Beruflich Dokumente
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Measurement
Dr. Rohit Singh Lather
Introduction
- Kelvin: (K) the fraction 1/273.16 of the thermodynamic temperature of the triple point of water
Rankine: (R)
Energy: roughly speaking, the ability to do work, found from the product of force and distance
Joule: (J), 1 J = 1 (N m)
Foot-pound force: (ft lbf)
Specific Volume: the volume per unit mass, known as v = V/m
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Density: the mass per unit volume, the inverse of specific volume = m/V
Source: Joseph M. Powers, Lecture notes on thermodynamics", University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana, USA
Pressure
Pressure as the normal component of force per unit area (exerts on solids, gas and liquid)
)
P=*
force in newton or lb
area in m2 or in2
1
1
1
1
Pa = 1 N/m2
bar = 1 x 105 Pa = 0.1 MPa
atm = 101325 Pa
torr = 133.3 Pa
Dynamic Pressure
Pressure exerted by a fluid or gas when it impacts on a
surface or an object due to its motion or flow
The gauge and absolute pressures are related via the formula
Pgauge = Pabsolute Patm.
We nearly always interpret P as an absolute pressure, so we could also say
Pgauge = P Patm.
Pascal: (Pa), 1 Pa = 1 N/m2;
1 bar = 105 Pa, 1 atm = 1.01325 105 Pa = 101.325 kPa = 0.101325 MPa
(psia): 1 psia = 1 lbf/in.2
1 atm = 14.696 psia.
The a denotes the absolute pressure as opposed to the gauge pressure.
The units psig refer to a gauge pressure
Atmospheric Pressure
Pressure on the earths surface due to the
weight of gases in the earths atmosphere
Gauge Pressure
Pressure measured w.r.t
atmospheric pressure
(unit = psig)
Absolute Pressure
Pressure measured w.r.t a
vacuum
(unit = psia)
Pressure
Gauge Pressure
Local atmospheric
Pressure reference
Gauge Pressure
Suction/Vacuum
Absolute Pressure
- Manometer
- Elastic elements (diaphragm, bellows, capsules, bourdon tubes, spiral, helix)
- McLeod gauge
- Pirani gauge
- Ionization gauge
Manometer
Fluid rises
Measure the difference
in height of the fluid in
the two columns
P = m.g.h
Fluid
water/ mercury or any
other suitable fluid in
the manometer tube
PatmA
PATM
y
mg
m.g = .V.g
V is the volume of the fluid
V = A.H
m.g = .A.H.g
A
Fluid at P,
Newton's Second Law of motion m
+,+&,
+,+&,
PA
=0
Source: Joseph M. Powers, Lecture notes on thermodynamics", University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana, USA
Types of Manometer
U-tube Manometer
Well-type Manometer
Incline-tube Manometer
Absolute pressure is zero referenced against a perfect vacuum (it-the value-is equal to gauge
pressure plus atmospheric pressure)
Gauge pressure is zero referenced against ambient air pressure; it-the value-is equal to absolute
pressure minus atmospheric pressure. Negative signs are usually omitted; often expressed as
inches of vacuum or some such
Differential pressure is the difference in pressure between two points
Mercury Barometer
Mercury Barometer measures atmospheric pressure
Hydrostatic Pressure
Hydrostatic pressure is the pressure in a liquid
The pressure increases as the depth in a liquid increases, due to its weight
In term of equation, P = gh
= density in kg/m3
g = acceleration due to gravity (9.8m/s2)
h = depth in liquid in m
P = pressure in Pa
Hydrostatic gauges (such as the mercury column manometer) compare pressure to the hydrostatic
force per unit area at the base of a column of fluid
Hydrostatic gauge measurements are independent of the type of gas being measured, and can be
designed to have a very linear calibration. They have poor dynamic response
Heat
The conception of heat arises from that particular sensation of warmth or coldness which is
immediately experienced on touching a body
Direct sensation, however,
- gives no quantitative scientific measure of a body's state with regard to heat
- It yields only qualitative results, which vary according to external circumstances
For quantitative purposes we utilize the change of volume which takes place in all bodies when
heated under constant pressure, for this admits of exact measurement
Heating produces in most substances an increase of volume, and thus we can tell whether a body
gets hotter or colder, not merely by the sense of touch, but also by a purely mechanical
observation affording a much greater degree of accuracy
Temperature:
- is a measure of the average kinetic energy of the constituent entities (say molecules)
- is the parameter which determines the distribution of species (say molecules) across various
energy states available.
Source: Treatise on Thermodynamics , DR. Max Plank, The University of Berlin, Translated by Alexander Ogg University of Capetown, S.A. 3rd Edition
If two bodies, one of which feels warmer than the other, be brought together (for example, a
piece of heated metal and cold water), it is invariably found that the hotter body is cooled, and the
colder one is heated up to a certain point, and then all change ceases. The two bodies are then said
to be in thermal equilibrium
Experience shows that such a state of equilibrium finally sets in, not only when two, but also when
any number of differently heated bodies are brought into mutual contact
Thermal Equilibrium
A
Source: Joseph M. Powers, Lecture notes on thermodynamics", University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana, USA
Enable us to compare the degree of heat of two bodies, B and C, without bringing them into
contact with one another
Namely, by bringing each body into contact with an arbitrarily selected standard body, A (for
example, a mass of mercury enclosed in a vessel terminating in a fine capillary tube)
By observing the volume of A in each case, it is possible to tell whether B and C are in thermal
equilibrium or not
If they are not in thermal equilibrium, we can tell which of the two is the hotter
A an arbitrarily selected normal volume, namely, the volume of A when in thermal equilibrium with
melting ice under atmospheric pressure
Ice
Steam
This volumetric difference, which, by an appropriate choice of unit, is made to read 100 when A is
in contact with steam under atmospheric pressure is called the temperature in degrees
Centigrade with regard to A as thermometric substance
The temperature readings of no two thermometric substances agree, in general, except at 0nand 100
The definition of temperature is therefore somewhat arbitrary
Source: Treatise on Thermodynamics , DR. Max Plank, The University of Berlin, Translated by Alexander Ogg University of Capetown, S.A. 3rd Edition
Since, also, the influence of the external pressure on the volume of these gases
can be represented by a very simple law, we are led to the conclusion that
- these regularities are based on a remarkable simplicity in their constitution
- therefore, it is reasonable to define the common temperature given by them
simply as temperature.
- Consequently reduce the readings of other thermometers to those of
the gas thermometer
Source: Treatise on Thermodynamics , DR. Max Plank, The University of Berlin, Translated by Alexander Ogg University of Capetown, S.A. 3rd Edition
Fahrenheit scale
(German instrument maker G. Fahrenheit, 16861736)
The corresponding values on the Fahrenheit scale are 32 and 212F. These are often referred to as
two-point scales since temperature values are assigned at two different points
T(F) = 1.8T (C) + 32
TC = T 273.15
Celsius Scale
Volume varies with pressure however, so different values would
be obtained on top of a mountain versus down in the valley, and
so this is not a good standard
The modern Celsius scale is defined to be nearly the same, but
has
- 0.01 C as the so-called triple point of water
273.15 C as absolute zero in K
The triple point of water is defined at the state where three
phase of water (solid, liquid, and gas) are observed to co-exist
The transformation between the absolute Kelvin scale and the
Celsius scale is given by
K = C + 273.15.
Kelvin Scale
The thermodynamic temperature scale in the SI is the Kelvin scale, named after Lord Kelvin
The temperature unit on this scale is the kelvin, which is designated by K
The lowest temperature on the Kelvin scale is absolute zero, or 0 K
A temperature scale that turns out to be nearly identical to the Kelvin scale is the ideal-gas
temperature scale
The Kelvin scale is related to the Celsius scale by
The reference temperature chosen in the original Kelvin scale was 273.15 K (or 0C), which is the
temperature at which water freezes (or ice melts) and water exists as a solidliquid mixture in
equilibrium under standard atmospheric pressure (the ice point)
The reference point was changed to a much more precisely reproducible point, the triple point of
water, which is assigned the value 273.16 K
Rankine scale
The thermodynamic temperature scale in the English system is the Rankine scale, named after
William Rankine
The temperature unit on this scale is the Rankine, which is designated by R
The temperatures on this scale are measured using a constant-volume gas thermometer, which is
basically a rigid vessel filled with a gas, usually hydrogen or helium, at low pressure.
This thermometer is based on the principle that at low pressures, the temperature of a gas is
proportional to its pressure at constant volume.
- The temperature of a gas of fixed volume varies linearly with pressure at sufficiently low
pressures
- Then the relationship between the temperature and the pressure of the gas in the vessel can be
expressed as T = a + bP constants a and b for a gas thermometer are determined experimentally
Once a and b are known, the temperature of a medium can be calculated from this relation by immersing the
rigid vessel of the gas thermometer into the medium and measuring the gas pressure when thermal
equilibrium is established between the medium and the gas in the vessel whose volume is held constant.
The Rankine scale is related to the Fahrenheit scale by
Therefore,
But only when the gas is of a very small amount, this measurement gives
consistent results among different materials used
In this case the value of the constant a (which corresponds to an absolute pressure of zero) is
determined to be -273.15C regardless of the type and the amount of the gas in the vessel of the
gas thermometer
This is the lowest temperature that can be obtained by a gas thermometer
Thus we can obtain an absolute gas temperature scale by assigning a value of zero to the constant
a.
In that case, T = bP, and thus we need to specify the temperature at only one point to define an
absolute gas temperature scale
- Absolute gas temperature scale is not a thermodynamic temperature scale, since it cannot be
used at very low temperatures (due to condensation) and at very high temperatures (due to
dissociation and ionization)
- Absolute gas temperature is identical to the thermodynamic temperature in the temperature
range in which the gas thermometer can be used
Thus, we can view the thermodynamic temperature scale at this point as an absolute gas
temperature scale that utilizes an ideal or imaginary gas that always acts as a lowpressure gas regardless of the temperature.
If such a gas thermometer existed, it would read zero kelvin at absolute zero pressure,
which corresponds to -273.15C on the Celsius scale