INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES Section 2 Construction Of Internal Combustion EnginesSECTION TWO CONSTRUCTION OF INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES The Camshaft 1 ‘An IC engine produces power by burning fuel. In a d-eyele engine, the charge is introduced into the cylinder through the Intake —___ valve In order for the four combustion events to occur at exactly the right time, the valves must open and close in relation to the position of the ______ in the piston cylinder. In the (7) 2eycle/] 4evele) engine, combustion 2eyele events are timed by the piston instead of by valves, ‘The intake and exhaust valves in a 4-cycle engine are operated by & camshaft, Cams are mounted on this r camshaft ‘The cams are oval-shaped metal pieces which are (CJ centered] off-center) on the eamshatt, off-center ‘There are two cams for each eylinder: one cam for the intake valve and one for the exhaust valve, ‘An Beylinder engine has ____ eams on its 16 camshaft. 237, The camshaft is rotated Ly the crankshaft through a set of gears at the shaft ends. The gear on the camshaft is (C] twice/(] one-half) as large as the gear on the erankshaft. 8. Thus, the camshaft gear turns ab one-half the speed of the crankshaft, Bach valve opens ([] once/(7] twice) for each two ‘turns of the crankshaft. 9. As the camshaft rotates, 2 eam lifts and moves a push rod. ROCKER ARM PUSH ROD CAM CAMSHAFT. \ ‘The push rod lifts and drops @ 10. As the push rod lifts one end of the rocker arm, the other end forces the valve stem down. ‘The valve spring is compressed and the valve 24 twico once rocker arm opensi. 12, 18. 14, 16. aM. 18. 19, In a 4-cvele engine, each valve must open once each time the crankshaft makes two revolutions, Each valve opens once every time the camshaft makes ___ revolution. The camshaft makes ((] one-half as many/[] twice a8 many) revolutions 28 the crankshaft. With the camshaft gear turning: at one-half the speed of the crankshaft gear, the camshaft rotates only once every time the crankshaft rotates ‘The cam which operates an intake valve opens the valve at the beginning of intake and it at the end of intake, ‘The cam which operates an exhaust valve the exhaust valye at the beginning of the exhaust stroke and closes it at the end of the exhaust, Intake and exhaust valves remain closed during the and power events. Look at the drawing. During compression and powsr, the eam (CJ lifte/ [does not lift) the push rod. ‘This happens because of the (C7) shape/[] size) of the cam, Tet’s review: The camshaft is turned by the ([] crankshatt/[] eon. neeting rod.) ‘There is one eam for each ___in the eng If the valves do not open and close at the right time, the cylinders (CJ fire/[7] éo not fire) properly. Both the intake and exhaust valves are (F] open/ {J closed) during the compression and power strokes. 25 one-half ag many closes opens compression does not lift shape crankshaft ve ¢o not fire closedThe 21. 22, 23, 24. 28. 26. Carburetor For smooth and efficient burning, air and fuel must be mixed in just the right amounts, To get the proper air-fuel ratio, it is necessary to _ the amount of fuel and alr being com- bined. In order to be mixed with air and burned, liquid fuel is broken up into a fino mist. When liquid fuel is sprayed into _____, » combustible mixture is produced, ‘The carburetor makes liquid fuel breaking it into a fine mist. and mixing it with air. ‘The carburetor is positioned so that it can atomize fuol, mix it with air, and feed the mixture to the ‘The carburetor Is normally ([] near the top/(] near the bottom) of the cylinder. ‘The drawing shows a simplified mode! of a carburetion syatem. AIR INLET. VENTURI FUEL THROTTLE ° of oe f° MANIFOLD. TO CYLINDER ‘The downward movement of the piston creates a —_______ pressure area in the cylinder. ‘This low-pressure pulls ________ into. the ear- buretor from the atmosphere. 26 control, or regulate burnable, or combustible cylinders near the top low air24, 28. 28, Gas ae, ad, ‘The narrow air passage inside the carburetor is called the venturi, As air rushes past the venturi, it picks up particles of At this point the drops of fuel and the air___, ‘This fine fu the ir mist is fed to the cylinders through oo in the manifold is adjustable to control the amount of charge heing distributed to the cylinders, When the throttle is oponed wider, more charge is fed to the cylinders. ‘The engine turns faster and delivers mor Admission System Spark-ignition engines using natural gas or any other gasas a fuel do not need a carburetor to mix air with fuel AIR LINE HEADER LINE" Instead, gas is piped under pressure toa line, or it may be van through a miving valve. When the header line is used, gas pressure is main. el in this header line up to each individual head. ‘The header lino distributes the gas evenly through inlet pipes to the cylinder To distribute the mixture evenly, the gas may be cn into the air at the entrance to the Using a mixing valve or putting exactly the same amount of gas into the air passage at exch cylinder sives an____ distribution of the air-fuel mixture. oT fuel mix manifoud throttle power header cylinder cylinder even36. ‘The proportion of air to natural gas must be closely. controlled. When the fuelair proportion is right, the mixture smoothly and evenly. 81. ‘Too rich a mixture explodes {detonates, or knocks), Too lean a mixture may not even —___, 88. As the load on an engine increases, the speed of the engine (| inereases/[_] decreases) 39. To maintain speed, the fuel supply must be 40. ‘To take eare of changes in load, a throttle in the intake air passage adjusts the amount of alr entering the cylinder, A throttle in the ras header line adjusts the supply to the cylinder to compensate for changes in ond. 41. As the load changes, combustion is maintained by ad- Justing the supply of ______and the supply of with throttles which ae separate but Tinked togethe: Governors 42. When the charge is igniled, combustion occurs, heated gases expand, and power is produced. The amount of power produced depends upon the of fuel burned. 43, When the load on the engine is changed, the amount of power produced must be changed to maintain a spew. 44. Most stationary internal combustion engines use a governor to make the changes necessary when the engine loud is changed. ‘The governor maintains the desired speed by adjust- ing the amount of _______ furnished to the engine, 45. When we change the proportions of fuel to air in a charge we change the amount of fuel in the charge, When we change the amount of fuel in the charge, we the amount of power produced. burns ignite, or burn decreases ineveased as gas. amount constant, or steady fuel change46. Where the proportion of fuel to air is to be changed, the fuet intake system is metered hy the 4%, If the proportion of fuel to air in the charge is kept constant, then the power produced by the engine is changed by changing the —______of the charge. 48, The amount of cl trolled by the throttle. Where the amount of the charge governor adjusts: the fuel. admitted to the cylinders is con- to be changed, the to give enough 49. Before the govemor can maintain a constant speed, it must be eet for that speed. Otherwise, the engine may slow down too much when the load inereases or overspood if the Tend —_ 50. Once the governor is set at the desired engine speed, it maintains that speed. When the load on the engine is ineveased, the amount of fuel admitted to the engine is, When the load on the engine is decreased, the amount of fucl admitted to the engine is 51. Each type of internal combustion engine has a governor specifically adapted to the capabilities of that engine, Most governors are connected to the throttle to con- trol the amount of the ______to be admitted to the engine. 52. Two basie types of governors are used to control the amount of the charge admitted to the engine hy open- ing and ______the throttle. 53. ‘The mechanical governor is connected to the engine crankshait through geai It is comecied directly to the throttle so that any movement in the control elements of the governor ‘causes a corresponding movement in the 54, The hydraulic governor is also connected to the engin crankshatt through gears, Bat the contol elements of the governor transmit their motion to a pilot yalye which controls a flow of. oil in and out of @ hydraulic power cylinder. The power piston in this hydraulic eylinder is connected tothe __, 29 governor amount, or size throttle decreases inereased dvereased charge closing throttle throttle65. In either type of governor the three elements which control movements of the throttle are the flyweights, the speeder spring, and the speeder rod. SPEED ADJUSTMENT FLYWEIGHT SPEEDER SPRING Le ROTARY MOTION FROM CRANKSHAFT LINKAGE TO THROTTLE ORTO HYDRAULIC SYSTEM WHICH CONTROLS THROTTLE SPEEDER ROD CONTROL ELEMENTS OF THE GOVERNOR The flyweights revolve in direct relation to the engine cranlshart, and translate engine speed into 7] torques Ci centrifugal foree), centrifugal force 56, The centrifugal force of the revolving fyweights is applied against the speeder spring to move the speeder rod. An inerease in engine ____ causes an inerease speed in force to be applied against the speeder spring, eom- pressing it, 57, The speeder rod is connected to tho speeder spring in such a way that when the speeder spring is compressed it causes the ________________to move speeder rod in the direction of spring compression, 58. When the engine speed decreases, the centrifugal force of the flyweights decreases and the speeder spring expands. When the speeder spring expands it causes the speeder rod to move in the _______diirection, opposite, or other 59. ‘The speeder rod is connected to the engine throttle so that when the flyweights compress the speeder spring, the speeder rod causes the throttle to close. ‘Thus, as engine speed is increased, the —____ amount, of charge admitted to the engine is decreased. 20.) 60. As engine speed decreases, the governor flyweights allow the speeder spring to expand. Expansion of the speeder spring causes the speeder tod to open the throtile to______ the umount. of the charge admitted to the engine, 61. Mechanical zovernors usually respond slowly when the load is changed. A slow-acting governor allows engine speed to change too much before the amount of _____ is changed. 62, To correct the first error, the governor may make too great a change in the opposite direction, ‘This “hunting” effect is a major fault of governors, Hydraulic Governors 63. In the hydraulic governor, the control elements are the same and operate the same as in the mechanical governor DIRECT LINKAGE LINKAGE TO SPEEDER ROD ies OF GOVERNOR | HYDRAULIC POWER CYLINDER PISTON PILOT VALVE HYDRAULIC SYSTEM WHICH CONTROLS THROTTLE But the speeder rod is connected to a pilot valve stead of being connected direetly to the 64, Any movement by the pilot valve is transmitted im- mediately by hydraalic pressure to the power piston in a hydraulic cylinder The hydraulle power piston moves instantly as ar salt of the transmitted foree, and because the throttle is connected dirvetly to this piston it instantly too. 81 increase charge mechanieal, or centrifugal ‘throttle moves65. In the hydraulic governor, too, an inerease in engine speed is translated into a movement of the throttle to decrease the amount of charge to the engine, A decrease in engine speed is translated into» move- ment of the throttle to _____the amount of charge to the engine, 66. Because hydraulic fluid tranemita change far more rapidly than mechanical linkage, the hydraulic gover- nor is more sensitive than the mechanical governor. Since the hydraulle governor is more sensitive, it can maintain a more nearly_____engine speed. 67. When it is possilile to maintain a more constant speed, the danger of the engine surging is eliminates When engine speed is constant, the transmission of power to the driven unit is more. = When power from the engine is transmitted at a nearly constant rate, the effectiveness of the driving 2nd driven units is (7) grester/[_] less). Overspeed Trip Mechanism 68 The governor controls the engine speed under normal conditions, but sometimes emergency conditions occur. When the engine is fully loaded and the load is sudden- ly removed, the engine may “run away” or —___ 69. When the loal is suddenly removed from a fully londed engine, the governor may react too slowly, or may stick and not react at all. Af the fuel is not shut off, speed continues to until the engine flies apart 70. A trip pin is used to cut off the ignition or the supply in an emergeney, 7. The trip pin consists of an unbalanced weight held in place in the governor shaft by a spring, UNBALANCED WEIGHT (TRIP PIN) If the engine overspeeds, centrifagal foree pushes the _____ out of the shaft, 20. increase constant, or steady even, or constant greater overspeed. increase fuel unbalanced weight, or trip pin72, When the engine overspeeds, the trip pin moves out against the overspeed-trip lateh, TRIP PIN TRIP LEVER GOVERNOR ce SPRING TRIP LATCH FUEL-SHUTOFF LEVER + ‘The latch releases a trip lever which is pulled down, and held by a. spring 7%. The trip-lever spring pulls the fuel.shutoff lever down, This fuel-shutoff lever cuts off the —__sup- fuel ply to the engine. 74, To restart the engine, the overspeed trip must he reset by hand, ‘The overspeed trip is not like the governor, because the overspeeil trip cannot —_______ itself’ auto- reset, or adjust, matically. 75. There are other types of overspeed trip devices, in- cluding overspeed srovernors, Overspeed governors aye emergency controls which take over and slow the engine down by reducing it fuel supply if the regular governor — fails 76. Lot’s review: Carburetors are needed with ([] liauid/] gaseous) Tiquid fuels. ‘Phe carburetor _____the fuel and the air, mixes In a gas fuel engine, fuel may be fed directly to the cylinders through a____line, header Tt may also be run through a—___valve, mixing A____contrels the amount of charge fed throttle into a cylinder. ‘The throttle can he automatically controlled by # = governor ‘The of the engine is controlled by a speed throttle-governor system, A (C] hyavaulic/(7] centrifugal) governor is more hydraulic powertul, BBThe Electrical System ‘77. An IC eagine takes chemical energy stored in the fuel ‘and changes this chemical energy to heat energy. ‘This heat energy is then changed to the — energy of the shafts rotation. 7%. To start this whole reaction the fuel must frst be mixed with air and burned, To burn, the air-fuel mixture must be 79. A spark plug is usually used to ignite the air-fuel charge. ‘The spark plug needs (Fj electrical] mechanical) energy. 80, Bnergy to ignite the charge is provided by the system, 81. Material which can carry electrical energy from one place to another is called 2 conductor. A conductor is « “pipeline” for carrying — energy, 82, Most metals are good conductors. (J Copper/7] Rubber )is a good electrieal conductor. 83. Tor clectricity to Now, it must have an unintorrupted path, called a circuit, ‘The cireuit is made out of a ([] condu conducting) material. ing/[_] non- Bd, ‘the components of the engine's electrical system are connected in a 89. Blectricity flows from a source, through the compo- nents of the system, to the nser of the electricity and then back to the source, BATTERY LIGHT BULB Jn this system, the _______is the source of power and the is the user. 34 mechanteal ignited electrical electrical electrical Copper condueting civeuit battery ight, or bulb86. The drawings show two electrical circuits. A B No olectricity is renching light bulb A because the elrentt-ds == ———_— 87. Rlectricity flows only through ((7] closed/(] open) cireuits. 88. An electric light switch turns lights on and off by and — 2 cireuit 89, An = switch for an engine turns on the electrical system by closing the eircuit. 90, Let's say current flows in a copper wire, like water flowing through a pipe. ‘The electricity, like the water, does not flow unless there is something it through the line, 91. Voltage is the _______ which pushes electricity throuzh a wire. 92, ‘The foree which moves electricity through the clreuit is called The Battery 93, All electrical systems need a primary source of eles- tricity. In a battery system, the battery is the (F] primary source/[] user) of the electricity. 94, ‘The battery rolenses _________energy which is stored in chemical form. 95. A battery uses _____ energy to produce elee- trical energy. 96. Remember we said that elestricity must be forced through the circuit. The battery is a source of electricity and a source of 85 open, or broken closed opening, closing ignition toreing force voltage primary source alectrical chemical voltage97. We know that the spark is produced at the spark plug. A spark is formed whon olectricity is forced to jump. across a__ between the two electrodes of gap D the sparie pug: 98. It takes a tremendous amount of foree to make the electricity jump across this gap. ‘The voltage must be very (F] high) tow). igh 99. A battery produces electricity at 6 to 12 volts, This (C] is] is not) enough voltage to produce a is not spark ab a spatk plug. 100. An ignition coil may be used to increase battery voltage, Low VOLTAGE == HIGH VOLTAGE TO DISTRIBUTOR JAND GROUND. i_-———— An ignition coil consists of two coils of wire wound around a _ core 101, It_uses low vollage current in one coil to generate (CF) ow] higher) voltage current in the other. higher 36102. Cars need a sour’ er of high-voltage current to produce 103. Cars also need a source of low-voltage current for lights, radio, and other accessories, Cars need (CJ a battery /(7] an ignition coil/] both a battery and an ignition soil), 104, Large industrial engines do nat neod low-voltage eur- rent to run accessories. A large industrial engine (7 needs/[7] does not need) a battery, 105. It can use a direct source of voltage electricity, such as that produced by a magneto, Mognetos and Pulse Generators 100. A magneto uses mechani tricity. ) energy to generate elec- MAGNETO Tt uses the mechanical energy from the rotation of the 107. ‘The magneto changos the rotation of the crankshaft into electrical energy. ‘Thus, it (7] works /7] cannot work) before the engine is runnins 108. ‘To start the engine, high-pressure air is foreed each cylinder. This air moves the pistons and the crankshaft —_. 109. Once the crankshaft has started to turn, the — __ begins to produce high-voltage eurrent, a7 spark both # Lattery and an ignition coil does not need high crankshaft cannot work turns magneto110. "an 112. 118, 14. Electricity can be induced in a wire by moving it through a magnetic field. HORSESHOE MAGNET MAGNETIC FIELD ‘This horseshoe magnet produces invisible tines of force called a field. ‘The armature consists of wires wrapped around a core, ARMATURE When the armature is moved through this magnetic field, is induced in it. ‘The armature rotates smoothly in this magnetic field as long as the crankshaft turns, It produces (F] a constant/[] an interrupted) flow of current A pulse generator is a magneto which is equipped with devices to interrupt the induction of current. As the pulse generator rotates, these interrupting de- vices start and stop the flow of —____. As it continues (o rotate, the current is induced, then broken, induced again, then broken again. The pulse generator produces (C] a constant/] an interrupted) flow of current, 38 magnetic electricity fa constant current, or electricity an interrupted115, Both the magneto and the pulse generator produce current directly. uae |] eee do not need) a battery or other do not need source of low-voltage current. 116. The relatively low-voltage current (but higher than battery voltage) produced by the low-voltage magneto and the pulse generator passes through the distributor into a high-tension eoil at each cylinder. ‘This coil ([] ineresses/[7] decreases) the voltage even increases more. 117. The high-voltage magneto uses a built-in distributor and high tension coil to increase voltage. ‘The high- voltage current pulse from this high-tenaion ecil is yt spark plug The Distributor iis. In an IC engine, the fuel-air mixture must ignite only at the beginning of the __________stroke. power 119. The spark (7) must /[]] must not) occur during the must not other three events. 120. ‘The device which times the spark for each cylinder is, the distributor. HIGH-TENSION DISTRIBUTOR VOLTAGE ‘The distributor allows current into a spark plug only to start the ________stroke of that particular power cylinder. 121, The distributor acts like 2 moving switeh, When electricity is needed by a spark plug, the distrib- utor (C] opens/[_] closes) a circuit to that spark plug. closes: 122, When electricity is not needed by the cylinder, the cirenit to that eylinder must be — opened 39,123. ‘The distributor opens and closes each cixeuit in relation to the power stroke of each cylinder. VOLTAGE TO _.g. VOLTAGE INTO SPARK PLUG | {* pistrisutor When the switch is at point 1, eylinder fires, 124. Cylinders 2, 4, and 8 follow cylinder 1, ‘This is the order that the stroke comes in the eylinders. 125. The distributor shaft is turned, through a gear train, by the crankshaft. DISTRIBUTOR ROTOR CAMSHAFT GEAR DISTRIBUTOR SHAFT DISTRIBUTOR GEAR CRANKSHAFT GEAR Just as the camshaft times the valves, the. shaft Umes the distributor. 126, Unlike magnetos and batteries, produce electric current in spurts, ra steady: stream. er than in & 40 power distributor pulse generators127. In engines equipped with a pulse generator, the clec- trical spurts can be timed so that one spurt occurs for 4 power event in each cylinder. Engines with a pulse generator ([] need/(] do not need) a separate distributor, 128, Let's review: Batteries produce (7] high/[7 low) voltage. ‘Most large industrial engines (7) need/[7] do not need) 2 battery. Usually, large engines use a—_________or a _ to produce current, voltage magnetos (7] need/-] do not need) an ignition coil Current from the low-voltage magneto or palse srenara- tor is (F] increased/[7] decreased) by the high-te coil at Gch cylinder, Current trom the high-voltage magneto is increased by a single ignition coil built into the The times the spark for both low- and high-voltage magnetos, With a [7] magneto/] pulse generator/[7] battery), the distributor is not, Heeded. Diesel Engines 129, All IC engines burn fuel inside @ cylinder to produce power, This power is used to drive the 130. IC engines are separated into two general classes. ‘They are classified according to the way the Sie is ignited. 181. The gas or gasoline-fueled engine uses a—___ to ignite the charwe. 182, Diesel engines do not need a spark to ignite the charge. When air is compressed, its tempersture increases, even if heat is not added. If the air ie compressed enough, its temperature in. ereases enough to ____a jet of fuel sprayed into the air aL do not need low do not need magneto pulse generator do not need increased magneto distributor pulse generator pistons fuel, or charge spark, or spark plug ignite183, 184, 136. 187. 128, 189. Diesel engines are (] spark-ignition/[(_] compression- ignition) engines, compression-ignition Diesel engines compress air inside the cylinder to a very high pressure. The air gets very hot, and when the fuel mist is in- jected into it, the fuel ___ immediately. ignites 5. A diesel engine, by compressing air in the cylinder and then injecting fuel into the cylinders, eliminates the need for mixing air and fuel separately. Tt needs n (Cl earburetor/7] fuel). carburetor It uses the heat of compression to ignite the fuel and thus needs no__ system, ignition High-pressure fuel is pumped into the eylinders st, or slightly before, the end of the compression stroke. ‘The fuel _and the power stroke begins. ignites Diesel fuel oi] is thicker than most other IC engine fuels. Fuel injector nozzles are used to break this fuel oil into very small particles so that it ean burn The drawing shows a high-pressure fuel injection nozzle, FUEL MIST. ‘When high-pressure fuel enters the engine through the nozzle tip, it is broken into a—___ mist, fine, or small 42,140. 141. 142, 143. Aaa, 145, 146. 17. 14s. 149. The fuel is_________to the fuel injection noz- pumped ale by a fuel pump. ‘The speed of a diesel engine is controlled by adjusting the _____of fuel injected into the cylinder. amount Diesel engines may be either 2-eyele or d-evele engines. Engine (CF) Ay] B) is a A-cyele engine A Engine B has replaced intake and exhaust valves in the eylinder head with two in the eylin- ports der wall. In the diesel engine, fuol injection starts the power event, Fuel must be injected inte the compressed air at the ___time to give maximum power output. proper The camshaft times the combustion cycle. Gears relate the camshaft to the ____sy crankshaft that the camshaft and the cams can time the combus- tion events. The fuel-injection pump is sometimes run off a separate shaft driven by the crankshaft, A gear also times this fuel injection —__. pump A diesel engine may also have e _____ to con- governor trol engine speed automatically. ‘The compression ratio in the diesel engine is much higher than in gasoline engines. They build up much (C] more/{ less) pressure. more Thus, the pistons, crankshaft, and connecting rods are built much stronger in a (F] diesel/[-] gasoline) diesel engtine, 4B