FLOW MEASUREMENTS

26/10/2016 G.C

Prepared by Ayalew.A

Why do we need flow sensing?

Flow measurement is critical to determine the amount of material purchased and sold, and in
these applications, very accurate flow measurement is required.
To know how much a particular material are passes
To control process variables i.e.

Temperature in heat exchanger

Composition in reactor
Level in storage tank
Pressure in hot gas accumulators
To control all the above variables we open or close inlet and out let valves

Basics of flow sensing

The measurement of fluid flow is very important in industrial applications.
Optimum performance of some equipment and operations require specific flow rates.
The cost of many liquids and gases are based on the measured flow through a
pipeline making it necessary to accurately measure and control the rate of flow for
accounting purposes.

Basic terms
Velocity is a measure of speed and direction of an object.
The speed of particles in a fluid flow varies across the flow, i.e., where the fluid is in contact
with the constraining walls the velocity of the liquid particles is virtually zero; in the center of
the flow the liquid particles will have the maximum velocity

Patterns of fluid flow

The Reynolds number R is a derived relationship combining the density and viscosity of a liquid
with its velocity of flow and the cross-sectional dimensions of the flow.
Laminar flow of a liquid occurs when its average velocity is comparatively low and the
fluid particles tend to move smoothly in layers.
Turbulent flow occurs when the flow velocity is high and the particles no longer flow
smoothly in layers and turbulence or a rolling effect occurs. Flow patterns may be
laminar, turbulent or a combination of both.

 Viscosity is a property of a gas or liquid that is a measure of its resistance to motion or

flow. A viscous liquid such as syrup has a much higher viscosity than water and water has
a higher viscosity than air. Syrup, because of its high viscosity, flows very slowly and it
is very hard to move an object through it. The Bernoulli equation is an equation for flow
based on the law of conservation of energy, which states that the total energy of a fluid or
gas at any one point in a flow is equal to the total energy at all other points in the flow.
Flow rate is the volume of fluid passing a given point in a given amount of time
Total flow is the volume of liquid flowing over a period of time and is measured in
gallons

Continuity equation
The continuity equation states that if the overall flow rate in a system is not changing with the
flow rate in any part of the system is constant.
Q = VA=V1A1 = V2A2=constant

Bernoulli equation

Flow measurements are normally indirect measurements using differential pressures to

measure the flow rate.
Flow measurements can be divided into the following groups: flow rate, total flow, and
mass flow
The choice of the measuring device will depend on the required accuracy and fluid
characteristics (gas, liquid, suspended particulates, temperature, viscosity

Types of flow meter

Obstructive flow meter: It includes,

1. Differential pressure flow meters
Orifice meters
Venturi meters

2. Variable area meter

Rota meter

3. Turbine flow meter

Non obstructive flow meters: It includes,
1. Electromagnetic flow meters
2. Ultrasonic flow meters
3. Cross correlation flow meter

1. Dp flow meters (Flow rate)

Differential pressure measurements can be made for flow rate determination when a fluid flows
through a restriction. The restriction produces an increase in pressure which can be directly
related to flow rate. Commonly used restrictions;
(a) Orifice plate, (b) Venturi tube,
(c) Flow nozzle, (d) Dall tube.
Differential pressure flow meter are mainly used:
Are widely used for liquid and gas.
A restriction is placed in the pipe and the differential pressure developed across the
restriction is measured.
When the flow area reduced it will create a pressure and calibrated according to a flow.
The deferential pressure output is calibrated in terms of volume flow rate based on
bernoullis principle

a) Orifice Plate

 An orifice plate is a restriction with an opening smaller than the pipe diameter which is
inserted in the pipe; the typical orifice plate has a concentric, sharp edged opening. As
fluid flows through the pipe it has a certain velocity (which we want to measure) and a
certain pressure (which is quite easily measured).
When the fluid reaches the orifice plate, with the hole in the middle, the fluid is forced to
converge to go through the small hole; the point of maximum convergence is actually just
after the physical orifice, at the so-called "venacontracta" point.

Orifice plats

Advantages and Disadvantages of orifice plates

Advantages of orifice plates include:

High differential pressure generated

Exhaustive data available
Low purchase price and installation cost
Easy replacement

Disadvantages of orifice plate include:

High permanent pressure loss implies higher pumping cost.
Cannot be used on dirty fluids, slurries or wet steam as erosion will alter the differential
pressure generated by the orifice plate.

b) Venture meter
When a venture meter is placed in a pipe carrying the fluid whose flow rate is to be measured, a
pressure drop occurs between the entrance and throat of the venturimeter.
This pressure drop is measured using a differential pressure sensor and when calibrated this
pressure drop becomes a measure of flow rate.

Operation:
1)The fluid whose flow rate is to be measured enters the entry section of the venture meter with a
pressure P1.
2)As the fluid from the entry section of venture meter flows into the converging section, its
pressure keeps on reducing and attains a minimum value P2 when it enters the throat. That is, in
the throat, the fluid pressure P2 will be minimum.
3)The differential pressure sensor attached between the entry and throat section of the venture
meter records the pressure difference(P1-P2) which becomes an indication of the flow rate of the
fluid through the pipe when calibrated.
4)The diverging section has been provided to enable the fluid to regain its pressure and hence its
kinetic energy. Lesser the angle of the diverging section, greater is the recovery.

Advantage and disadvantage of Venturi Tubes

Advantage
For applications where high permanent pressure loss is not tolerable, a venturi tube can
be used. Because of its gradually curved inlet and outlet cones, almost no permanent
pressure drop occurs. T
his design also minimizes wear and plugging by allowing the flow to sweep suspended
solids through without obstruction.

Disadvantages:

Calculated calibration figures are less accurate than for orifice plates.
The differential pressure generated by a venture tube is lower than for an orifice plate
and, therefore, a high sensitivity flow transmitter is needed.
It is more bulky and more expensive.

Difference b/n orifice plate and venture tubes

The orifice is the simplest, cheapest, easiest to replace, least accurate, more subject to
damage and erosion, and has the highest loss.
The Venture tube is more difficult to replace, most expensive, most accurate, has high
tolerance to damage and erosion, and the lowest permanent pressure losses of all the three
tubes.

2. Variable area meter (Rota meter)

Widely used for flow indication
Consists of float with in a vertical transparent tube tapered to an increasing cross
sectional area at the out let.
The fluid entering through the bottom passes over the float, which is free to move only in
the vertical direction.
The rot meter is always installed in the upright position.
When the fluid is flowing through the rot meter the three forces are acting on the float.
(drag force, buoyancy force, weight of the float

Working principle of Rota meter

 For a given flow rate the float remains stationary, when the weight of the float is balanced
by the buoyancy and drag force.
It is auto balancing system
The area between the float and vertical tube varies continuously with vertical
displacement of the float
For a particular liquid weight of the float and buoyancy force are constant therefore drag
force is to be maintained at constant level.
Since the area of cross section of the float is constant the pressure drop across it should
be constant.
When the float is in particular position for a flow rate the differential pressure varies with
the square root of the flow rate
Therefore, to keep differential pressure constant for some other flow rate the annular area
in between the float and the vertical tube must change.(which means the float must move
up and down.
Q=..

1. Electromagnetic Flow meter

The operation of a magnetic flow meter is based on Faraday's Law.
When conductive fluids pass through a magnetic field they generate electromotive force in
proportion to flow velocity.
The electromotive force is generated in a direction perpendicular to the direction of the fluid
motion and the magnetic field

Electromagnetic flow meter

Used to measure volumetric flow rate of electrically conductive fluids
(conductivity>10 micro ohm)
The instrument consists of cylindrical tube made of stainless steel fitted with an insulating
liner
The magnetic field that is perpendicular to the direction of flow of liquid is created in the
tube by installing energized field coils in diametrically opposite side by side.
The voltage induced in the fluid is measured by two electrodes inserted into opposite
sides of the tube
=
Where E=emf in (volt)
V= velocity of the fluid (m/sec)
B=flux intensity in (tesla)
L=internal pipe diameter or distance between the two electrodes.(in meter)

Advantage electromagnetic flow meter

.It is suitable for installation that can tolerate only a small pressure drop

 The absence of any internal part is very attractive for measurement of the velocity of

corrosive fluid and dirty fluids

The operating principle is independent of fluid density, and viscosity.
The output voltage is proportional to the average velocity of fluid.
There is no difficulty of measurement of either laminar or turbulent.
It is one of the most accurate industrial flow meter types.
It has no movable parts or other obstructions inside the measuring tube, can be used with

corrosive fluids, and is maintenance-free.

Magnetic flow meters are therefore extensively used in such industries as chemicals,
food, iron & steel, pulp & paper, and water supply.

Disadvantage of electromagnetic flow meter

The conductivity of the fluid must have some minimum value. This excludes all
hydrocarbons
It is suitable for measurement of fluid flow of slurries provided that the liquid phase has
adequate conductivity.
The instrument is expensive in terms of initial purchase cost. One of the reasons for high
cost is the need for careful calibration of each instrument. Individually during
manufacture as there is considerable variations in the properties of magnetic materials
used

2. Ultra sonic flow meter

The ultrasonic signal is short burst of sine wave when the frequency is above the available range
of frequency which is 20 kHz. The typical frequency of ultrasonic wave is 10MHz.

There are two types of flow meter

Doppler shift
Transit time
Both methods depend on transmitting and receiving of acoustic energy.
Transit time Ultrasonic Flow meter
Fluid flowing through the pipe causes a time difference between the transit times of the
beams traveling upstream and downstream the measurement of the difference of time of
travel gives the flow velocity.
The detector is designed to measure the transit time from upstream to downstream and
vice versa via phase shift measurement.
Typically the difference is 100ns in a total transit time of 10s

Advantage of ultrasonic flow meters

The fluid flowing through the pipe is not necessarily to be conductive.
It is particularly useful for measuring the flow of corrosive fluids and slurries.
The instrument is one which clamps on externally to exsting pipe rather than being
inserted as an integral part of the flow line.
Unlike other flow meters the ultrasonic flow meter can be installed with out pipe cutting
or breaking.

Disadvantage
Ultrasonic flow meter is sensitive to velocity profile of the flow.

Total flow

Includes devices used to measure the total quantity of fluid flowing or the volume of liquid in a
flow. Positive displacement meters use containers of known size, which are filled and emptied
for a known number of times in a given time period to give the total flow volume.
Two of the more common instruments for measuring total flow are the piston flow meter and the
mutating disc flow meter.

Mass flow
By measuring the flow and knowing the density of a fluid, the mass of the flow can be measured.
Mass flow instruments include constant speed impeller turbine wheel-spring combinations that
relate the spring force to mass flow and devices that relate heat transfer to mass flow
Anemometer is an instrument that can be used to measure gas flow rates. One method is to keep
the temperature of a heating element in a gas flow constant and measure the power required. The
higher the flow rate, the higher the amount of heat required.

Dry particulate flow rate

Dry particulate flow rate can be measured as the particulate are being carried on a conveyer belt
with the use of a load cell. This method is illustrated in Figure below. To measure flow rate it is
only necessary to measure the weight of material on a fixed length of the conveyer belt.

Application Considerations of flow meter

Many different types of sensors can be used for flow measurements. The choice of any
particular device for a specific application depends on a number of factors such as

Reliability
Cost
Accuracy
pressure range
Temperature, wear and erosion, energy loss, ease of replacement, particulates,
viscosity, and so forth