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Cole Fitzpatrick
Professor Phillip Angelosanto
History 101
Mid Michigan Community College
9 December, 2016
1. The Scientific Revolution is often defined as a process that has established a new or
modern view of the universe. This specific movement occurred in countries throughout Europe
during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. It was a slow and very complex movement,
including many false starts ultimately leading to dead ends. The brilliant and intelligent people
happened to suggest the wrong ideas just as much as the right and functional ideas. The new
science that was introduced was often another reference of the new ideas suggested, however not
all of the new ideas were classified as new science. With that being said, the ultimate conclusion
of the scientific revolution was the change of direction with humanity from thinking highly in
medieval ways with a transition to more of an advanced way of thinking that is still around
today.
The Scientific Revolution was very significant and highly impactful in many ways. One
thing that made the Scientific Revolution so impactful was the change it had on the minds of
educated people and how it changed their ways of thinking. Another reason the Scientific
Revolution was so impactful was the connection it brought to society and the difference it made
from the way it was before the revolution and how it is today. The people that brought this
revolution to attention helped lead the vast intellectual advancement to such a great success.
During this time period, the Scientific Revolution was very much needed to make a significant
change, or a revolutionary change in society as a whole.

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One of the major contributors to the scientific revolution was Rene Descartes. Descartes
was a French mathematician, scientist, philosopher, and author. He lived from 1596 until 1650,
impacting many people in those 54 years. Descartes impacted and contributed to this revolution
in various ways. However his most impactful contribution was his method of thinking that he
developed in regards to the scientific method. The scientific method was defined as the reasoning
from a general principle in order to conclude and figure out facts instead of just using
observations and inductions. Another important contribution Descartes brought to life was
analytic geometry. He was a strong believer in the idea of a God, and believed there was so much
that can be done when there is a God given human reasoning. Descartes didnt stop with his
beliefs, he actually published a novel called Discourse on Method, containing his beliefs and
several philosophical ideas.
Another strong contributor to the Scientific Revolution was Isaac Newton. Newton was
an author, Englishman, and a mathematical genius. He lived from 1642 until 1727, impacting
many people throughout his journey. Newton was very interested in physics, and believed he was
sent out to solve a long time question. This question asked what was making planets and other
heavenly bodies move and rotate in an orderly fashion. With that being said, he then published a
book called The Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy, which contained his findings
regarding that question. Newtons findings are still commonly heard of today in the form of
Newtons laws of motion, taught in most schools and physics class. Newton reasoned that planets
along with all of the other objects in the universe circulated through the idea of mutual attraction,
or gravity. He continued to introduce the idea that the force of gravity acted upon all of the
objects in the universe. Which is why the planets and other objects move and circulate the way
they do. Newton failed to mention or define what the force of gravity is itself.

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Lastly, one of the main contributors to the scientific revolution was Galileo Galilei.
Galileo was an Italian mathematician and natural philosopher. He lived that lived from 1564 until
1642, impacting many people with his inventions. Galileo spent a significant amount of time
studying at the University of Padua in the early sixteenth century. Following his education he
became the mathematician and philosopher of the Grand Duke of Tuscany. He used the Dutch
invention of the telescope to succeed in many great advancements in the field of astronomy.
Using this telescope and the advancements he made, Galileo discovered many stars that had been
previously unknown, various spots moving across the sun, mountains planted on the moon, and
Jupiters moons. These discoveries were examined for quite some time to accommodate the
Ptolemaic model. Galileo also articulated the concept of a universe comparing it to the
mathematical laws. He then saw a mathematical regularity throughout physical nature and was
able to connect the two different ideas to make one strong concept.
Between the three of these contributors and all they have individually impacted during
the Scientific Revolution, I would conclude that Galileo offered the biggest impact during this
time on society and the situation as a whole. Galileo started at rock bottom and was able to create
something out of it to move things in the right direction. He was able to use his own ideas and
work to take those few fragments of advanced ideas and transform them into what they are today.
I would also consider Newtons findings very impactful as they are widely looked upon today.
However, Newton worked largely off of the ideas of Galileo, not having the individualism and
creativity to make something his absolute own. Granted, Newtons laws of gravity might be more
talked about and impactful than Galileos findings of the objects in the universe, Galileo made a
bigger impact on the Scientific Revolution and what he had to work with, as his findings led the

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way for Newton's. Therefore, without Galileos creativity and individualism, Newton would have
never introduced his ideas.

2.

The Protestant Reformation took place in Europe was described as a political,

intellectual, and religious revolution. During this time, traditional Catholic values were
transformed, and in result, they ended up completely changing. This reformation was caused by
many aspects which later resulted in a time period of significant change and unfortunately
problems throughout the society.
One major factor that influenced the start of the Protestant Reformation is the rate of
advanced technology that took place in Europe. This time period is know for society becoming
more aware and intelligent of their surroundings. The new criticisms of this church was brought
upon by the world surrounding society and the rulers that overlooked and controlled their lives.
Society as a whole began to advance. They learned to think on their own and relied less on other
people and the church. Another major factor leading to the Protestant Reformation was the
collapse of Romes international network of church offices. The role of this international network
that was in action during the Middle Ages, was to unify or integrate all of Europe. With that
being said, it is fair to assume the failure resulted in that religious turmoil. The collapse brought
in more pride and faith of their religion in the area as well as a new form of nationalism. In
result, those aspects helped divide the regions more significantly. Religion was the only thing
keeping these sovereign nations together and unified. The Protestant revolt influenced many of
the townspeople to be indented and not to rely on anyone or anything. These factors contributed
to the start of the Protestant Reformation which influenced the lives of many people during this

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time. With that being said, Europe is considered long overdue because of the political unity
throughout the country.
Three important leaders of the Protestant Reformation were Luther, Calvin and Zwingli.
Overall, these leaders were all fighting for the same thing, yet as things progressed they
experienced many differences. One of those important leaders was Martin Luther, who lived
from 1483 to 1546. He was a very educated man earning a master of arts degree. Following
1507, Luther was ordained or appointed. Previously, Luther spent a significant amount of time
traveling to various Places throughout Europe, finding and evaluating such things as the
criticisms of the church in Germany. He found the gap that separated the regularity of sin for
humans and the level of righteousness God demanded for salvation very interesting and sacred.
Towards the end, Luther concluded that in order to achieve their salvation, people had to obtain
that righteousness that God demanded by putting all of their trust and love into Jesus Christ. His
idea and conclusion was supported by many people. That was because of the 95 Theses and
Pamphlets he wrote which dispersed throughout Germany and spread all over Europe as well.
Another very influential leader of the Protestant Reformation was John Calvin. Calvin
lived from 1509 to 1564, making him the youngest out of these three leaders. He was born in
France and eventually worked to receive a degree in law in Paris. Those that followed Calvin as
a leader believed strongly that society had to live for Gods plan and divine Predestination.
Calvin also had another theory that stressed that God was before anything else and his will was
above the overall creation and personal ideas that conform to it. These Calvinists believed very
strongly that Calvin was right and his ideas were the best to follow.
Lastly, Ulrich Zwingli was another important leader of the Protestant Reformation. He
lived from 1484 to 1531, impacting many people and expressing many ideas. Zwingli was

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fighting for Protestantism, but his ideas often contradicted those of Martin Luther. He really
valued the ideas of Erasmus over the theology of Luther. One of his most clear and strong ideas
was if it wasnt written in the Scripture, then is was not to be believed nor practiced by any of his
believers or followers. Another one of Zwinglis ideas was that when his believers were to drink
the holy wine and bread of the Eucharist, Christ was to be present spiritually but not physically.
This idea was potentially the biggest thing that Zwingli and Luther disagreed upon. Zwingli also
made a large impact of Protestant Reformers during his time. He managed to gain enough
support from the Swiss that ultimately led to a civil war between the Catholics and the
Protestants.
After evaluating all three of the leaders and all they have contributed to the Protestant
Reformation, I would conclude that John Calvin had the greatest impact. Calvins legacy was put
into action after those of Luther and Zwingli, with as a result overlooked their legacys.
Nonetheless, Calvinism soon replaced Lutheranism as the main view of Protestant force
throughout Europe for many people. With that being said, the influence that John Calvin
introduced and implied had not only impacted the society a significant amount, it actually took
over Zwingli and Luthers influence as well. In conclusion, I believe John Calvin had the biggest
contribution to the Protestant Reformation.
3.

Jacob Burckhardt interpreted the Renaissance as the prototype of the modern world. I

believe he has a great idea, however I disagree. I think that there are many different ideas and
examples that can be brought to attention when someone mentions the prototype of the modern
world, which would be found throughout the history of the Western Civilization. I think it is
unnecessary to label history on just one view or the prototype when there could be several
points of evidence to be described as a prototype as well. With that being said, for example the

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progression between the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, or any of the renaissance that took
place before hand. This embraced a common interest in the Latin language, Greek science, and
creativity throughout all of the individuals and society.
Renaissance humanism could be defined in many ways. One being as the revival of
thinking and education that occurred during the thirteenth, fourteenth and fifteenth centuries.
Due to this, assistance was present to bridge the gap from the medieval society transformed to
modern society. As well as the Italian renaissance made specifically for the ideals of society to
carve it into something more current. Renaissance humanism mainly focused on the individual
aspect rather than opening it up and focusing on society as a whole. With that being said, the
emphasis on education and learning was significantly higher than it ever had been before.
The Renaissance differed from the Middle Ages in multiple ways. When the Middle Ages
began around 500 A.D., the European society was very uncivilized. With that being said, before
the renaissance, the European people had one outlook and that was their main focus on citystates. Most the most part, these people mainly focus on the knowledge that was already there
and spent little time wondering what is still out there that has been yet to discover. The
Renaissance, however, was not all good, it brought many changes and differences as time went
on society began to wonder many different things. People began to wonder what else was there
to know besides just the nature of life and death. The Renaissance differed from the Middle
Ages because it gave people the opportunities to expand their knowledge and it brought new
ideas to the table. The Middle Ages convinced people that there was only one way to think and
there was no such thing as questioning the knowledge they know, however this all change
because of the Renaissance.

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The Renaissance owes its existence to the medieval society because the medieval
society gave the Renaissance a chance to come alive. With that being said without the medieval
society, there would have been no Renaissance. In order for things to get better or move up, they
have to start from the bottom, the bottom being medieval society. If society had been maintained
and controlled differently, there is a chance that a Renaissance would not have been necessary. In
addition, the large cities and universities that consumed the country also gave the Renaissance its
role in society. However, those cities and universities their origins in medieval times as well.
The spirit of the Renaissance was explained in many different ways by the different
and impactful artists during this time. I believe the spirit of the Renaissance is through the art and
literature that was created by these artists, but what is most impactful is the message each artist
tries to get across. The way the artists portrayed their piece and were able to think outside the
box and come up with something no one has ever seen before, making it something that will
define them. However, the society created space for contemporary music and literature that
seemed abnormal or unique in its own way. This action gave the artist more confidence and free
rein of his or her individual observations. With that being said they were able to create their
masterpieces in a more precise way. These actions and ideas were the true snapshot of how
impactful the spirit of the Renaissance was. The spirit of the Renaissance had also played a part
in impacting society at the time, and even now, as current artists continue to look at the work that
was created during the Renaissance era as inspiration. The European society managed to gain the
most impact, changing from focusing more on the society as a whole and breaking it down to
focusing on each individual. Nonetheless it also helped bring in the creativity throughout the art
and literature aspects. Therefore, in conclusion, even though the Renaissance wasnt classified

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as the prototype of the modern world, it was still able to have a major impact on the European
society and their outlook as a whole and individually.