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Definition&conceptofproperty

Source:http://www.
Author:BhagwatiDanCharan
Publishedon:January15,2011

Definitionandconceptofproperty

BhagwatiDanCharan'sProfile
anddetails

Propertyhasaverywidermeaninginitsrealsense.Itnot
onlyincludesmoneyandothertangiblethingsofvalue,but
BhagwatiDan
alsoincludesanyintangiblerightconsideredasasourceor
Charan,studentIX
elementofincomeorwealth.Therightandinterestwhicha
manhasinlandsandchattelstotheexclusionofothers.Itis
therighttoenjoyandtodisposeofcertainthingsinthe
SEMESTER,ILNU,Ahmedabad.
mostabsolutemannerashepleases,providedhemakesno
useofthemprohibitedbylaw.

Thesea,theair,andthelike,cannotbeappropriatedeveryonemayenjoythem,butnoonehas
anyexclusiverightinthem.Whenthingsarefullyourown,orwhenallothersareexcludedfrom
meddlingwiththem,orfrominterferingaboutthem,itisplainthatnopersonbesidesthe
proprietor,whohasthisexclusiveright,canhaveanyclaimeithertousethem,ortohinderhim
fromdisposingofthemashepleasessothatproperty,consideredasanexclusiverighttothings,
containsnotonlyarighttousethosethings,butarighttodisposeofthem,eitherbyexchanging
themforotherthings,orbygivingthemawaytoanyotherperson,withoutanyconsideration,or
eventhrowingthemaway.

BasicallyPropertyisdividedintorealproperty,andpersonalproperty.Propertyisalsodivided,
intoabsoluteandqualified,whenitconsistsofgoodsandchattels.

Absolutepropertyisthatwhichisourown,withoutanyqualificationwhateveraswhenamanis
theownerofawatch,abook,orotherinanimatething:orofahorse,asheep,orotheranimal,
whichneverhaditsnaturallibertyinawildstate.

Qualifiedpropertyconsistsintherightwhichmenhaveoverwildanimalswhichtheyhave
reducedtotheirownpossession,andwhicharekeptsubjecttotheirpowerasadeer,abuffalo,
andthelike,whicharehisownwhilehehaspossessionofthem,butassoonashispossessionis
lost,hispropertyisgone,unlesstheanimals,goanimorevertendi.

Propertyisagaindividedintocorporealandincorporeal.Theformercomprehendssuchproperty
asisperceptibletothesenses,aslands,houses,goods,merchandiseandthelikethelatter
consistsinlegalrights,aschoosesinaction,easements,andthelike.

Itispropertoobservethatinsomecases,themomentthattheownerloseshispossession,healso
loseshispropertyorrightinthething:animalsferaenaturae,asmentionedabove,belongtothe
owneronlywhileheretainsthepossessionofthem.But,ingeneral,'thelossofpossessiondoes
notimpairtherightofproperty,fortheownermayrecoveritwithinacertaintimeallowedbylaw.

MeaningandDefinitionofProperty
Meaningofproperty
Ingeneralsense,propertyisanyphysicalorvirtualentitythatisownedbyanindividualorjointly
byagroupofindividuals.Anownerofthepropertyhastheright.Humanlifeisnotpossible
withoutproperty.Ithaseconomic,sociopolitical,sometimesreligiousandlegalimplications.Itis
thelegaldomain,whichinstitutestheideaofownership.Thebasicpostulateoftheideaisthe
exclusivecontrolofanindividualoversomething.Herethemostimportantaspectofthe
conceptofownershipandpropertyisthewordthing,onwhichapersonhascontrolforuse.To
consume,sell,rent,mortgage,transferandexchangehisproperty.Propertyisanyphysicalor
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intangibleentitythatisownedbyapersonorjointlybyagroupofpeople.Dependingonthe
natureoftheproperty,anownerofpropertyhastherighttoconsume,sell,rent,mortgage,
transfer,exchangeordestroytheirproperty,and/ortoexcludeothersfromdoingthesethings.[1]
TherearesomeTraditionalprinciplesrelatedtopropertyrightswhichincludesinclude:
1.Controlovertheuseoftheproperty.
2.Righttotakeanybenefitfromtheproperty.
3.Righttotransferorselltheproperty.
4.Righttoexcludeothersfromtheproperty.

Definitionofproperty
Therearedifferentdefinitionsaregivenindifferentactasperthereusesandneeds.Butinthe
mostimportantactwhichexclusivelytalksaboutthepropertyandrightsrelatedtoproperty
transferofpropertyact1882hasnodefinitedefinitionofthetermproperty.Butitisdefinedin
someotheractaspertheiruseandneed.Thosedefinitionsareasfollows:

Section2(c)oftheBenamiTransactions(Prohibition)Act,1988definespropertyas:

Propertymeanspropertyofanykind,whethermovableorimmovable,tangibleorintangible,
andincludesanyrightorinterestinsuchproperty.

Section2(11)oftheSaleofGoodAct,1930definespropertyas:

Propertymeansthegeneralpropertyingoods,andnotmerelyaspecialproperty.

Theoriesbehindconceptofproperty:

Therearemanytheorieswhichhavebeenevolvedforthepurposeofunderstandingtheconceptof
propertyproperly.

Thosetheoriesareasfollows:

1.HistoricalTheoryofProperty:

2.LabourTheory(Spencer):

3.PsychologicalTheory(Bentham):

4.FunctionalTheory(Jenks,Laski):

5.PhilosophicalTheories
(i)PropertyasameanstoEthnicalEnds

(ii)PropertyasanEndinitself

HistoricalTheoryofProperty

AccordingtotheHistoricaltheory,theconceptofprivatepropertyhadgrownoutofcollective
grouporjointproperty.InthewordsofHenryMaine,Privatepropertywaschieflyformedbythe
gradualdisentanglementoftheseparaterightsofindividualfromtheblendedrightsofthe
community.

Earlierpropertydidnotbelongtoindividuals,noteventoisolatedfamilies,butthelarger
societiescomposedonpatriarchalmode.Laterwiththedisintegrationoffamilyindividualrights
cameintobeing.

RoscoePoundalsopointedoutthattheearliestformofpropertywasgroupproperty.Itwaslater
onthatfamilieswerepartitionedandindividualpropertycameintobeing.
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LabourTheory(Spencer)

Thetheoryisalsoknownaspositivetheory.Thistheoryinsistsonthefactthatlabourofthe
individualisafoundationofproperty.Thistheorysaysthat,athingisthepropertyofaperson,
whoproducesitorbringsitintoexistence.ThemainsupporterofthistheoryisSpencer,who
developeditontheprincipleofequalfreedom.Hesaysthatpropertyistheresultofindividual
labour.Therefore,nopersonhasamoralrighttopropertywhichhehasnotacquiredbyhis
personaleffort.

PsychologicalTheory(Bentham)

Accordingtothistheory,propertycameintoexistenceonaccountofacquisitiveinstinctofman.
Everyindividualdesirestoownthingsandthatbringsintobeingproperty.

AccordingtoBentham,Propertyisaltogetheraconceptionofmind.Itisnothingmorethanan
expectationtoderivecertainadvantagesfromtheobjectaccordingtoonescapacity.

RoscoePoundalsosupportsBenthamandobservedthatthesolebasisofconceptionofpropertyis
theacquisitiveinstinctofindividualwhichmotivateshimtoasserthisclaimoverobjectsinhis
possessionandcontrol.

FunctionalTheory(Jenks,Laski)

Thetheoryissometimesalsoknownassociologicaltheoryofproperty.Itimpliesthatthe
conceptofpropertyshouldnotonlybeconfinedtoprivaterightsbutitshouldbeconsideredasa
socialinstitutionsecuringmaximuminterestsofsociety.Propertyissituatedinthesociety,hasto
beusedinthesociety.

AccordingtoJenks,noonecanbeallowedanunrestricteduseofhisproperty,tothedetrimentto
others.Hesaidthattheuseofpropertyshouldconformtotherulesofreasonandwelfareofthe
community.

AccordingtoLaski,Propertyisasocialfactlikeanyother,anditisthecharacterofsocialfactsto
alter.Propertyhasfurtherassumedvariedaspectsandiscapabletofurtherchangewiththe
changingnormsofsociety.

PropertyisthecreationoftheState
Theoriginofpropertyistobetracedbacktotheoriginoflawandthestate.Jenksobservedthat
propertyandlawwereborntogetherandwoulddietogether.Itmeansthatpropertycameinto
existencewhenthestateframedlaws.Propertywasnowherebeforelaw.

AccordingtoRousseau,Itwastoconvertpossessionintopropertyandusurpationintoaright
thatlawandstatewerefounded.

Thefirstwhoenclosedapieceoflandandsaidthisisminehewasthefounderofrealsociety.

Heinsistedonthefactthatpropertyisnothingbutasystematicexpressionofdegreesandforms
ofcontrol,useandenjoymentofthingsbypersonsthatarerecognizedandprotectedbylaw.Thus
thepropertywasthecreationofthestate.

PhilosophicalTheories
PropertyasameanstoEthnicalEnds

IntheopinionofAristotle,HegelandGreen,Propertyhasneverbeentreatedasanend,but
alwaysasameanstosomeotherend.AccordingtoAristotle,itmaybeameanstotheendof
goodlifeofthecitizens,furtherintheopinionofHegelandGreen,itmaybeameanstothe
fulfillmentofthewillwithoutwhichindividualsarenotfullhuman.AccordingtoRousseau,
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Jefferson,Friedman,itmaybeameansasaprerequisiteofindividualfreedomseenasahuman
essence.

SimilarlytheoutstandingcriticsofpropertylikeWinstanley,Marxhavedenounceditas
destructiveofhumanessence,anegativemeansinrelationanontologicalend.

Inalltheabovecases,propertyistakenasameansnotasanend.
PropertyasanEndinitself
ThesupportersofliberalUtilitarianmodel,fromLocketoBentham,recognizepropertyasanend.
Itismaximizationofutilities.AccordingtoBentham,thecommandofutilitiesismeasuredbythe
materialwealth.Themaximizationofmaterialwealthisindistinguishablefromtheethicalend
propertyisvirtuallyanendinitself.InthewordsofLocke,theunlimitedaccumulationisa
naturalrightoftheindividualthatisanendinitself.AristotleandAquinashaveconsidered,
propertyasameans,concludedforalimitedpropertyright.HegelandGreen,treatsproperty,as
ameans,concludedforanunlimitedright.Thesupportersofutilitariantraditiontreat,
accumulationofproperty,asanend,alwaysmeantarightofunlimitedaccumulation.

LatertheconceptchangedandtheutilitarianBenthamheldthattheultimateendtowhichall
socialarrangementsshouldbedirectedwasthemaximizationoftheaggregateutility(Pleasure
minuspain)ofthemembersofthesociety.Whilelistingoutthekindsofpleasures,includingnon
materialone,heheldthatwealth,thepossessionofmaterialgoodswassoessentialtothe
attainmentofallotherpleasuresthatitcouldbetakenasthemeasureofpleasureorutilityas
such.

Kindsofproperty
BroadlyPropertyisdividedintothreekindsthoseareasfollow:

MovableandImmovableproperty
Movableproperty
Thedefinitionofmovablepropertyisgivendifferentlyinmanyacts.Someofthedefinitionsare
asfollows:

Section3(36)oftheGeneralClausesActdefinesmovablepropertyas:

'Movablepropertyshallmeanpropertyofeverydescription,exceptimmovableproperty."

Section2(9)oftheRegistrationAct,1908definespropertyas:

'Moveableproperty'includesstandingtimber,growingcropsandgrass,fruituponandjuicein
trees,andpropertyofeveryotherdescription,exceptimmovableproperty."

Section22ofIPCdefinespropertyas:

Thewordsmoveablepropertyisintendedtoincludecorporealpropertyofeverydescription,
exceptlandandthingsattachedtotheearthorpermanentlyfastenedtoanything,whichis
attachedtotheearth.

Thingsattachedtothelandmaybecomemoveablepropertybyseverancefromtheearth.for
exampleCartloadedofearth,orstonesquarriedandcarriedawayfromthelandbecomemovable
property.

Immovableproperty
TheTerm"ImmovableProperty"occursinvariousCentralActs.HowevernoneofthoseActs
conclusivelydefinethisterm.Themostimportantactwhichdealswithimmovablepropertyisthe
TransferofPropertyAct(T.P.Act).EvenintheT.P.Actthistermisdefinedinexclusive
terminology.

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i.AccordingtoSection3ofthatAct,"ImmovableProperty"doesnotincludestandingtimber,
growingcropsorgrass.Thus,thetermisdefinedintheActbyexcludingcertainthings.
"Buildings"constituteimmovablepropertyandmachinery,ifembeddedinthebuildingforthe
beneficialusethereof,mustbedeemedtobeapartofthebuildingandthelandonwhichthe
buildingissituated.

ii.AsperSection3(26)oftheGeneralClausesAct1897,"immovableproperty""shallinclude
land,benefitstoariseoutoflandandthingsattachedtotheearth,orpermanentlyfastenedto
anythingattachedtotheearth".Thisdefinitionofimmovablepropertyisalsonotexhaustive

iii.Section2(6)ofTheRegistrationAct,1908defines"ImmovableProperty"asunder:

"ImmovablePropertyincludesland,building,hereditaryallowances,rightstoways,lights,
ferries,fisheriesoranyotherbenefittoariseoutofland,andthingsattachedtotheearthor
permanentlyfastenedtoanythingwhichisattachedtotheearthbutnotstandingtimber,growing
cropsnorgrass".

Thedefinitionoftheterm"ImmovableProperty"undertheRegistrationAct1908,whichextends
tothewholeofIndia,excepttheStateofJammuandKashmir,iscomprehensive.Theabove
definitionimpliesthatbuildingisincludedinthedefinitionofimmovableproperty.

Thefollowinghavebeenheldasimmovableproperty.

Arighttocollectrent,lifeinterestintheincomeoftheimmovableproperty,rightofway,aferry,
fishery,aleaseofland.

iv.Theterm"ImmovableProperty"isdefinedinotherActsforthepurposeofthoseActs.Asper
Section269UA(d)oftheIncomeTaxAct,1961,ImmovablePropertyisdefinedasunder:

a.Anylandoranybuildingorpartofabuilding,andincludes,whereanylandoranybuildingor
partofabuildingistobetransferredtogetherwithanymachinery,plant,furniture,fittingsor
otherthings,suchmachinery,plant,furniture,fittingsandotherthingsalso.

Anyrightsinorwithrespecttoanylandoranybuildingorpartofbuilding(whetherornot
includinganymachinery,plant,furniture,fittingsorotherthingstherein)whichhasbeen
constructedorwhichistobeconstructed,accruingorarisingfromanytransaction(whetherby
wayofbecomingamemberof,oracquiringsharesin,acooperativesociety,orotherassociation
ofpersonsorbywayofanyagreementoranyarrangementofwhatevernature,notbeinga
transactionbywayofsale,exchangeorleaseofsuchland,buildingorpartofabuilding.

TangibleandIntangibleproperty:
Tangibleproperty
Tangiblepropertyreferstoanytypeofpropertythatcangenerallybemoved(i.e.,itisnot
attachedtorealpropertyorland),touchedorfelt.Thesegenerallyincludeitemssuchasfurniture,
clothing,jewellery,art,writings,orhouseholdgoods.

Intangibleproperty:
Intangiblepropertyreferstopersonalpropertythatcannotactuallybemoved,touchedorfelt,but
insteadrepresentssomethingofvaluesuchasnegotiableinstruments,securities,service
(economics),andintangibleassetsincludingchoseinaction

Intellectualproperty
Intellectualpropertyisatermreferringtoanumberofdistincttypesofcreationsofthemindfor
whichpropertyrightsarerecognizedandthecorrespondingfieldsoflaw.

Propertydoesnotjustcompriseoftangiblethingslikehouses,cars,furniture,currency,
investmentsetcandsuchassetsarenottheonlykindthatcanbeprotectedbylaw.Therearemany
otherformsofintangiblepropertyknownasintellectualpropertythathavebeenrecognizedunder
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thelawandgrantedprotectionagainstinfringement

Underintellectualpropertylaw,ownersaregrantedcertainexclusiverightstoavarietyof
intangibleassets,suchasmusical,literary,andartisticworksdiscoveriesandinventionsand
words,phrases,symbols,anddesigns.Patents,trademarksandcopyrights,designsarethefour
maincategoriesofintellectualproperty.

Patents
Patentsareusedtoprotectnewproduct,process,apparatus,andusesprovidingtheinventionis
notobviousinlightofwhathasbeendonebefore,isnotinthepublicdomain,andhasnotbeen
disclosedanywhereintheworldatthetimeoftheapplication.Theinventionmusthavea
practicalpurpose.PatentsareregistrablenationallythepatentgrantedbyEuropeanPatentOffice
isabundleofnationalpatents.NoEUwidesinglepatentsystemexiststodate,althoughthe
CommunityPatentisinthefinalstagesofenactment.Registrationprovidesapatenteetherightto
preventanyonemaking,using,selling,orimportingtheinventionfor20years.Patentsare
enforcedbycourtproceedings.Inaddition,theRegulationonSupplementaryProtection
Certificates(SPCs),grantspatentextensionsofupto5yearstopharmaceuticalandplant
products,providingasmuchas25yearsofpatentlifefororiginatormedicines.

TradeMarks
Asymbol(logo,words,shapes,acelebrityname,jingles)usedtoprovideaproductorservice
witharecognisableidentitytodistinguishitfromcompetingproducts.Trademarksprotectthe
distinctivecomponentswhichmakeupthemarketingidentityofabrand,including
pharmaceuticals.Theycanberegisterednationallyorinternationally,enablingtheuseofthe
symbol.Trademarkrightsareenforcedbycourtproceedingsinwhichinjunctionsand/or
damagesareavailable.Incounterfeitingcases,authoritiessuchasCustoms,thepolice,or
consumerprotectioncanassist.Anunregisteredtrademarkisfollowedbytheletters.Thisis
enforcedincourtifacompetitorusesthesameorsimilarnametotradeinthesameorasimilar
field.

Copyright
Copyrightisusedtoprotectoriginalcreativeworks,publishededitions,soundrecordings,films
andbroadcasts.Itexistsindependentlyoftherecordingmedium,sobuyingacopydoesnotconfer
therighttocopy.Limitedcopying(photocopying,scanning,downloading)withoutpermissionis
possible,e.g.forresearch.Publicationofexcerptsorquotesneedsacknowledgement.Anidea
cannotbecopyrighted,justtheexpressionofit.Nordoescopyrightexistforatitle,sloganor
phrase,althoughthesemayberegisteredasatrademark.CopyrightappliestotheInternetwith
webpagesprotectedbymanydifferentcopyrights,sothatpermissionshouldbeaskedtocopyor
printapage,orinsertahyperlinktoit.MaterialcannotbepostedonaWebsite(Intranetincluded)
withoutpermissionfromthecopyrightholder.

Copyrightisnotregistrablebecauseitarisesautomaticallyoncreation.Copyrightisprotectedin
theEUfor70yearsaftertheauthorsdeathforcreativeworks,50yearsforbroadcasts,etcand25
yearsforpublishededitions.UseofisnotrequiredinmostofEurope.Copyrightisenforcedby
courtproceedings.

DesignRegistration
Designregistrationsareusedtoprotectproductsdistinguishedbytheirnovelshapeorpattern.
Theyareavailableforoneoffitems.Thedesignitselfmustbenew,althougha1yeargrace
periodisallowedfortestmarketing.Registrationisnotpossiblewherethenewformisdictated
byfunction.ThedesignisregistrableeithernationallyorunderanEUwidesingleright.Itcan
alsobeprotectedbycopyright.

Conclusion
Theexistenceofconceptofpropertyisfromtheancientperiod.Thisconcepthasaverybroad
history.TherearemanyphilosophieslaiddownbymanythinkerslikeBentham,Laski.These
philosophiesareveryhelpfulinunderstandingtheconceptofproperty.Themainfindingwasthat
thetermpropertyisdefinedindifferentwaysineachactastoitsuse.AsinSaleofGoodsact
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1930itisdefineddifferentlythaninBenamiTransactions(Prohibition)Act,1988.Intransferof
propertyactwhichismostimportantactwhichdealswithpropertydoesnothavedefinitionofthe
termproperty.Therearemanykindsofpropertyastoituses.

Intodaysera,notonlythethingswhichcanbeseenortouchedbutalsothethingswhichcannot
betouchedorseencomeinthepurviewofproperty.Suchasideainnovation,compositionetc.
Thesepropertiesareknownasintellectualproperty.

Bibliography:
Tripathi,G.P.TheTransferofPropertyAct,(Allahabad:CentralLawAgency)2008.
Sarathi,P.Vepa,LawofTransferofproperty,(Lucknow:Easternbookcompany)2010.
Shukla,S.N.TransferofPropertyAct,(Allahabad:AllahabadLawHouse)2008.
Saxena,PoonamPradhan,PropertyLaw(Nagpur:LexisNexisButterworthsWadhwa)2006.
Theauthorcanbereachedat:BhagwatiDanCharan@legalserviceindia.com

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