International Journal for the Advancement of Counselling 23: 2130, 2001.

2001 Kluwer Academic Publishers. Printed in the Netherlands.

21

People with disabilities and the changing labor market: Some

challenges for counseling practice and research on workplace
counseling
GUNNEL A.M. BACKENROTH
Karolinska Institute, NEUROTEC, Huddinge Hospital M57, S-141 86 Huddinge, Sweden

Abstract. Nearly a quarter of the entire population of the EU has a disability. Disabled
employees have become increasingly integrated into the labor force. According to a national
survey and an international literature review, disabled peoples experiences enrich the cultural
diversity of the workplace. The purpose of the present paper is to present current research
trends and identify future research needs in terms of occupational counseling for disabled
employees. Research in this area poses many challenges, and there is a clear need for an
interdisciplinary approach. Counseling-oriented, work-oriented and manager-based models
are discussed in this paper. Counseling can promote collaboration with various agencies, such
as family organizations, educators and managers, thus laying the foundations for developing
the competencies needed in the labor markets of the future. The paper goes on to discuss the
role of empowerment, self-advocacy and social relations over the life span.

Disability and working life

Most people are under the illusion that we are able-bodied forever, and that
we can work at 100% capacity all our lives. According to the Commission
for the European Community (The European Commission, 1993), nearly
a quarter of the entire population in the EU has some kind of functional
disability. A disability is not in itself a handicap, but it can become one in
a situation or an environment that makes things difficult for the disabled
person. A handicap is relative and arises in interaction between the individual
and the work environment. A disabled person may be handicapped in certain
work situations but not in others. In Sweden today, we have an environmentrelated view of persons with disabilities. Prior to the 1970s, we perceived
functional disability as a personality trait of the bearer of a disability, that is
to say, as a deficiency in the individuals personality. Inasmuch as the disabled
Parts of this article was presented at UNESCO in Paris in August 1998 at a conference

organized by the International Association for Counseling and International Round Table for
the Advancement of Counseling under Counseling as a profession: Status, Organisation and
Human rights.

22

G.A.M. BACKENROTH

person was identified as the source of the problems, society concentrated on

measures that were exclusively focused on individuals. But from the 1970s
onwards, societys awareness of its own role in interaction with disabled
people gradually increased. As a result of this, environmental barriers to the
interaction between disabled and non-disabled people have become identifiable. Examples of these barriers are the inaccessibility of the physical work
environment for people with disabilities and the attitudinal barriers between
disabled and non-disabled people.
Todays society is characterized by change and increased demands
on social competence, problem-solving capacity, the need for continuous
updating of skills, and the ability to be oriented towards change and flexibility.
The information society that we are moving into influences non-disabled
people as well as disabled people. However, the latter group is usually more
vulnerable during times of change. We all know that the atmosphere on the
labor market has become tougher, especially during the 1990s. A slump in
sales has resulted in many small businesses finding it difficult to survive,
and in businesses which have previously employed disabled people finding
the recession difficult. More than ever before, employers require subsidies as
an incentive to encourage them to employ disabled people. These subsidies
serve a cushioning function. Many working tasks, which were previously
performed by disabled people, no longer exist due to advancing technological
developments and, in particular, the use of computers. Many disabled people
feel unwanted, and feel that they do not have a place in the labor force in the
way they have had previously. Young people find it difficult to get a foot in
the door due to the limited number of practical training positions available.
Many disabled people do not ask for modified working tasks or rehabilitation
at work simply because they do not want their employer to know about their
disability. Being disabled is certainly not a qualification on the labor market.
Disabled people have, traditionally, filled certain niches on the labor
market; for example, deaf people historically worked as shoemakers,
carpenters and tailors (Backenroth, 1997a). The number of disabled students
enrolling at Swedish universities has increased markedly over the last couple
of years. Today disabled people are increasingly integrated into the workplace. Many disabled people find themselves as culture breakers in work
life, lacking mentors to lean on. Moreover, in working life there are genuine
barriers to the interaction between disabled and non-disabled people. These
barriers affect encounters between the two groups and make collaboration
between them less smooth. People who find it difficult to attain or retain a
job are often called work-disabled. The degree to which a disabled person is
considered work-disabled depends on several factors, including the state of
the economy, the accessibility of the workplace, the work environment and

PEOPLE WITH DISABILITIES

23

the structure of the company, the availability of technical aids, and attitudes
within the company. There seems to be a trend towards more people in society
becoming work-disabled as a result of the steadily increasing requirements
of working life resulting from demands for increased productivity and the
associated increase in stress levels in the work place. Abrahamsson and Alm
(1995) reported that almost 80% of work-disabled people in Sweden were
typified by physical disabilities (41%), asthma/allergy (23%) or sociomedical
problems, i.e. problems with alcohol and drugs (15%). In Sweden, statistics
show (see Backenroth, 1996a) that the group labeled disabled have a weaker
position on the labor market than the rest of the population. It is alarming
that research does appear to indicate that disabled people work in higher risk
environments than other people
What are the challenges for counseling and research raised by the
increasing demands of working life? The aim of this paper is to present
current research trends, to identify future challenges for counseling practices,
and to identify research needs for occupational counseling with regard to
employees with disabilities. The material in this paper is based on a national
survey and an international literature review, carried out by the author on the
basis of available documentation (see Backenroth, 1996b).

Todays research and tomorrows challenges

Opportunities and barriers to the interaction between disabled and nondisabled people at work have been the subject of a number of studies in
Europe, the USA and Canada. Research focusing on the working conditions of disabled people has been relatively scarce from an international
perspective. Research funds have not been readily available in this arena.
Research has concentrated on applied science and does not seem to have
particularly attracted the attention of academic researchers. The research
community may also have been blind to possible future challenges associated with disabilities in working life. Most Swedish studies only started in
the 1980s. Psychological research has concentrated on hearing impairment,
deafness, visual impairment, and intellectual disability (see Backenroth et al.,
1996; Backenroth, 1996b).
A Canadian study demonstrated that many disabled employed people had
higher than average levels of social isolation and inactivity, and a lack of
meaningful work and leisure time activities (Lyons, 1993 in Backenroth,
1996b). A British study showed that small organizations with a low proportion of disabled people amongst their personnel had the most positive
attitudes to mental disabilities (Harrison & Tomes, 1990 in Backenroth,
1996b).

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G.A.M. BACKENROTH

In an American study (Gouvier, Steiner, Jackson, Schlater et al., 1991 in

Backenroth, 1996b), students rated unemployed people with various disabilities in terms of their occupational capacity. They found that people with
clearly visible disabilities were graded lowest, especially if the work involved
a considerable amount of social contact. According to Galbreath and Fernberg
(1973, in Backenroth, 1996b), people with intolerant attitudes towards ambiguity tended to have a more negative attitude towards employing people with
disabilities.
When a person with a disability comes from a minority culture this
further affects attitudes, as Bartz, Hillamn, Lehrer and Mayhugh (1990 in
Backenroth, 1996b) found when designing a model for coping with diversity
in work groups. Gates (1993 in Backenroth, 1996b) reported that successful
assimilation of disabled people into the workplace was related to their ability
to relate socially to other people, the extent to which they enjoyed the work,
and the extent to which they could envision a future at that workplace. Jan,
Mank, Sandow, and Rhodes (1993 in Backenroth, 1996b) have suggested
that the social competence of disabled people should be judged in relation
to the work environment. American research (see Dixon, 1983; Kutner, 1984;
Mudrick, 1989; Russell, 1985; Solomon, 1993 in Backenroth, 1996b) has
shown that women with disabilities are particularly stigmatized and marginalized. Furthermore many women with disabilities have not been able to
establish a foothold on the American labor market.
In sum, the international research literature has focused on the following
themes (see Backenroth et al., 1996; Backenroth, 1996b): (a) Attitudes
of non-disabled people towards people with disabilities; (b) Attitudes of
employers; (c) Barriers in working life; (d) Women and disabilities; (e)
Psychosocial work environment; (f) Social interaction in the workplace; (g)
The role of the manager in the work group; (h) Supported employment; (i)
Implications of mixed (bicultural) working groups; (j) Disability and rehabilitation in working life; (k) Disability and unemployment; (l) Disability and
early retirement; (m) The transition from school to working life; and, (n)
ADA (Americans with Disability Act).
The following research areas, however, remain relatively unexplored by
the international research community: (a) The effects of employment program
policies; (b) Different kinds of employment barriers; (c) Hazards in the work
environment; (d) The way demands for new competencies affect the person
with a disability; (e) Stress and coping; (f) Disability and cultural background; (g) Acquired disabilities; (h) The way social networks can facilitate
adaptation to work.
The need for cooperation between researchers and practitioners in the
disabilities arena has become increasingly clear. In response to this, there

PEOPLE WITH DISABILITIES

25

are now a number of foundations to which researchers can contribute their

knowledge. The field of disabilities in working life holds many challenges
for the researcher. Research can tackle the problems from several different
perspectives biological, cognitive, sociopsychological, cultural, and technological. Future research might usefully address the following needs: to
identify risk groups and risk environments; to develop tools for measuring
disabled peoples resources and difficulties; to evaluate rehabilitation work as
well as compensatory measures (technical and sociopsychological solutions);
and, to plan and evaluate educational programs and counseling interventions
for the disabled people in the work setting.

The role of the counselor

The origins of occupational counseling are to be found in the USA where
it has existed since the early 1900s. Further, The history of workplace
counseling is bound up with legal and economic as well as humanitarian
counseling (Carroll, 1996, p. 11).
There are several different kinds of occupational counseling models
(Carroll, 1996). The focus in the present paper is on counseling-oriented,
work-oriented and manager-based models. On the basis of counselingoriented models, counselors may use a variety of therapeutic approaches.
The focus is on the employee-clients, and the organizations in which these
clients are employed are largely ignored. In work-oriented models the focus
is solely on issues preventing the individual from performing effectively in
her or his work. The aim of counseling for disabled people based on
either of these models must, above all, serve the employee-clients best
interests in an atmosphere of genuineness, respect and empathy. Further,
such counseling requires development in the counselor of the skills required
to: (a) Empower the disabled person and increase her/his ability to selfadvocate; (b) Increase motivation to learn, change and develop; (c) Increase
self-confidence; (d) Increase social competence and interpersonal skills;
(e) Enhance life-skills training; (f) Enhance empathy training; (g) Increase
quality of life in the workplace; (h) Support competence training; (i) Increase
disability management in the work group; (j) Increase self-awareness; (k)
Enhance reality-testing; (l) Mobilize support networks at work; and, (m)
Convey an optimistic attitude.
Casement (1985) states that there are always two realities for every human
being the external and the internal. The external reality is dependent on the
internal reality. No-one can get to know his or her internal or unconscious
reality without the assistance of someone else. A possible implication of this
is that counseling interventions themselves should be continuously evaluated.

26

G.A.M. BACKENROTH

Counselors themselves may need consultation time in which to reflect on their

own work tasks, in relation to the changes on the labor market to which they
themselves are also subject.
Manager-based models identify the manager as a potential counselor. The
manager has an important role in a mixed work group of disabled and nondisabled employees, acting as a bridge builder or mediator between the two
groups. The manager needs to impart the attitude that cooperation and interaction are possible in bicultural working groups. Further, For those who have
failings in their psychosocial capital the manager fills yet another function;
namely as a substitute parent at work and creates a joint platform on which
colleagues can meet within working life (Backenroth, 1997a, p. 8).
Counselors need to collaborate with family organizations, educators and
managers in order to lay foundations for the development of the competencies required in the labor market. A solid foundation for future working
life might include: (a) Motivation; (b) Responsibility; (c) Initiative-taking
behavior; (d) Linguistic tools; (e) Cooperative learning; (f) Know thyself, or
the capacity of self-awareness; (g) Self-confidence; (h) Life skills training;
(i) Empathy training; (j) Cultural empathy training; (k) Training in handling
relationships; (l) Training in conflict resolution in schools; (m) Knowledge
of information technology; (n) Critical analytic competence; (o) Flexibility;
(p) Training in preparedness for change; and, (q) Optimism. The following
competencies may be regarded as rather recent requirements for working
life, empathy training (Goleman, 1995; Hamburg, 1996); cultural empathy
training (Hamburg, 1996; Pedersen et al., 1996), the capacity for selfawareness and training in handling relationships (Goleman, 1995); life-skills
training and training in conflict resolution (Hamburg, 1996).
One of UNESCOs catchphrases for the Year 2000 introduced in Peking
in 1989 was life-long education, i.e. the idea that learning is a process
that continues throughout life. In order for adolescents to be empowered
and be able to self-advocate in their own life, education needs to stress the
importance of social relations throughout the life span (Backenroth, 1989).
Internationalization in work culture also imposes new demands on each and
every one of us: . . . The ability and desire to establish relations with others
is an important aspect of work . . . Empathy becomes increasingly important
in a multicultural society . . . (Backenroth, 1997b, p. 10).

Discussion
Some of the implications for counseling practice will now be discussed,
followed by some general conclusion drawn from the material presented and
suggestions for future research.

PEOPLE WITH DISABILITIES

27

What are the implications for counseling practice? Given the increased
demands of working life and the fact that many disabled people are more
vulnerable than the rest of us, there is reason to believe that counselors
will play a key role in the workplaces of the future, and that research will
constitute one way of opening up the workplace to the disabled population.
Counseling can be regarded as a life-span intervention, playing an important
role from the time a child is diagnosed as having a disability, throughout
the school years, and during working life. Of course counseling is usually
not continuous but may be valuable at different times and with different
aims. Various counseling models are required in occupational counseling. For
the person with a disability, counseling-oriented models (during transitions
between jobs, for example) and work-oriented models (when the individual
faces problems and/or runs the risk of losing his or her employment) are
relevant. Manager-oriented models may be particularly beneficial where the
managerial entails being a manager in a traditional sense and also requires
the ability to manage a diverse workforce, smoothly and efficiently. Occupational counselors need to collaborate with the clients immediate and wider
social network, e.g. with the family as well as various key agents on the
labor market. Disabled people need to acquire new competencies, such as
flexibility, social competence and experience of information technology. But
there is also a need for new competencies amongst counselors, e.g. an ability
to relate to different cultural groups. This ability is necessary when working
with people with disabilities as well as with people from cultural minorities.
As most counselors are trained in a majority culture, we need to be sensitive
to the need to increase our understanding beyond these boundaries.
One general conclusion that the literature presented above emphasizes the
importance of adopting an interactionist perspective on the disabled person
and the workplace. In addition, it is clearly of the utmost importance that the
family and the school lay the foundation for the disabled persons vocational
competencies. In a work group, people need to be sensitive to each other
and be able to relate in a socially appropriate manner. Awareness of how
one is perceived by others in the workplace needs to be fostered, as does an
understanding of how one can cope successfully with difficulties in social
interactions, how one can cooperate in a workgroup, and so on. Parents and
teachers need to be aware of the consequences of overprotection in the early
adult years, but at the same time offer the guidance and support a young
person with a disability may need in the transition period between school
and working life. Weakening links to the labor market and increasing job
insecurity will undoubtedly result in less clarity regarding terms of employment. This might lead to a weakening of the existing networks that currently
offer social support at work, and may prove to have serious consequences in

28

G.A.M. BACKENROTH

terms of health/disease. Further, many disabled people lack mentors in the

workplace. This may render them more vulnerable to, for example, stress in
working life. Disabled people today may be breaking the waves by entering
non-traditional professional areas. However, research suggests that there are
cultural variations in terms of available opportunities. Attitudes to a diverse
work force must be enhanced in our society as many countries are moving
towards a more international and variegated society. We need to argue the
case for the contribution of people with disabilities to diverse workplaces,
and to the ways in which they may enrich the experiences of the work group.
We must identify new opportunities for disabled employees and look at how
competence training for disabled employees can be facilitated. We need to ask
ourselves what works for disabled people in the work place. What competencies must employers acquire and what services are required in order to meet
the disabled employees needs? The work environment of the future will bring
great challenges for all involved in working life, for occupational counselors
as well as for people with disabilities.
Finally, research on counseling needs to evaluate the usefulness of workplace applications at different levels. It needs to investigate how different
counseling techniques may offer means of removing various barriers to
employment. We should be investigating how demands for new skills may be
achieved through counseling. We need to look at how counseling can provide
strategies for coping with workplace stress, cultural diversity and disability,
and also disabilities acquired later in life. We require efforts to look at how
people in the disabled persons social network can help her or him on the
road to integration in working life. Finally, of course, cooperation between
researchers and counselors is essential to the quality of life of the disabled
minority group in society.
In April 1998 an International Symposium and colloquium on job retention and return to work strategies for workers with disabilities was held in
Washington D.C. One of the challenging questions posed during the conference was whether or not we need to have a new approach to disability as
another kind of human diversity in work life. One comment made during
the conference regarding the role of future research was that we need to
develop strategies and tools to retain as many persons with disabilities as
possible in productive, quality employment rather than as socially excluded
and financially dependent human beings.
Looking upon diversity as something positive may be one solution, i.e.
trying to realize the potential in the collaboration between disabled and nondisabled people in the workplace. People need to feel needed in their working
life. People need to feel that they fulfill an important occupational role. Globally speaking, peace may be endangered if intergroup conflicts are not dealt

PEOPLE WITH DISABILITIES

29

with effectively, and when the majority and the minority in a society fail to
communicate with and relate to each other. David Hamburg the President
of Carnegie Corporation of New York maintained at the Nobel Symposium
held in Stockholm in 1994 that education is of the utmost importance (see
Hamburg, 1996): Education in all its forms, from family to schools to mass
media, can increasingly convey the facts of a pluralistic and interdependent
world, not one that is strange and hateful. Yet todays education worldwide is still considerably ethnocentric . . . We ultimately rely for survival on
the give-and-take learned in childhood . . . (p. 418) . . . all research-based
knowledge of human conflict, diversity and mutual accommodation is grist
for the education mill (p. 419).

Acknowledgements
This study was financed by the Swedish Council for Work Life Research
(Rdet fr Arbetslivsforskning; RALF).

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