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T = sup {T xY | x X, xX 1} .
Denition
lim xn = x,
or equivalently:
lim xn xX = 0.
The vector space structure allows one to relate the behavior of Cauchy sequences to that of converging series of 2.2 Basic notions
vectors. A normed space X is a Banach space if and only
if each absolutely convergent series in X converges,[2]
Every normed space X can be isometrically embedded in
a Banach space. More precisely, there is a Banach space
Y and an isometric mapping T : X Y such that T(X) is
2 GENERAL THEORY
The cartesian product X Y of two normed spaces is Any Hilbert space serves as an example of a Banach
not canonically equipped with a norm. However, several space. A Hilbert space H on K = R, C is complete for
equivalent norms are commonly used,[4] such as
a norm of the form
(x, y) = max(x, y) xH =
x, x,
, : H H K
is the inner product, linear in its rst argument that satises the following:
x + M = inf x + m.
mM
x, y H :
y, x = x, y,
x H : x, x 0,
x, x = 0 x = 0.
For example, the space L2 is a Hilbert space.
The Hardy spaces, the Sobolev spaces are examples of
Banach spaces that are related to Lp spaces and have additional structure. They are important in dierent branches
of analysis, Harmonic analysis and Partial dierential
equations among others.
1
T = T1 , T : X X/ Ker(T )
Y
2.3
Classical spaces
f C(K).
2.5
Dual space
2.5
3
of the hyperplane, the second convex set lies on the other
side but may touch the hyperplane.[11]
A subset S in a Banach space X is total if the linear span
of S is dense in X. The subset S is total in X if and only
if the only continuous linear functional that vanishes on
S is the 0 functional: this equivalence follows from the
HahnBanach theorem.
If X is the direct sum of two closed linear subspaces M
and N, then the dual X of X is isomorphic to the direct
sum of the duals of M and N.[12] If M is a closed linear
subspace in X, one can associate the orthogonal of M in
the dual,
Dual space
M = {x X : x (m) = 0, m M } .
The orthogonal M is a closed linear subspace of the
dual. The dual of M is isometrically isomorphic to X
/ M . The dual of X / M is isometrically isomorphic to
M .[13]
The dual of a separable Banach space need not be separable, but:
Theorem.[14] Let X be a normed space. If X
is separable, then X is separable.
When X is separable, the above criterion for totality can
be used for proving the existence of a countable total subset in X.
Y X be a linear subspace,
p : X R be a sublinear function and
2 GENERAL THEORY
B = {x X : ||x|| 1} of the dual space is
compact in the weak* topology.
The dual of c0 is isometrically isomorphic to 1 : for every bounded linear functional f on c0 , there is a unique Not every unital commutative Banach algebra is of the
form C(K) for some compact Hausdor space K. Howelement y = {yn} 1 such that
ever, this statement holds if one places C(K) in the
smaller category of commutative C*-algebras. Gelfands
representation
theorem for commutative C*-algebras
f (x) =
xn yn ,
x = {xn } c0 , and f (c0 ) = y
1 .
states
that
every
commutative unital C*-algebra A is isonN
metrically isomorphic to a C(K) space.[24] The Hausdor
The dual of 1 is isometrically isomorphic to . The compact space K here is again the maximal ideal space,
dual of Lp ([0, 1]) is isometrically isomorphic to Lq ([0, also called the spectrum of A in the C*-algebra context.
1]) when 1 p < and 1/p + 1/q = 1.
For every vector y in a Hilbert space H, the mapping
2.5.3 Bidual
x H fy (x) = x, y
of M(K). The extreme points of P(K) are the Dirac mea- the dual of is identied with , the space of bounded
sures on K. The set of Dirac measures on K, equipped scalar sequences. Under these identications, FX is the
inclusion map from c0 to . It is indeed isometric, but
with the w*-topology, is homeomorphic to K.
not onto.
BanachStone Theorem. If K and L are compact Hausdor spaces and if C(K) and C(L) are
isometrically isomorphic, then the topological
spaces K and L are homeomorphic.[19][20]
If FX is surjective, then the normed space X is called reexive (see below). Being the dual of a normed space, the
bidual X is complete, therefore, every reexive normed
space is a Banach space.
x K.
f X .
2.7
Reexivity
The net may be replaced by a weakly*-convergent seCorollary. If a Banach space X is the interquence when the dual X is separable. On the other hand,
nal direct sum of closed subspaces M 1 , ..., Mn,
elements of the bidual of 1 that are not in 1 cannot be
then X is isomorphic to M 1 ... Mn.
weak*-limit of sequences in 1 , since 1 is weakly sequentially complete.
This is another consequence of Banachs isomorphism
theorem, applied to the continuous bijection from M 1
... Mn onto X sending (m1 , ..., mn) to the sum m1 + ...
2.6 Banachs theorems
+ mn.
Here are the main general results about Banach spaces
The Closed Graph Theorem. Let T : X
that go back to the time of Banachs book (Banach
Y be a linear mapping between Banach spaces.
(1932)) and are related to the Baire category theorem.
The graph of T is closed in X Y if and only
According to this theorem, a complete metric space (such
if T is continuous.
as a Banach space, a Frchet space or an F-space) cannot be equal to a union of countably many closed subsets
with empty interiors. Therefore, a Banach space cannot 2.7 Reexivity
be the union of countably many closed subspaces, unless
it is already equal to one of them; a Banach space with a Main article: Reexive space
countable Hamel basis is nite-dimensional.
BanachSteinhaus Theorem. Let X be a Banach space and Y be a normed vector space.
Suppose that F is a collection of continuous linear operators from X to Y. The uniform boundedness principle states that if for all x in X we
have supTF ||T(x)||Y < , then supTF ||T||Y
< .
The First Isomorphism Theorem for Banach spaces. Suppose that X and Y are Banach spaces and that T B(X, Y). Suppose further that the range of T is closed in Y. Then X/
Ker(T) is isomorphic to T(X).
Hilbert spaces are reexive. The Lp spaces are reexive when 1 < p < . More generally, uniformly conThis result is a direct consequence of the preceding Ba- vex spaces are reexive, by the MilmanPettis theorem.
nach isomorphism theorem and of the canonical factoriza- The spaces c0 , 1 , L1 ([0, 1]), C([0, 1]) are not reexive. In these examples of non-reexive spaces X, the
tion of bounded linear maps.
2 GENERAL THEORY
An orthonormal sequence in a Hilbert space is a simple example of a weakly convergent sequence, with limit
equal to the 0 vector. The unit vector basis of p , 1 < p
< , or of c0 , is another example of a weakly null sequence, i.e., a sequence that converges weakly to 0. For
Weak compactness of the unit ball provides a tool every weakly null sequence in a Banach space, there exfor nding solutions in reexive spaces to certain ists a sequence of convex combinations of vectors from
[29]
optimization problems. For example, every convex con- the given sequence that is norm-converging to 0.
tinuous function on the unit ball B of a reexive space The unit vector basis of 1 is not weakly Cauchy.
attains its minimum at some point in B.
Weakly Cauchy sequences in 1 are weakly conver1
As a special case of the preceding result, when X is a gent, since L -spaces are weakly sequentially complete.
1
reexive space over R, every continuous linear functional Actually, weakly convergent sequences in are norm
[30]
1
f in X attains its maximum || f || on the unit ball of convergent. This means that satises Schurs propX. The following theorem of Robert C. James provides a erty.
converse statement.
2.8.1 Results involving the 1 basis
James Theorem. For a Banach space the following two properties are equivalent:
X is reexive.
for all f in X there exists x in X with ||x||
1, so that f (x) = || f ||.
The theorem can be extended to give a characterization
of weakly compact convex sets.
Weakly Cauchy sequences and the 1 basis are the opposite cases of the dichotomy established in the following
deep result of H. P. Rosenthal.[31]
Theorem.[32] Let {xn} be a bounded sequence
in a Banach space. Either {xn} has a weakly
Cauchy subsequence, or it admits a subsequence equivalent to the standard unit vector
basis of 1 .
On every non-reexive Banach space X, there exist continuous linear functionals that are not norm-attaining.
A complement to this result is due to Odell and Rosenthal
However, the BishopPhelps theorem[27] states that
(1975).
norm-attaining functionals are norm dense in the dual X
of X.
Theorem.[33] Let X be a separable Banach
space. The following are equivalent:
2.8
A sequence {xn} in a Banach space X is weakly convergent to a vector x X if f (xn) converges to f (x) for
every continuous linear functional f in the dual X . The
sequence {xn} is a weakly Cauchy sequence if f (xn)
converges to a scalar limit L( f ), for every f in X . A
sequence { fn } in the dual X is weakly* convergent
to a functional f X if fn (x) converges to f (x) for every x in X. Weakly Cauchy sequences, weakly convergent
7
When the Banach space X is separable, the unit ball of the
dual X , equipped with the weak*-topology, is a metriz
x K 7 x (x ),
|x (x )| x .
xk ek .
k=0
4 Tensor product
Schauder bases
b X X
b X
X
is one-to-one if and only if X has the approximation
property.[48]
b Y and X
b Y must
Grothendieck conjectured that X
be dierent whenever X and Y are innite-dimensional
Banach spaces. This was disproved by Gilles Pisier in
1983.[49] Pisier constructed an innite-dimensional Bab X and X
b X are equal.
nach space X such that X
Furthermore, just as Enos example, this space X is a
hand-made space that fails to have the approximation
the projective cross norm and injective cross norm intro- property. On the other hand, Szankowski proved that
duced by A. Grothendieck in 1955.[44]
the classical space B(2 ) does not have the approximation
In general, the tensor product of complete spaces is not property.[50]
complete again. When working with Banach spaces, it is
customary to say that the projective tensor product[45]
b Y 5 Some classication results
of two Banach spaces X and Y is the completion X
of the algebraic tensor product X Y equipped with the
projective tensor norm, and similarly for the injective
b Y . Grothendieck proved in par- 5.1 Characterizations of Hilbert space
tensor product[46] X
[47]
among Banach spaces
ticular that
b Y C(K, Y ),
C(K)
b Y L1 ([0, 1], Y ),
L ([0, 1])
1
where K is a compact Hausdor space, C(K, Y) the Banach space of continuous functions from K to Y and
L1 ([0, 1], Y) the space of Bochner-measurable and integrable functions from [0, 1] to Y, and where the isomorphisms are isometric. The two isomorphisms above
are the respective extensions of the map sending the tensor f y to the vector-valued function s K f (s)y
Y.
4.1
x, y X :
(
)
x+y2 +xy2 = 2 x2 + y2 .
x, y =
1
4
(
)
x + y2 x y2 .
Tensor products and the approximaFor complex scalars, dening the inner product so as to
tion property
9
and weakened by the introduction of a two-sided inequal- to 2, see above the results by Amir and Cambern. Ality with a constant c 1: Kwapie proved that if
though uncountable compact metric spaces can have different homeomorphy types, one has the following result
due to Milutin:[57]
2
n
n
n
2
2
xk
xk Ave
xk
c2
c2
Theorem.[58] Let K be an uncountable com
k=1
k=1
k=1
pact metric space. Then C(K) is isomorphic to
C([0, 1]).
for every integer n and all families of vectors {x1 , ...,
xn} X, then the Banach space X is isomorphic to a
The situation is dierent for countably innite compact
Hilbert space.[51] Here, Ave denotes the average over
Hausdor spaces. Every countably innite compact K is
n
the 2 possible choices of signs 1. In the same artihomeomorphic to some closed interval of ordinal numcle, Kwapie proved that the validity of a Banach-valued
bers
Parsevals theorem for the Fourier transform characterizes Banach spaces isomorphic to Hilbert spaces.
Lindenstrauss and Tzafriri proved that a Banach space
in which every closed linear subspace is complemented
(that is, is the range of a bounded linear projection) is
isomorphic to a Hilbert space.[52] The proof rests upon
Dvoretzkys theorem about Euclidean sections of highdimensional centrally symmetric convex bodies. In other
words, Dvoretzkys theorem states that for every integer n, any nite-dimensional normed space, with dimension suciently large compared to n, contains subspaces
nearly isometric to the n-dimensional Euclidean space.
1, = { : 1 }
equipped with the order topology, where is a countably innite ordinal.[59] The Banach space C(K) is then
isometric to C(<1, >). When , are two countably
innite ordinals, and assuming , the spaces C(<1,
>) and C(<1, >) are isomorphic if and only if < .[60]
For example, the Banach spaces
The next result gives the solution of the so-called homo- C(1, ), C(1, ), C(1, ), C(1, ), , C(1, ),
geneous space problem. An innite-dimensional Banach
are mutually non-isomorphic.
space X is said to be homogeneous if it is isomorphic
to all its innite-dimensional closed subspaces. A Banach space isomorphic to 2 is homogeneous, and Banach
6 Examples
asked for the converse.[53]
5.2
7 Derivatives
Several concepts of a derivative may be dened on a Banach space. See the articles on the Frchet derivative and
the Gteaux derivative for details. The Frchet derivative allows for an extension of the concept of a directional
10
10 NOTES
derivative to Banach spaces. The Gteaux derivative allows for an extension of a directional derivative to locally
convex topological vector spaces. Frchet dierentiability is a stronger condition than Gteaux dierentiability.
The quasi-derivative is another generalization of directional derivative that implies a stronger condition than
Gteaux dierentiability, but a weaker condition than
Frchet dierentiability.
Generalizations
Several important spaces in functional analysis, for instance the space of all innitely often dierentiable func- [19] Eilenberg, Samuel (1942). Banach Space Methods
in Topology. Annals of Mathematics. 43 (3): 568.
tions R R, or the space of all distributions on R, are
doi:10.2307/1968812.
complete but are not normed vector spaces and hence not
Banach spaces. In Frchet spaces one still has a com- [20] see also Banach (1932), p. 170 for metrizable K and L.
plete metric, while LF-spaces are complete uniform vec[21] See Amir, D. (1965). On isomorphisms of continuous
tor spaces arising as limits of Frchet spaces.
function spaces. Israel J. Math. 3: 205210.
See also
Space (mathematics)
Hilbert space
Lp space
Sobolev space
Hardy space
Interpolation space
Distortion problem
10
Notes
[22] Cambern, M. (1966). A generalized Banach-Stone theorem. Proc. Amer. Math. Soc. 17: 396400. And Cambern, M. (1967). On isomorphisms with small bound.
Proc. Amer. Math. Soc. 18: 10621066.
[23] Cohen, H. B. (1975). A bound-two isomorphism between C(X) Banach spaces. Proc. Amer. Math. Soc.
50: 215217.
[24] See for example Arveson, W. (1976). An Invitation to C*Algebra. Springer-Verlag. ISBN 0-387-90176-0.
[25] R. C. James (1951).
A non-reexive Banach
space isometric with its second conjugate space.
Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 37: 174177.
doi:10.1073/pnas.37.3.174.
[26] see Lindenstrauss & Tzafriri (1977), p. 25.
[27] see E. Bishop and R. Phelps, A proof that every Banach space is subreexive. Bull. Amer. Math. Soc. 67
(1961), 9798.
11
[55] see Gowers, W. T. (1994), A solution to Banachs hyperplane problem, Bull. London Math. Soc. 26:523530.
11 References
Diestel, Joseph (1984), Sequences and series in Banach spaces, Graduate Texts in Mathematics, 92,
New York: Springer-Verlag, pp. xii+261, ISBN 0387-90859-5.
[53] see p. 245 in Banach (1932). The homogeneity property is called proprit (15)" there. Banach writes: on
ne connat aucun exemple d'espace une innit de dimensions qui, sans tre isomorphe avec (L2 ), possde la
proprit (15)".
Dunford, Nelson; Schwartz, Jacob T. with the assistance of W. G. Bade and R. G. Bartle (1958), Linear Operators. I. General Theory, Pure and Applied
Mathematics, 7, New York: Interscience Publishers, Inc., MR 0117523
12
12
Lindenstrauss, Joram; Tzafriri, Lior (1977), Classical Banach Spaces I, Sequence Spaces, Ergebnisse
der Mathematik und ihrer Grenzgebiete, 92, Berlin:
Springer-Verlag, ISBN 3-540-08072-4.
Megginson, Robert E. (1998), An introduction to
Banach space theory, Graduate Texts in Mathematics, 183, New York: Springer-Verlag, pp. xx+596,
ISBN 0-387-98431-3.
Ryan, Raymond A. (2002), Introduction to Tensor Products of Banach Spaces, Springer Monographs in Mathematics, London: Springer-Verlag,
pp. xiv+225, ISBN 1-85233-437-1.
Wojtaszczyk, Przemysaw (1991), Banach spaces
for analysts, Cambridge Studies in Advanced Mathematics, 25, Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, pp. xiv+382, ISBN 0-521-35618-0.
12
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