
o

OJ

1
o
S

r^

to
(D

<
CD

Cv.

O)
o

>
s

~
f
o

u
CD

CO
CD

Creep l i m i t

( I X )

CO

CM
Oi

CD

CD

CO

400
410
420
430
440
450
460
470
480
490
500
510
520
530
540
550
560
570
580
590
600

147/205
134/190
122/175
110/160
98/146
88/132
77/118
67/106
58/ 94
50/ 84
4 3 / 74

205/285
168/262
171/239
153/213
13S/1B6
118/15B
100/132
83/108
67/ 89
54/ 74
43/ 62

207/313
189/287
173/262
156/236
140/209
125/184
110/162
96/142
83/125
72/110
6 2 / 98

(362)
(337)
235/312
216/287
198/265
180/240
163/218
147/196
132/176
119/157
107/139
94/123
83/108
74/ 95
65/ 83
57/ 75
50/ 67
44/ 59

305/340
2B0/315
256/291
234/269
214/248
196/229
180/212
164/196
148/181
134/166
120/151
105/136
91/122
77/108
64/ 94
5 0 / 80

(305)/(3B 3)
(286)/(359)
(269)/(336)
(251)/(313
(232)/(291)
216/269
198/248
181/227
164/206
148/185
131/167
117/148
102/130
89/114
7 6 / 98
6 6 / 83

o
S
O
r~

a
to

co
CD

co
CD

/ Creep rupi ure s t r e n g t h

10000
(110)/160
(96)/142
(82)/125
(70J/110
(60)/ 96
(50)/ 83
(39)/ 72
(32)/ 62
(25)/ 54
(21)/ 46
(20)/ 40

176/196
150/173
126/152
104/130
85/111
68/ 92
55/ 74
44/ 58
34/ 45
28/ 35
2 1 / 29

.
o

OJ

>

t
CD

(b)

1
u

^
CD

[H/irniJ
100000 h

161/243
141/212
123/183
107/157
91/134
78/115
6 7 / 99
5 8 / 86
4 9 / 75
4 0 / 64
33/ 55

(310)
(282)
177/255
161/230
146/207
130/184
116/164
103/142
90/125
78/108
68/ 92
58/ 78
49/ 66
4 1 / 56
35/ 48
30/ 41
26/ 35
23/ 29

227/275
203/250
182/227
164/206
148/187
133/171
11B/I54
105/139
93/124
81/110
70/ 96
5 9 / 82
48/ 68
3 8 / 55
2 8 / 41
18/ 28

(259)/(309)
(240)/(288)
(222)/(267)
(205)/(247)
(188)/(227)
172/207
154/187
138/171
122/152
106/135
91/1 IB
77/103
6 6 / 83
5 4 / 74
4 3 / 60
3 4 / 49

The values in brackets are extrapolated

The values apply to GS-625 after quenching and tempering

Amax 1977

Figure 2.31: Mechanical properties of heat resistant cast steel (DIN 17245)
are shown in ( a ) . 0.1% creep l i m i t and creep rupture strength of heat resistand types of cast steels are given i n ( b ) .

63

The rather involved thermal and pressure conditions, figure 2.30, have le designers to calculate numerically resulting stresses for a more pointed approach
to engineering. This has been helpful for the layout of cooling passages, in
particular also for start-up and shut-down cycles.
Steam Ducts, Superheaters | Figure 2.32 illustrates the typical parts of a
steam turbine power plant piping system. After approximately 50 years of
documented experience with high temperature steam piping, requirements 'have
been well established for the prevailing temperature, pressure, and corrosion
conditions. Examples for cross sections and support designs are shown in
figure 2.33. Within the steam raising unit (SRU) requirements are quite similar to those outside. An important aspect is insulation, see again figure
2.33, but also the joining of various types of steel as may be gathered
from data put together in figure 2.34. Figure 2.35 indicates both compositions and microstructural specialties for some of these materials.
Pipes are normally manufactured by rolling and/or welding. Good weldability
is an important property requirement. Other property requirements are, be5
5
sides creep strength ( 1 10 to 2 10 hrs), corrosion resistance and toughness
against cracking, especially within welded sections, figure 2.36. Also the
response to thermal expansion and contraction effects, due to unexpected temperature fluctuations, must be considered. It may cause leakages, see figure
2.34 a.
The interior, but also exterior surfaces of pipes are subject to severe environmental attack. Therefore, surface stability and protective coatings, figure
2.37, are of interest in certain cases. In connection with components within
the SRU this is particularly relevant.
How to most efficiently produce steam is essentially determined by the type of
firing utilized. Figure 2.33 sketches the types of firing systems in use today
and those being projected for the future. They have the common feature that for
steam generation similar types of hot waste gases deliver the tnermal energy to
a heat exchanger which, in turn, comes in contact with the water to be vaporized
and on the steam to be superheated, figure 2.39.

64

iv vi

V VI

12
34
56
78
910

boiler

T(C)
140
240250
530650max.
350550max.

feedwater suction line

feedwater pressure line
1 i ve steam 1i ne
cold reheater line
hot reheater line

P(bar)
4
180350
80250
50
6080
0,030,04
0,5

540650max.
1112 waste water suction line 25
1314 waste water pressure line 50

10

d)

T(C)

P(bar)

14M0V63

205

530

14MoV63

45

530

15Mo3

50

350

17MnMo
V54

354

250

1 i ve stearn line

S
ZJ
4>

hot superheater

<&.

line

3
\f V

cold superheater

line

H. Hampel 1976
feed water line

E. Grafen 1967

Figure 2.,32i. The main piping system is subjected to diverse pressures,

temperatures, and H 2 0 environment depending on their task.

(a)

fisensteg

(b)

o l d design

\7X Sii.gn

Ho um fur
die S chlackenwolle

new design
design

SchelIband

verbleiter
,Blechmantel

FllscM/it
L . lotstelle
Asbestring
'RohFW^.

!'''! Wrmeschuti

'^a

h*

plastische Abdichtung
wischen den Blechen

A. Schneider 1978

rahtkorb

BlechSchellban

fisens/eg
Slecn/nontel
Fllstoff
<

E. Schwenk 1954

Figure 2.33: The support of steam ducts, particularly if located within the
steam raising unit, is not a trivial matter; (a) indicates how the design
had to be changed in order to prevent bending (and thus potential cracking)
of the steam pipes on account of nontolerable temperature gradients;
(b) gives a cross section of a high temperature/high pressure steam pipe
and one that also has to cope with a certain water content.

65

Operation time and availability of

high temperature vessels

700

maximal
temperature
wall
temperature

Bensonvesse
1

600C 650C

600

650 C 650C

E
ai

E 500

in operation
since
1951

1955

1956

1958

operation, h 188000 164000 154000 U8000

availability,
%
88.5
90
90
92

400

ahead of
behind
I
superheater
13CrMoA

X8CrNlNbl613

X8CrNiMoNb1616

Figure 2.34: High temperature B enson type steam autoclaves (vessels)

have operated for extended periods of time; having been layed out
for 200 OOOhrs of operation the limiting temperature (dashed line)
is appreciably higher than the actual temperature (through line).

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9

St 35 8
St 45 8
15Mo3
13 Cr Mo 44
10 Cr Mo 910
10CrSiMoV7
X8CrNiNb1613
X8CrNiMoNb1616
X8CrNiMoVNb1613

OQ2

Or/100000
I

..no

l_

500
temperature. C

heat resistant steels

C 22
SIJ5 8
HI
HII
Hill

tine grained steels with

elevated temperature yield strength
low alloy, heat treatable steels

l7MnMoV6*
ISNiCuMoNbS
tSMo3
13CrMoU
lOCrMo 910
ItMoV 63

martensitic Crsteels
austenitic steels, nonstabilized

\OCrMoV12 I
X6CrNi 11
X6CrNiMol713

austenitic steels. Nbstabilized

X8CrNiNt>1613
\

VGB 1957
T.C
I
<500

nonalloyed steel

<*.

600

<500
<550

>550

.>.:6

, ' "., stf.)

H.Gerlach 1976

Figure 2.35: Steels for hot

steam piping increase their
alloy content towards higher
temperatures and differ in
their microstructure in a
similar was to that indi
cated by figure 2.13.

66

us te nife

ferrite

final measure
after welding
'and heat
treatment
highly Nicontaining eleclrode
A.Schneider 1978

>^nc^ff. it.ii

teftii<aria'ri

Figure 2.36: Utilizing highly Ni

containing electrodes ferriteto
austenite weldments may be routine
ly produced.

II t

That's one of the new BERNEXCVDcoating Installations

Type 250 with Tandem reactor system.
Figure 2.37: CVD (chemical vapor deposition) techniques in the widest sense
and plasma spraying methods, especially LPPS (low pressure plasma spraying)
appear to be particularly adaptable processes for coating.

67

PS!

(a)

riHHHrlHHffi

r\

r-

^&>

:UJ

/Oil

/zJIA\

Wanderrostfeuerung mit ZonenUnterwind. a Wanderrost; b F l l t r i c h t e r ;

c Zndgewlbe; d Luftkammern; e Aschestauer; f Aschetrichier (Werkbild Babcock)

U. Renz 1982

F r e i r auro

S ta r t b renne r

Betthhe
Betthhe

Betrieb

Ruhe

Eintauchheiif lachen
Brennstoffdse
Ds o n p l a t t e
Brennstoff/Kalk
Flu i d i s i e r u n g s l u f t

Aschtiribzug

(c)

<!500
&pprimary
r.r..vrr>
. .
ol dust
r i m a r y air.*.
1

ring nozzle
core air.
inner nozzle

b u t t e r f l y valve

s 800C

<350 . .
reaction
zone

gasification
& evaporation

Figure 2.38: Three basic

types of firing techniques
may be distinguished: (a)
being utilizeu for lump
fuel, of interest presently
as wasteco.nbustors; (b)
fluidized bed combustion of
course by powdered coal; (c)
gas, oil, and pulverized
coal combustion burner rigs.

68

tubular axle and

pos. 14 constant
1 measuring waggon
2 transport rolls
3 bending rail
4 holder
thermal stresses

5 bending die

support structure with

strain monitors

.membrane w a l l t u b e g 4 4 | 5 x 3 ) 6
7 Mat:15Mo3
_,

automatic
adjustment
of 5 by A R
tube bending
machine

1
H

J t 4 t I

mounting
interface

collector
^
tube separation of tube
bundle heating plates
match cord
iplastic envelope
If crz

Y
'7

I!

joints by welding

roll press joining

explosive

joining

^2:

joining by hydraulic dilation

types of joining tubes to plate

VGB D ampferzeugungstechnik 1980

69

clowns lope

nel :

tncrao couple

'V

L r "5>
iet pa int
ajuster

tourte of
electricity

'adjustable

control cycle for: resistance heating

_s

direction

welding current and speed of impuls modulated TIG welding

Cr
1 propina

L_I

>njectorf*K^,

CTGCO

I fona

QfvM

medium frequency inductive heating

a) Thyristortransformer (low frequency)
b) iron core design
c) Thyristortransformer (Tedium frequency)

lutartene control .ith recorder

schematic for automatic gas amealing

1 Bypass (flame stabiliser) 3 ring burner
2 magnetic valve
4 thermo couple

^
(J> tao

v JlUttOnprvN

platt

JJ'.ar tonu.car

ojrilor

joining designs
tubeplate for
hydraulic dilation

m u r iUiplir

* v.lUn .ali

Oll Container

schematic for hydraulic

dilation of tube end

VGB Daropferzeugungstechnik 190

Figure 2.39: A sequence of manufacturing steps for superheater tubes indicates that
various joining technologies must be mastered to yield dependable structures.

70

{Bolts) In turbine cylinders, see for example, figure 2.29, and steam chests
the bolts are required to possess sufficient resistance to stress relaxation
to maintain flange tightness against internal steam pressure. Although high
creep strength is a basic requirement, other requirements are:
- high yield strength,
- good notch ductility and resistance to embrittlement,
- good stress relaxation characteristics,
- adequate creep ductility.
*

Bolts and studs differ from all other turbine components in that they are

oJ:ched, subjected to cold as well as hot stressing and a varying pattern of

stressing is obtained due to the practice of tightening and re-tightemng .
Figure 2.40 gives historic and present examples of steels utilized. Bolts are
used from room temperature upwards to above 370 C where creep becomes the
significant design factor.

quoted from K.J. Irvine 1975

71

(a)

nominal composition. %
material
_ 50

bolt
failures!

S100
>

"MW

8 0

60 u

X'

^^"

o
t

60

C
CL
C

3C cr
c

20

o
C

10

20
o

Q.

1960

62

66
year

68

70

en
CO
O
LU
U

72

group 1
(CrMo steel)
group 2
ICrMoV steel)
group 3*
BCrMoVsteel)
group L
(MoV steel)
group 5*
flCrMoVsteel)
group 6
(1 CrMoV steel)
group 7*
(12 Cr stoel)
group 8
(Ni base)

Cr

Mo

others

10

05

1.0

05 025

0.3

30

0 5 Q75

0.5 W

0.2

05 0 2 5

0.2

1.0

02

1.0

,
1.0 0 7 5 01 Ti. 0.005
1.0 0 7 5

0.15 12.0 05
0.1 2Q0

025

025Nb

2 0T..1.0A I
balance Ni

'no longer m use for high temperature bolts

G D Branch et al 1973

(b)

(C)

30
20

'-.

200 r

30000 h relaxed stress

at 0.15% strain

10
c
o

'/oMo3V4%V
1%Cr1%Mo3/%

%Mo1/4VoV

" base steel

base+0.08
> base 0 0 8 TI + 0 0 0 5 B
L

10
20 r

100

1000

J_

10000

100000

0
300

o
c

10

100

1000

10000

400

500
600
temperature. C

K.I.Irvine 1975

100000

r u p t u r e life, h

Figure 2.40: In a typical 500 MW steam turbin e, there are about 700 bolts and
studs of 40 to 150 mm diameter and of 200 to 1000 mm length (in addition to
smaller bolts), operating at temperatures?up to 570 C in joints which have to
withstand steam pressures up to 16*5 MN/m . ( a) As steam temperatures and
pressures increased and additional plant was brought into operation, the number
of bolt failures per year increased (quote G. D. Branch et al. 1973). Particular
ly good toughness is obtained with TiB doped steels (b). General ly,a materials
selection may be quickly obtained from tables and figures such as shown in (c).

72

3. FUTURE R & D
Thoughts and ideas presented under this heading are somewhat extrapolatory, if
not hypothetical, as they are simply based on one possible (but not necessarily
logically mandatory) avenue of approach: namely the general idea of increasing
steam temperatures (and pressures) over and above the highest so far used:
650 to 700 C. The justification for this approach may, of course, be derived
from general considerations of efficiency increase, since with today's energy
situation the rule "better efficiency - better economy" applies more directly
than in the past. In order to keep in touch with the "next steps" presently
anticipated everywhere it will be attempted to put the "very

advanced step"

into perspective with the "advanced steps" described earlier (section 2 ) .

Considerations concerning the "very

advanced step" appear to be relevant from

several points of view. Generating electricity by steam turbine power plant

only will certainly call for efficiency improvements within a scenario of
steadily rising energy cost and environmental constraints. Steam turbine as
part of a combined cycle, be it with gas turbine or the magnetohydrouynaniic
principle or other (figure 2.2) should be made to operate as efficiently as
possible. Unfortunately the developments are interrelated. For example, the
gas turbine - steam turbine combined cycle depends on the availability of
gaseous fuel for the European countries, in other words, a successful development of coal gasification processes (figure 1.7 c ) . Although the combined cycle
is not likely to introduce new material problems of the kind discussed here in
the next future (steam temperatures will not rise much above 550C very

soon),

it still may profit from new materials and technologies.

3.1

ECONOMY OF STEAM POWER PLANT

It has been pointed out earlier that there appears to be a natural limit of heat
rate below which it would not pay to thrive. The US- advanced concept, figure
2.7 b, is oriented exactly towards reaching this goal within conventional possibilities, i.e. 8500 btu/kWh = 2142 kcal/kWh = 8965 kJ/kWh (K. Schrder 1962).
Parameters for this number were, in particular, within a conventional scenario
of unit size, energy independent specific material cost, and the process of coal
energization. There was no presupposition of combined cycles of any kind (for
example, the gas turbine - steam turbine combined cycle).
The most cost sensitive part of the entire steam turbine cycle, outside the
steam raising unit, is the high pressure section. A plot of turbine cycle heat

73

rate as a function of throttle pressures and temperatures indicates substantial

possible improvements by raising throttle and reheat temperatures to 760C, figure 3.1. Following a conservative line of extrapolation, see figure 3.2, one
may arrive at approximate investment capital increases of 50% per plant, i.e.
for 1000 MW about $ 15,000,000.-. This means, in effect, that seen from the
standpoint of national or even of world-region wioe interests (for example,
the European Community), large sums of money appear appropriable for very advanced R & D . Since the advanced concepts are now being tackled, and will start
bearing 3 to 5 years from now, this post-next-step-development may take as long
as 10 years to completion. Summing up the additional value of 1 plant per ECcountry a total of at least $ 100,000,000,- may be spent over a period of 10
years. The number is extremely conservative and, in the light of the EPRI-study
referred to in chapter 2.3, the most essential plant lifetime savings have not
even been considered.
3.2

TURBINE DESIGN AND ENGINEERING

A substantial amount of turbine design and engineering must precede the selection
of materials and technologies for future steam turbines. Critical design components must above all be assessed with respect to operational conditions, in particular regarding temperature and stress distribution and corrosive attack prolonged over extended periods of time. Fortunately, much of this task may today
be performed by computer simulation and modelling. Thus, a great deal of experimental laboratory work may be saved, and the necessary remaining experimentation
can be performed very pointedly in areas that will have been mapped out by computation. Examples for this approach may be found in great abundance in steam
turbine R & D publications, compare figures 2.20 and 2.30.
Particularly sensitive areas of future design and engineering regimes are compiled in figure 3.3. oasically these cover the component families indicated in
figures 1.7 and 2.13. It appears that special emphasis will have to be directed
towards rotors, blades, casings, and piping.
The materials problem in general may be alleviated by modifications in design
and construction. For example, cooling of rotors, blades or casings may help to
stabilize materials against elevated temperature attack. Simultaneously, of
course, an energy loss penalty will have to be taken into account.
The measures to be taken with respect to materials must not be seen dissociated
from process conditions. As an example, austenitic steels will have to be con-

74

" i th
2000 - 44,0%
537/537 C(conventional)

593/565C

1900 - 46,42

648/565/565C (Eddystone 1)
648/648/648C
1800 -|- 48,7%

759/759/759 C
1700 -

51,1%

1G50 4

52,3%
100

J
200

344,5

241,2
I

300

400

THROTTLE PR ESSUR E -

600

500

700

bar

W.G. Steltz 1980

Figure 3 . 1 : The turbine cycle heat r a t e , and thus turbine cycle efficiency
are sensitive functions of t h r o t t l e pressure and HP- and IP-stage steam
temperature.

Figure 3.2: Assuming an

a v a i l a b i l i t y of 5000 hrs/a,
an improvemant of heat rate
by 350 kcal/kWh, a price of
ca. 0.04/kW and, l a s t l y ,
a primary energy cost of
$ 0.10/Gcal 50% more may
be spent on plant cost than
presently.

35<S

possible capital cost

increase in t for
annuity of 10.6X
and an amortisation
within 17 years;
interest rate: 7.51

A. Schneider 1978

75

cooiiNC iowin

yi
t L I C I M O S I *T.C
'IClfliAIQH

"'//''i>

U/ii
'

'Il"

i,

'///"/"V/."'

. - :> -\

O. I . N I

II,'

///'

(b)

F^TI '_r

,!

,.c>m^.

5
!
v

^=.

^7&$m
resistant

, :
alloyed s t e e l r

. e r t * fCucnx

Tialloys
austenites

, creeo ;\'austeni tes

RSRaustenites(?)

$tee1

cerami es (?)

"v

reionisation

nonnucleating water

F l u i d i z e d Bed
Combustion SRU
r 16 bar

three to four
,7.\7

F l u i d i z e d Bed
Combustion SRU
f o r Atmospheric
Pressure

1SO

'

/'

/?'

aitrnai.

infImet /

...

UJS .

oil.

' P n

coa 1 gasification
-

*Sr

-W^e

-4

Figure 3.3: Sensitive areas of future R & D in steam power plant design and
engineering (a) have been indicated utilizing components of figures from chap
ter 2; the essential machine components of l through 6 are rotors, blades,
casings, pipes.(b) extends the historical sketch of figure 1.5 b into the next
two decades.

76

sidered.in many cases, and these are known to be more stress corrosion sensitive
than their ferritic counterparts. The steam, and thus also feedwater, purity will
have to be further optimized.
Another point of concern will have to be scaling up. So far, all of the experience
gained with high temperature turbines has been with small units, i.e. the industrial steam turbines with approximately 15 to 150 MW maximal size, figure 2.9.
Reaching into the 500 to 1000 MW range and increasing temperatures and pressure
to 650 C or 300 MPa may still draw rather safely on experience gained with industrial machines, but further increases in power and efficiency will also increasingly require R & D efforts in materials, technology, and property assessment.
An example showing that scaling up industrial machines would result in moderately
improved net heat rate and which design and materials have to be selected is given
by figure 3.4. It shows particularly well the interactive considerations between
efficiency gain, engineering and materials selection to be taken for only a "simple"
scaling up measure.

3.3

MATERIALS AND COMPONENT MANUFACTURE TECHNOLOGIES

With temperatures and pressures increased to levels such as alluded to in figure

3.1 materials' and technologies' selections may have to Le modified or even altered.
Possible avenues of approach are discussed in terms of the individual components.
Rotors

The case of the turbine rotor is an excellent example for the interactive

dependence of quality and fulfillment of property requirements between a material

and its technology. Figure 3.5 illustrates this point schematically. It also shows
which path may be increasingly necessary in the future to guarantee sound materials.
Rotor failures resulting in complete plant devastations in the past have shown hydrogen embittlement to be particularly important for non-crack prone microstructures
(see R.I. Jaffee 1979). Another generally valid observation for tougher steels is
that sulfur should be kept as low as possible. Therefore, techniques will have to
be adopted both to improve the composition and tolerance band of alloying elements,
e.g. by techniques such as compiled in figures 2.16 to 2.17. For more homogeneous
microstructures similar solidification techniques, i.e. that permit a controlled
"grain engineering", may be required, again figures 2.16 and 2.17. Extremely homogeneous microstructures may be obtained via the class of rapidly solidified steels
(RSR, see below). Then the welded design may be the favored one, and new welding

77

Turbine Rat.ng: 700MW

.ine p.a

Main Steam Pressure

. J \ M ..a

c
o
E
o
J

Doubl e
Reheat
Turbines

o
CL

li)

E
<z
cr
ra

,.

r1

ti
OJ

c;

""

Single
Reheat
Turbini 'S

:\

.__
r'
.:
. _
" s

:.
.
:.

.
;.

::

:;

;"
2

".:

::

:'
.

<> ^
_ .

Base: Single Reheat Turbine 2400 psig/1000 F/1000 F

H. Haas e t al 1982

Application Range

Material
Ferrllic
1%
Chromium
Steel

SCV

] Slop and Control Valves

IC

] Inner Casings

HPR | H P Rotors
IPR_|IP Rotors

Without Rotor
Cooling

fscv
!ic
Martensille
12*
Chromium
Steel

HPR
IPR

Without Rotor
Cooling

|
d

:HPR

,IP

With Rotor
Cooling

s*cv

Austenitic
>15S
Chromium
>12%
Nickel
Steel

'~\c
:

HP H
'IPR

1000
525

IUV

10S0
550

r
5.5

600

1150

6S

; F
1200
650

Rated Main and Reheat Steam Temperature

H. Haas et al 1982

Figure 3.4: Expected heat rate

improvements by scaling up to
700 MW designs utilized so far
with industrial machines up to
50 MW or so are considerable;
depending on whether rotor
cooling is utilized or not,
austenitic steels have in
creasingly to be considered
for the task.

78

onepiece ingot
forged rotor

severalpiece ingot,
welded rotor

casting

conventional casting
controlled casting
RSRpowder metallurgy

forging

welding/bonding

machining

machining

Figure 3.5; Depending on which type rotor design is adopted different technolo
gy sequences are possible. The welded design, due to utilization of several
smaller pieces, instead of one large ingot, may resort to better controlled cas
ting and solidification technologies or even to RSR powder metallurgy.

Diffusion welded sections oriented in parallel (a) and perpen

dicularly (bl to the growth direction; Sahm (16).

Simplified illustration of a gas turbine blade composed of

several materials: A, and Az mechanically strong (directionally sol
idified eutectic) superalloy; corrosion resistant (conventional)
superalloy; C ductile (conventional) superalloy: n principle, after
Jahnke (18).

P.R. Sahm 1981

Figure 3.6: Electron beam welding, shown principally in (a), possesses the po
tential of yielding very small volume deep penetration weld seams (b).

79

methods may be required such as electron beam welding, figure 3.6 or even diffusion bonding, figure 3.7. As compared to the time consuming submerged are
technique (figure 2.18). This could result in substantial technology rationalization.
The materials selection, see figure 3.4, appears to have to be oriented towards
austenites. They may possibly be the "cheap" RSR-type materials in the long run.
^Experience gained with a number of machines by KWU, figure 2.9, require as most
important step in applying advanced steam conditions to 700 MW class and larger
units, the supply of large austenitic rotor forgings. Presently, large rotor
forgings from austenitic materials weigh approximately 15 metric tons and have
diameters of about 900 mm. Such rotors could be forged from several materials
displayed in figure 3.8 and could be utilized as HP turbine rotors. Rotors from
other materials of figure 3.8 could be realistically expected only if major development programs would be initiated.
Recently experience has been gained in forging a small austenitic rotor from
the material X3 Cr Hi Mn Mo H19165 for a 1000 MVA superconducting generator.
The 11 metric ton rotor with 830 mm diameter was forged from 33 metric ton
electroslag remelted ingot. The 19% Cr and 16% Ni austenitic rotor alloy steel
included the additional chemical element contents of 0.3% nitrogen, 0.2%. niobium and 2.7% molybdenum. A yield strength of 54-62 Ksi at ambient temperature
was achieved. The homogeneous structure of the rotor forging permitted excellent
ultrasonic inspection with a detectable minimum crack size of about 5 mm.
As with ferri ti c or martens i ti c rotors, the measurement and control of residual
stresses are of utmost importance (compare to figure 2.20). Since these stresses
can be somewhat higher in austenitic rotors, they should be considered when defining the turbine start-up limits. Also, the lower heat transfer and higher
thermal expansion have to be recognized when evaluating cycling capability*.

I Bladesl The obvious choice for higher temperature blades for IP- and HP- section
will have to be austenitic steels or else Hi-base, i.e. superalloys. Since much
experience has been gained with such materials in gas turbines much may be adapted from this field of endeavors. Newer developments here may, however, be diverted directly into high temperature steam turbines, thus possibly circumventing
the very high cost alloys and technologies involved in GT- materials R & D .
Because materials and technologies are closely interconnected the term "materials
,* adapted from H.Haas et al 1982

80

(a)

(b)

[T 882.33
Simplified illustration of a gas turbine blade composed of
several materials: A, and A, mechanically strong (directionally sol
idified eutectic) superalloy; B corrosion resistant (conventional)
superalloy; C ductile (conventional) superalloy: in principle, after
Jahnkeim.

, / ji rv, d ircctUmatly didijtcd t'i 00 airfoils haw shown improved performance and durability

The E a g l e , & W, O c t . 1979

W. Bunk and P.R. Sahm 1981

(c)

directional ly solidified C0C17C3 eutectic:

Diffusion welded sections oriented in parallel (a) and perpen
dicularly (bl 10 the growth direction; Sahm (If,).

P.R. Sahm 1975

Figure 3 . 7 : The concept of manufacturing gas t u r b i n e blades by d i f f u s i o n
bonding ( e . g . TLPbonding: t r a n s i e n t l i q u i d phasebonding) i s an o l d one
and has been introduced i n t o present day technology j o i n i n g d i r e c t i o n a l l y
s o l i d i f i e d blade halves ( b ) . Very much d i f f e r i n g compositions and micro
s t r u c t u r e s may be j o i n e d w i t h e x t e r n a l l y (and o f t e n i n t e r n a l l y ) v i s i b l e
seams ( c ) .

81

M i rial

u.<'.

alf.,

. - - -

ia* H ^
Cara S i t i
S I , . . " . , lo

u..U!
UN

.D

C l M u K

1 .MIX

u.~.

DitlgrxHtM

,l,c

V til

cTos

4 7c

Class L M

I 2? C l M o V 17.1

Ws

IO ' IO | IO
14, | ]
C 3
lo

1|< 3
Kal

Xal

V I !

> HO

130

V^ 075
lo
035

> Ut

>116

Ci

m j
e-,
ci
Kal

i.-..f
(Otre]
Kal

I J * a .^^."1

* i n r i
67

A 565
GR.616

02

0?i

A 473
Type347

C 04
to
0 1

lb
lo
1

'i
io
14

>10.C
X
17

> 30

> 75

',

95

<10iC
max
1 2

> 31

> 76

27

17

> 41

> 60

32

19

11 0 6
IO , IO
i n
M

ce

l ( C ,

C l N , M i . I.t, I.16

004
lo
oi

15 S

.S

1 t
IO
?0

io

XaCiN,McBHD1616

004
10
oi

IS 5

17 S

1 t

20

lo

max
1 7

004
IO
0 06

17

22

13

>

30

> 71

17

10

O04

16

16

2
to
76

IJ
I.. 1 1
14

>

30

>71

17-27

10-13

( A ; 6 )

004

15

17

.1

(Ir.lO)

i, IX

13

Mb 1613

fi

"

X 6 C ' N' M o

I/O

X S Ci N, M c N W I 3

X i N , Cr l i

ytll

N , l a C i 17 M o

473

1 ype316H
A 473
1 ype316L

/
> /

05
lo
0 1

V-OS
- 71

> 97

-138

-36

20

1.-27

>130

MbO

-6i

0 1 4 5 Kai 1 N/n.m ]

indicates well forgeable

indicates deveiopement work needed
. Haas et al 1982

Figure 3.8: A substantial amount of knowledge of the mechanical behavior of

austenitic steels is already presently available. It may serve as a basis for
future materials developments. Solid arrow materials being higher in tensile
strength may be the only choice for the high and turbines in question.

1
1

Test temperature 980C

30 - Test stress 2 0 0 N / m m 2
(001)-single-crystal
heat treated
directionally
directionally \
solidified,
as cast

40

60
80
duration, h

PI Piearcey and E Terkelsen 1967

Figure 3.9: Conventionally and

single crystal-directionally
solidified superalloys (here:
12,5% W, 10% Co, 9% Cr, 5% Al,
21, Ti and 1% Nb) show substan
tial differences in creep behavior.

82

technology" will be mostly referred to in describing these overall efforts. Exotic materials have become highly cost-sensitive, similar to "energy", and must
be replaced by cheaper possibilities.
On the more conventional side, investment casting the blades (utilizing either
improved steels or the more conventional superailoys) could become more interesting than machining them (involving high materials losses, see figure 2.22 A ) .
Here, the newly arriving numerical calculation of solidification processes may
help to carve out highly improved techniques. Directional solidification (DS)
may

be one of the approaches for providing further improved steels, possibly

even as single crystals, figure 3.9. On the non-conventional side, a technology

of foremost significance is
rapid solidification.
This, being a rather general term, hides a host of techniques, figure 3.10,
almost all of which appear relevant for both
better blade materials
and
new steam turbine-blade manufacturing technologies.
The case for better and, in terms of strategic metals, cheaper materials is made
by RSR-materials in that it appears possible to utilize single Fe-base alloys
with certain amounts of interstitial and substitutional additions yielding homogeneous and very finely crystalline alloys for improved temperature, corrosion,
and mechanical performance. This field should, in any case, be closely watched.
In particular, also powder metallurgical approaches, both with respect to bulk
materials, or else surface coated or layered, should be kept in mind. As indicated by figure 3.10 some of these techniques also appear to be suitable for the
manufacturing of discs which may vary in a controlled fashion.
Other technologies may involve welding. There have been several attempts to, for
example, Ed (electron beam) - weld steam turbine-blades, figure 3.11 , utilizing
cold rolled preforms thus saving expensive material to be milled away otherwise,
figure 2.22A.
LP-blades have a different set of requirements to fulfill compared to their HPcounterparts. Here, steel may possibly be increasingly replaced by the Ti-alloy
TA16 V 4.

83

Powder atomiza.ion processes

helium
cooling
gas

melt

q;

7Viner.
'gasjets

M:

^ 1^ E ?

stream

atomized
powder

/'.'t

sheet

rotary
atomizer
disk

mm**

"ti

atomized
powder

b
c

roll quenching
flow on to outer surface of roll
flow on to inclined inner surface of roll

Process for (semi) continuous production

of amorphous sheets

b) Vacuum or soluble gas

al Conventional inert gas

Warlimont 1978
atomized
powder t r a r ) S t e r
y:.'.!;'//tube

fangsten atomized
cathode
powder
\ ignition ^
consumable
\ arc
, alloy bar
helium
Y/\
\\

(B)
. Laser beam
Plasma control jet
/Layerglaze deposit

primaary J
plasm J
arc
'
water cooled
nozzle

induction
coil

avatar "

anged

\JS

d) Plasma rotary electrode

cl Rapid solidification rate

(A)

E R.Thompson 1982

tundish

United Technologies Brochure

pray

1980
pretorm

~rvwf~

Singla or mult, ptiott matts

Cv

torging
press
overspray

SuptH cooling

pretorm die

E R Thompson 1982

(C)

Figure 3.10: Rapid s o l i d i f i c a t i o n technology

(RST) appears to hide large potential for
improvement with respect to more homogeneous
(nonsegregating), materials, new (metastable)
phases, but requiring new technological
approaches. The concept of materials with
engineered property gradients lies hidden
behind these new powder metallurgical tech
nology concepts.

ucitation

vitali growth
?" .igVtiCfltion
fronts

Nota
sapo ration
coogulotion

Crystallina
structura
Fruargram

structure
MatastoDlt
structura
Amorphous
ic4idif>cation
5.9:

84

Microstructure of an electronbeam weld with a typical soli

dification pattern (magnifica
tion 56:1)

Turbine blade welded to the

root with an electron beam
Brown Boveri Brochure 1978

Figure 3J1: A new method welds cold-rolled blade preforms directly onto the root
and the shroud with an electron beam. One of the problems is guaranteeing a
homogeneous microstructure in the heat-affected zone, the material being a 12%
Cr- steel. Segregational effects must also be avoided in the welded zone.
Comparative studies of solidification parameters of the weld and directional
solidification tests have shown that the beam can be regulated in such a way
as to achieve the desired microstructure and the avoidance of centre lines with
segregational effects.
800

c
600
\
"O
D
"Q.

WJ , ' 6 A | -* V
""V//*M'Ai7#/v>/t7//, . steam
* NaCl-solution

00

co
Oj

air
13 C r steel

200

_L
105

NaCI-solution
13 Cr steel

Figure 3.12: Titanium alloys, in

particular Ti 6A1 4V, appear to
c y c l e s to failure
be unaffected by corrosive en
Fatigue properties (R = -1) of blading m a t e r i a l s
vironment with respect to cyclic
compensated for density.
stress conditions - in contrast
R. I. Jaffee 1979 to 13% Cr stainless steel.

0
103

107

109

85

Two main characteristics of titanium make it attractive as a steam turbine blanding alloy: its high strength to weight ratio and its corrosion resistance. The
former increases the size capability of low pressure turbine design. The major
impediment to larger size is the length of last row, low pressure blades. Last
row blade length is limited by high centrifugal loads acting on the blading and
the supporting rotor. By using titanium with a lower density than steel, blade
length can be increased without raising stresses in the rotor. The density of
titanium at 0.160 lb/in.3(4.4g/cm3) is about 60% of that of steel at 0.280
3
3
lb/in. (7.7 g/cm ). For comparable stress levels in the rotor to blade attachment areas, a titanium blade nearly 40% longer than the current steel blade can
be substituted.
Corrosion can be a major problem in low pressure turbines due to the presence
of corrosive elements such as chlorides, caustics, and sulfates. These elements
originate in the steam cycle through condenser leaks, defective demineralizers,
improper water treatment, or improper cleaning, see figure 2.22 C. Figure 3.12
gives property comparison between Ti Al 6 V 4 and 13% Cr steel.
Ti-alloys are difficult, and thus expensive, to process. However, the advent of
(RSR-) powder metallurgy progressively utilizing very clean processing conditions
not only promises even better materials in the future but also cumulatively and
overall cheaper technologies, figure 3.13. Here, hot isostating pressing (HIP)
appears to offer interesting possibilities,
ies, even
even if only as a preliminary step
to isothermal forging or possibly gatorizing>
izing.
Large part-precision casting may yield another answer to economic processing.
Last not least, particularly relevant technologies may be found in surface
coating or even "glazing" procedures (see figure 3.10) to give better erosional
stability to LP-blades.
[Casings|

The rotors are enclosed in casings which are then, in effect, pressure

vessels subjected to full steam pressure at maximum temperature, figure 2.29.

Since there is a temperature gradient through the casing, thermal stresses are
added to the pressure stress each time the machine is started. The casing has
therefore to stand the combined effects of static creep stress and high strain
fatigue, the latter being related both to resistance to deformation and to the
AM

ductility of the material . This will be the more pronounced the higher the
*.,.* quote T.M. Rust et al 1979
**..?* adopted from J.B. Marriott

and P. Greenfield 1971

86

C L E A N R O O M FOR S U P E R A L L O Y O R T I T A N I U M P O W D E R P R E P A R A T I O N
(AntRHLF 17)

SCREENING

FILTERED
A l f r-INERT GAS
POWDER HANDLING
COLUMN

FILTERED
^AIR

-rH--K,

7i

Afc H I P

50

4
F myr

ICotivrnlinal
Piotr.ung

ol 1

COLLECTION
VESSEL

SHIPPING
VESSEL

CHANGE
ROOM

rOft-ho* pounlwl . K M.C

- o m ... * a w , . . r i e m

Conventional

D
'~t

er

C=

rO
11=3

fc=
UochJnanj

t=3

of , *J p . t u

A s HIP

HIP + F o r g e

c_
Ci

|M,up

OC,it?t,r.*-

1
cO

~=3

Oa

QjwifKi irfoirr
W.r Ha U l l i , w

i*eUntUl b u i U*\n9i

for

T j p l c i l Sa.p.i-.llo, T-rtlra. C U ,

C.r.PrrcUOM m .ARO M riche c . , ,

Comp ruon O mi nu durin t mtiodi Ren 91 d u i

O.k.AKMOLQ 1st ULAKO l a i i r r n CP l O O , 1 f 11 , l* . t 1

Figure 3.13: Clean room processing of T i a l l o y powders, rapidly s o l i d i f y i n g

them and, l a s t l y , u t i l i z i n g most direct methods of compaction such as hot
i s o s t a t i c pressing (HIP) may y i e l d a next generation materials technology.

87

temperatures and pressures to be accomodated. Figure 3.14 indicates the present

state of the art to be overcome for faultless and thus less cracking-prone mi
crostructures. Here, computer simulation and modelling of solidification pro
cesses promises considerable improvements simulataneously preparing the way for
efficient CAD-CAM (computer a_ided design, ... manufacturing). Also, weldability,
both in terms of repair and construction welding, needs further attention.
The development of better steel sheet material, for example in the wake of
continuous rapid casting technologies (compare figure 3.10) may be of indirect
interest, as sheet housings that are used in the LP-section, mostly externally.
Pipes] Aside from the trend to austenitic materials - as in most other cases
so far discussed - piping may not be as sensitive to new materials technologies.
Similarly to casings good weldability is essential, as joints both to other
pipes and to valves and casings including joints between dissimilar steels,
have to be fabricated, see figure 2.36 and 3.14. Similar to what has been poin
ted out for casings, here also,computer modelling will contribute towards more
pointed and safer materials lay-out and design. A particularly relevant branch
of materials development may be coating technology. \\eret

chemical vapor deposi

tion (CVD) and plasma spraying methods, especially low pressure plasma spraying
(LPPS), may yield inner and outer surfaces with excellent surface stabilities.
Colts I being a simple symmetric piece of construction yield themselves parti
cularly vieil for various new technologies: directional solidification, powder
metallurgical approaches etc.
Flange bolts for temperatures up to 650 C may be favorably produced from
"basic superailoys" such as Nimonic 80A. For the highest temperatures in dis
cussion = 650 to 800 C powder metallurgical products of the mechanically
alloyed type MA 754 or the newest in the field, MA 6000, appear to be parti
cularly interesting. Their creep rupture behavior may be compared to other
materials in figure 3.15.
3.4

TECHNOLOGY MIX (R & D IN MATERIALS PROCESSING)

The prevalent class of materials in steam turbine power plant is t e e l s . Although

steels probably have drawn the absolutely highest rate of attention to t h e i r R & D
much remains to be optimized - both with respect to the interaction cycles
property - microstructure

88

Konstruktionssahweiflungen
Speiser

O nil gefhrdete Zonen

iLjiksrgerahrdete Zonen
Anlegefehler

Giefi technische

Fehlerart: A

= lineare A n z e i g e ,

Typische S chweiung

|>Gustckzonen mit erhhtem

= Poren ,

an einem

E = Einschlufl

Venti/gehause.

K.H. Mayer et a l . 1980

Fehlerrisiko.

11

The 1490*C sothcrm at different times after

pouring for the parts shown n Fig. 9

P.N. Hansen 1975

Figure 3.14: The problems i n the so l i d i f y i n g HP and IPcasings are not yet gene
r a l l y solved: hot tearing surface i r r e g u l a r i t i e s ("penetration", i . e . moldmetal
interaction) and nonmetallic inclu sions must be fought against. Computer simula
t i o n and modelling could help to co ntrol the s o l i d i f i c a t i o n sequence considerably.
700
600

1
1
1
r
1
500

singlecrystal
alloy (cast)

00

MM002IDS]

300
200

600

Nimonic 113

v
\

advanced ODS
blade alloy

UDS Mar M002

developmental high-' loy
Tdevelapmental 738*23 _

100
80

S5
cn

600E

cast IN100
conventional process route
Mar M246* VC*Y20 3 (ret.7 I
PM IN100 (ret. 81
* Mar M 2 4 6 * VC (ref.10)
0 . rapid solidification route
* advanced RSR alloy (ref.11)
J_
_l_
30
l
I
I
I
I
I
28
29 30 31
21 _22
23
24
25
26
27

' t y p i c a l turbineV
'blade s t r e s s / A ,

60

= (T*273)(20*log t

10~3

700

800

900

WAZ-D
_J
L_
1000 1100 1200
temperature. C
_1_

co

o
o

"O
_L

1300

1400

Figure 3.15: Oxygen dispersion strengthened (0DS) alloys provide the highest Ni
base creep strenth materials known to date.

89

and
microstructure - processing (technology).
Due to the advent of computer aided design (CAD) and computer aided manufacturing
(CAM) R & D in materials processing may be carried out much more efficiently and
pointedly. Process optimization and modification are thus being speeded up substantially. An example for what is meant by CAD and CAM of materials processing
is illustrated in figure 3.16. This type development of new technologies is becoming more common as it is being taught in the schools for technology to the
students.
Computer modelling permits, in particular, the technical as well as economical
benefits and/or short-comings of different technologies to be compared, for
example, welding vs. casting, casting vs. forging, forging vs. welding, milling
and cutting vs. the mentioned techniques etc. On the other hand, synthesizing
new technology cycles also becomes possible more easily. The "wafer-blade" technology may serve as an example for the kind of "technology .nix" which has yielded
an extremely advanced result for aircraft gas turbine blades, figure 3.17.
In terms of the components discussed in this study possible and probable directions of R & D have been compiled in figure 3.13.

90
(b)

(a)
V

'N \

'ft*' '
. ' , J . !

>;
i i '".
I

"

''^

' " i 'M

te
!'

't"

,i '

$.,V

a,

'J ' , S S . '

'. i L rVC' "

T7

V J\1\/ ^I,V V i
i V

P.R. Sahm, W. Richter, F. Hediger 1983

(c)

ss* zua n a u s

M uw

vm

\tm

**

ALL TlMS IH MlKUTES

M

MtASURE:D

25M C
C C
At ULATEO

COMP*. Of CALCULATED E Of REEZE .MM/ES WITH HEAStAtD DAIA

Coepasoa rifnriaw^ cod o f r x wives with RMttund dtta.

M.C. Flemings 1974

A cross section of a turbine casing and lhe correspon

ding coord inate system for making the necessary calculations.
The band ed
extrusion of a threed imensional
shape was
converted to a twod imensional
shape by the mod ified
heat
coment method . Dimensions in mm.

E. Niyama et al. 1981

Figure 3.16: Computer modelling of solidification processes presupposes as main in

gredients a correct solidification model and a functioning enmeshment method. Most
of the 3dimensionally enmeshed casting (a) can be dissolved into specific sections
(a) and (b) that may then be treated separately for a detailed thermal flow analysis
indicating, for example, isotherms for a certain solidification time. The two examples
shown in (c) indicate that attempts to simulate and model solidification in large cast
turbine casings, in both cases simplified 2dimensional FD Mapproaches, are being made
since approximately 10 years.

91

extruded
blank

<a

photoetched
wafer
superplastically
rolled sheet

RSR
powder

induction
melt

EC M
machined
blade

directionally
recrystallized

blank
G= 25K/cm

Sequence of steps in the fabrication of a wafer blade

1000

3
D

800

600

r a d i a l wafer
blade

&

a.u .

400

o
C

a
</>

_Q |_
'
**

current
blades

200

<=2

Ic. U
u Ir

"ent

3 c

current
technology
3etter c o o l i n g

12r

MarM200

RSR(NiMoAI)

60

O
.
""JC

40

Ijlg

20

200 400 600 800 1000 1200 KOO

time, h
Creep deformation of superalloys at
1800F(982C) and 30 000 psi (2 068 2 Pa)

7
RSR(NiMoAI)

vV

80

.a
a 'r

and stronger m e t a l

MarM 200

100
a
ai

RSR

i
T

\y
I

150 F
X^

>

1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000

metal temperature, F
Creep resistance of superalloys

AR. Cox and L S . Billman 19

Figure 3.17: The "radiai wafer blade" is an example "par excellence" of a
technology mix with optimal results: here yielding 150F (r~ 83 K) higher
temperature capability than standard material. In conjunction with the
realization of a new cooling design a total turbine inlet temperature
gain of 800F (~ 444 k) appears possible. This improvement is worth a
lot of money.

Type of R & D

ROTORS

HP-IP

BLADES

LP

CASIMGS

PIPES

solidifi cation sequence

in steels: DS/Q, DTA
computer simulation in
o solidification
o stress mapping
o deformation processes
in Ti alloys

PHACOMP type alloy

optimization

4. fracture mechanics

u
IO
Ol
in

cu
t.

O
TD
C
3

creep behavior
corrosion and
environnent
metallurgy
casting and
solidification

welding/joining

S-

cleaner steels

cleaner steels

(cleaner steels)

ingot casting
(rheocasting)

investment casting controlled invest sand mold casting centrifugal

casting
(direct '1, single ment casting (?)
x'l)
HIP: near net shape

(isothermal)forge

isothermal forge

(see below)

(see below)

isothermal forge
optimize repair
and construction
welding

(x)

(x)

RSR-metallurgy
forging/deformation
c

EB-welding

- EB-welding of
rolled preforms
Technology
Mix

casting and EBwelding of discs

- diffusion bon
ding of adv.
materials
- isothermal for
ge (or HIP)
PM-preforms

- isothermal
forge (or HIP)
PM-preforms

- "cast and weld" - coat inner

compound tech
and/or outer
surfaces of
nology
cast or wel
ded pipes

Figure 3.18: Fundamenta 1 research and process development have to be closely intertwined for optimal results. The newer
technologies should be sought for good size improvements in materials technologies for steam power plant,
DS/Q: directional solid ification and quenching; DTA: differential thermal analysis

93

4.

CONCLUSIONS

Assuming the background of a relatively conventional scenario of

steadily rising energy costs and increasing environmental constraints
the following conclusions are drawn with respect to design and engineering, materials and their technologies of steam turbine power plant.
- Steam turbine cycles employing primary and reheat temperatures in the
range of 750 to 800C at pressures of 500 to 600 bar appear to be reasonable to strive for as thermal efficiency gains of at least 5 may be
realized. In terms of feasible cost increases of plant both with respect
to MAU* invested per kWh and tolerance limits for R & money expendable
over a period of about 10 years, R & D towards this goal seems interesting, figure 4.1.
- Combined cycles, in particular gas turbine - steam turbine, appear to be
mandatory developments in the future. Although not very directly affecting R & D goals for the steam cycle proper, nevertheless the steam raising process will have to cope with gaseous fuels presupposing a predominantly coal gasification background in Europe.
- The most obvious directions of developments in materials technologies
appear to be
ever widening application of CAD-CAM to R & D both in engineering as
well as in materials processing and compount manufacture; in particular solidification, welding, plastic deformation processes as well as
property assessment through numerical simulation and modelling are mandatory;
in materials specifically there will have to be more application of
austenitic steels (rotor, HP-, IP-blades, casings, pipes)
superalloys (HP-, IP-blades)
-titanium alloys (LP-blades)
ceramics (seals?)
with improved mechanical (creep, fracture) and environmental stability
properties

MAU: monetary accounting units

years
expenditure %

1
0.5

2
0.5

3
1

4
5

6
JJ

8
>

<

10
*

"scenarios "
in particular
environmental
primary energy source
coal energization
combined cycle
power plant, i.e.
specifically turbine
design and engineering
economic limits
ratings
(pressure/temperature)
electric generator
materials and technologies
(technology mix)
(prepariitory stu(lies and
evaluat ng for R & D go
rotors
ing on ''naturallj'")
blades
HP, IP
LP
casings
piping
Figure 4.1: Over a 10 year R D period 3 main areas of enquiry should be dealt with: scenarios power plant design
and engineering, and materials and technologies.

95

t in component production technologies specifically

a more competitive comparison of the conventional technologies
among each other will take place (partly due to computer modelling), thus resulting in
mixture of various technologies lined up in one sequence of processing steps ("technology mix")
in situ controlled solidification (rotors, casings, valves, pipes)
directional solidification (HP-blades?)
rapid solidification, in particular powder metallurgical processing (HP-blades?, LP-blades?) but also as continuous process
(casings, sheet material?)
isothermal deformation processes (isothermal forging, gatorizing
( T M ) , HIP - LP-blades?)
*Eb-welding, in particular thick sections (rotors?, pipes).
The development and efficient application of these technologies implies
the design and development of optimized materials.
Before starting out on a conscious effort in "materials and technologies
for post-next-step steam power plant" (the "next step" is currently well
underway on a national effort basis at least in two economic world regions: USA and Japan), another 3 year period of more detailed preparatory studies seems appropriate, figure 4.1. In particular, iiore accurate
estimates than were possible here on expenditure should be provided
during this period.

96

5. REFERENCES
AEG Publication 1963: Dampfturbinen Turbogeneratoren
Amax - Climax Molybenum Company 1977: Warmfester Stahlgu Sonderdruck
Th. Bohn, P. Eich, U. Hansen, B. Jehle 1977: Knftige Stromgestehungskosten von
Grokraftwerken KFA Jlich Report ISSN 0343-7639
G.D. Branch et al. 1973: Conference Publication Philadelphia N C 192
G. Brand 1975: BBC Report D BBC 50182 D
Brown Boveri Brochure 1978: Research Publication N KL 5052 E
W. Bunk und P.R. Sahm 1981: Werkstofftechnik \Z 345
COST 505 Statement 1981
A.R. Cox, L.S. Billman 19?: ASME Publication
J. Delorme, M. Laubin, H. Maas 1977: Kommission der Europischen Gemeinschaften
Gieen und Erstarren von Stahl _1 248
G. Dibelius 1974: in: Energietechnik im Hinblick auf knftige Entwicklungen
(VWEW) Frankfurt 45
G. Dibelius, R. Pitt, M. Ziemann 1981: VGB Kraftwerkstechnik 2 75
F. Dietzel 1980: Dampfturbinen
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97

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98

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European Communities Commission

EUR 10040 EN Advanced steam turbine power plant technologies and the materials, implications
P.R. Sahm, E. Fiender
Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities
1985 98 pp. 19 29.7 cm
Physical sciences series
EN
ISBN 92-825-5549-6
Catalogue number:
Price (excluding VAT) in Luxembourg:
ECU 7.74
BFR 350
IRL 5.60
UKL 4.50

USD 6

ABSTRACT
Assuming the background of a relatively scenario of steadily rising energy costs and increasing environ
mental constraints steam turbine cycles employing primary and reheat temperatures in the range of 750 to
800C at pressures of 500 to 600 bar appear to be reasonable to thrive for as thermal efficiency gains of
at least 5% may be realized. In terms of feasible cost increases of plant both with respect to 5 invested per
kWh and tolerance limits for R&D money expendable over a period of about 10 years, R&D towards this
goal seems interesting.
Before starting out on a conscious effort in "materials and technologies for post-next-step steam power
plant" (the "nect step" is currently well underway on a national effort basis at least in two economic world
regions: USA and Japan), another 3 year period of more detailed preparatory studies seems appropiate.
The "next step-steam-power-plant", underway within US and Japanese national efforts, does not lean on
substantial technological breakthrough (except possibly for the steam raising process in Japan). It thrives
for temperature and pressure ranges about 560C and 240 bar, but not more than 650C and 350 bar) that
have been utilized for a number of years in smaller, industrial type power plants. While the problems here
may be characterized by transfer of expierences with medium size units (50 to 150 MW) to large units (800
to 1300 MW) the problems of "post-next-step-steam-power-plants" are entering fully a class of materials,
i.e. austenitic steels, with which little or no large scale experience has been collected so far.
Simultaneously, this may mean entering looking for new materials technologies or switching from one to
another class of materials processing or, in effect, taking on new processing sequences ("technoliogy mix")
not heretofore prcticed. The advent of CAD-CAM makes computer simulation and modelling an important
partner of this R&D effort.

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