Ecology Notes

Principles of Ecology

Chapter 2, Section 1
Relationships

Organisms and Their

Objectives:
1. Explain the difference between abiotic and biotic factors.
2. Describe the levels of biological organization.
2. Differentiate between an organisms habitat and its niche.
A.

Interactions and Interdependence

a. Ecologythe study of interactions between organisms and their environment
b. Coined in 1866 by German biologist Ernst Haeckel
c. Biospherecontains the combined portions of the planet in which all life exists,
including land, water, and air, or atmosphere.

B.

Levels of Organization
a. Speciesgroup of organisms so similar to one another that they can breed and
produce fertile offspring
b. Populationsgroups of individuals that belong to the same species and live in
the same area
c. Communitiesassemblages or different populations that live together in a
defined area
d. Ecosystemcollection of all the organisms that live in a particular place,
together with their nonliving, or physical environment
e. Biomegroup of ecosystems that have the same climate and similar dominant
communities
f. Biospherethe highest level of organization that ecologists can study

g. Diagram:

C.

Biotic and Abiotic Factors

a. Biotic factorsBiological influences on organisms within an ecosystem
i. Example: Bullfrog
ii. What BIOTIC factors might influence, or affect, the bullfrog?
1. Tiny plants and algae it eats as a tadpole
2. Herons that eat the adult frog
3. Other species that compete with the frog for food and space
b. Abioticphysical, or nonliving, factors that shape ecosystems
i. Example: Temperature, humidity, precipitation, wind, soil, sunlight, water
ii. Example: Bullfrog
iii. What ABIOTIC factors might influence, or affect, the bullfrog?
1. Availability of water
2. Temperature of the air
c. Habitat
i. Area where an organism lives
ii. Includes biotic and abiotic factors
iii. Determines the survival and growth of an organism

D.

The Niche
a. If the organisms habitat is its address, its niche is its occupation
b. Nichefull range of physical and biological conditions in which an organism
lives and the way in which the organism uses those condition
c. Includes the type of food the organisms eats, how it obtains this food, and
which other organisms species use the organism as food

E.

Community Interactions
a. Competition
i. Occurs when organisms of the same or different species attempt to use
an ecological resource in the same place at the same time
ii. Resourcerefers to any necessity of life, such as water, nutrients, light,
food, or space
iii. Direct Competition in nature often results in a winner and a loserwith
the losing organism failing to survive
iv. Competitive Exclusion Principlestates that no two species can occupy
the same niche in the same habitat at the same time
b. Predation
i. Interaction in which one organism captures and feeds on another
organism
ii. Predator the organism that does the killing and eating Ex: Tiger
iii. Prey food organism Ex: Mouse
c. Symbiosis
i. Any relationship in which two species live closely together
ii. Symbiosis means living together
iii. There are three main classes of symbiotic relationships in nature:
1. Mutualism
a. Both species benefit from the relationship
b. Ex: Flowers and Insects
i. Flowers need Pollinators (bees, butterflies) to
reproduce
ii. Pollinators obtain food from the flowers nectar
iii. Both are benefited MUTUAL
2. Commensalism
a. One member benefits and the other is neither helped nor
harmed
b. Ex: Barnacles and Whales
i. Barnacles, small marine animals, attach themselves
to Whales
ii. Barnacles perform no service to the Whale, but do
not harm them either
iii. As the whale swims, the Barnacles are able to eat the
food particles that pass by one benefits, other
unharmed/not benefited
3. Parasitism
a. One organism lives on or inside another organism and harms
it
b. The parasite obtains all or part of its nutritional needs from
the other organism, called the host
c. Ex: tapeworms
i. Live inside the intestines of their host
ii. Absorb most of the foods nutrients
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d. Ex: Fleas, ticks, lice

i. Live on the bodies of mammals
ii. Feed on blood and skin of host

Chapter 2, Section 2

Energy Flow

Objectives:
1. Describe the flow of energy through an ecosystem.
2. Identify the ultimate energy source for photosynthetic producers.
2. Describe food chains, food webs, and pyramid models.
A. Producers
1. Sunlight is the main energy source for life on Earth
2. In few ecosystems, some organisms obtain energy from other sources than the
sun
a.
inorganic compounds store energy
b.
example: mineral water that flows underground or boils out of hot
springs and undersea vents is loaded with chemical energy
3. Autotrophs
a.
use energy from the sunlight to make their own food
b.
Example: Plants
4. Producerscapture energy from sunlight
5. Energy From the Sun
a.
Photosynthesisuses light energy to convert carbon dioxide and
water into oxygen and sugars/starches
b.
On land, plants are the main autotrophs
c.
In water, algae are the main autotrophs
6. Life Without Light
a.
Chemosynthesisusing chemical energy to produce carbohydrates
b.
Occurs in very remote places: volcanic vents, hot springs, tidal
marshes
B. Consumers
1. Heterotrophsrely on other organisms for their energy and food supply; also
called Consumers
2. There are many different types of heterotrophs/consumers:
a.
Herbivoreseats plants Ex: horse
b.
Carnivoreseats animals Ex: lion
c.
Omnivoreseat both plants and animals Ex: pig
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d.
Detritivoreseat plant and animal remains and other dead matter,
otherwise known as detritus Ex: maggots
e.
Decomposersbreak down organic matter Ex: earthworms

C. Feeding Relationships
1. Food Chains
a.
Energy stored by producers can be passed through a food chain
b.
Series of steps in which organisms transfer energy by eating and
being eaten
c.
Show a one-way flow of energy in an ecosystem
d.
Example: producer (grass) consumer (antelope) carnivore
(coyote)
e.
Diagram:

2. Food Webs
a.
form
b.
c.
d.

Feeding relationships among various organisms in an ecosystem

a network of complex interactions
Links all the food chains in an ecosystem together
Shows MULTIPLE ways of energy in an ecosystem
Diagram:

3. Trophic Levels
a.
Trophic Leveleach step in a food chain or food web
b.
Producers make the first trophic level
c.
Consumers make up the second, third, or higher trophic levels
d.
Each consumer depends on the trophic level below it for energy
e.
Diagram:

D. Ecological Pyramids
1. Amount of energy or matter in an ecosystem can be represented by an
ecological pyramid
2. Ecological Pyramiddiagram that shows the relative amounts of energy or
matter contained within each trophic level in a food chain or food web
3. Ecologists have three types of pyramids:
a.
Energy Pyramid
i.
Only part of the energy that is stored in one trophic level is passed
on to the next level
ii.
Only about 10% of the energy available within one trophic level is
transferred to organisms at the next trophic level.
iii.
The more levels that exist between a producer and a top-level
consumer, the less energy that remains from the original amount.
b.
Biomass Pyramid
i.
Biomassthe total amount of living tissue within a given trophic
level
ii.
Represents the amount of potential food available for each trophic
level in an ecosystem
iii.
Typically, the greatest biomass is at the base or bottom of the
pyramid
iv.
Diagram:

c.
Pyramid of Numbersshows the relative number of individual
organisms at each trophic level
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Chapter 2, Section 3

Cycles of Matter

Objectives:
1. Describe how the cycling of nutrients contributes to the success of an ecosystem
A. Recycling in the Biosphere
1. Energy is crucial to an ecosystem, but organisms need more than energy to
survive
2. More than 95% of the body is made up of just four elements: Oxygen, Carbon,
Hydrogen, and Nitrogen
3. Unlike the one-way flow of energy, matter is recycled within and between
ecosystems
4. Biogeochemical Cyclesthe passing of elements, chemical compounds, and
other forms of matter from one organism to another and from one part of the
biosphere to another
B. The Water Cycle
1. All living things require water to survive
2. Evaporationprocess in which water changes from liquid form to gas form
3. Transpirationwater evaporating from leaves into the atmosphere
4. Condensationtiny droplets that form clouds
5. Precipitationwhen droplets become large enough, water returns to Earths
surface in the form of rain, snow, sleet, or hail
6. Diagram:

C. Nutrient Cycles
1. The Carbon
a.
b.
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.

Cycle
Carbon plays many roles and is a key ingredient of living tissue
Four main types of processes move carbon through its cycle:
Biological Processes (photosynthesis, respiration)
Geochemical Processes (erosion, volcanic activity)
Mixed Biogeochemical Processes(burial/decomposition of dead
organism)
Human Activities (mining, cutting & burning forests, burning fossil
fuels)
Diagram:

2. The Nitrogen Cycle

a.
All organisms require nitrogen to make amino acids, which build
proteins
b.
Nitrogen gas makes up 78% of the Earths atmosphere
c.
Nitrogen Fixationsome bacteria convert nitrogen gas into
ammonia while others convert ammonia into nitrates and nitrites.
d.
When organisms die, decomposers return nitrogen to the soil as
ammonia.
e.
Denitrificationother soil bacteria convert nitrates into nitrogen
gas; process releases nitrogen back into the atmosphere again
f. Diagram:

3. The Phosphorus Cycle

a.
Phosphorus is essential because it forms part of important lifesustaining molecules such as DNA and RNA
b.
Phosphorus does not enter the atmosphere
c.
Instead it remains mostly on land in rock and soil minerals, and in
ocean sediments.
d.
Diagram:

Chapter 3, Section 1

Succession

Objectives:
1. Identify what happens when an ecosystem is destroyed
2. Differentiate between primary succession and secondary succession
A. Ecological Succession
1. Ecosystems are constantly changing in response to natural and human
disturbances
a. As an ecosystem changes, older inhabitants gradually die out and new
organisms move in
b. Ecological Successionseries of predictable changes that occurs in a
community over time
c. Sometimes succession results from slow changes in the physical
environment
d. Sometimes succession results from sudden natural disturbances from
human activity, such as clearing a forest
2. Primary Succession
a. Primary Succession occurs on surfaces where no soil exists
b. Occurs on the surfaces formed as volcanic eruptions build new islands or
cover the land with lava rock or volcanic ash
c. Occurs on bare rock exposed when glaciers melt
d. Pioneer Species the first species to populate the area
1. Pioneer species on volcanic rock is typically lichens
2. Lichen is made up of fungus and algae and can grow on bare rock
3. As lichens grow, they help break up the rocks.
4. When they die, lichens add organic material to help form soil in
which plants can grow
3. Secondary Succession
a. Secondary Succession succession following a disturbance that destroys
a community without destroying the soil
b. Caused by natural events, such as fires, or human activity, such as
farming
4. Venn Diagram:
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Chapter 3
Biomes
*You will not be tested on any
specific characteristics of each of the individual biomes! Your focus
should be on the standard below!
Objectives:
1. Investigate the relationships among organisms, populations, communities, ecosystems,
and biomes
A.

Biomes and Climate

1. Biomescomplex terrestrial communities that cover a large area and are
characterized by certain soil and climate conditions and particular assemblages
of plants and animals
2. Toleranceability to survive and reproduce under certain conditions that differ
from their optimal conditions
3. Microclimateclimate in a small area that differs from the climate around it

B.

Tropical Rainforest
1. Home to more species than all other biomes combined
2. Canopy tops of the tall trees (extending 50-80 m above the forest floor)
3. Understorysecond layer of shorter trees and vines
4. Abiotic factors: hot and wet year-round, thin, nutrient-poor soil
5. Dominant plants: broad-leaved evergreen trees, ferns, large woody vines
6. Dominant wildlife: sloths, jaguars, ant-eaters, monkeys, anacondas, toucans
Temperate Deciduous Forest
1. Deciduous tree that sheds its leaves
2. Abiotic factors: generally warm year-round, alternating wet and dry seasons
3. Dominant plants: tall, deciduous trees such as sugar, maple, birch, oak, pine,
flowering plants, and moss
4. Dominant wildlife: white-tailed deer, cottontail rabbit, squirrel, raccoon
Savannah
1. Also called grasslands

C.

D.

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E.

F.

G.

2. Abiotic factors: warm temperatures, seasonal rainfall, compact soil, and

frequent fires set by lightening
3. Dominant plants: tall, perennial grasses, shrubs
4. Dominant wildlife: lions, leopards, cheetahs, hyenas, elephants, giraffes,
antelopes, zebras, ostriches, eagles
Desert
1. All deserts are dryreceive less than 25 cm of annual precipitation
2. Can be hot deserts AND cold deserts!
3. Abiotic factors: low precipitation, variable temperatures, soils rich in minerals
but poor in organic material
4. Dominant plants: cacti, creosote bush
5. Dominant wildlife: mountain lions, bobcats, kangaroo rats, hawks, bats,
rattlesnakes, lizards, tortoises, roadrunners
Boreal Forest
1. Dense evergreen forests of coniferous trees
2. Also called the Taiga
3. Winters are bitterly cold, but summers are mild and long enough to allow the
ground to thaw
4. Abiotic factors: long, cold winters, short, mild summers, moderate precipitation,
high humidity, acidic, nutrient-poor soil
5. Dominant plants: needle leaf coniferous trees such as spruce and fir, some
broadleaf deciduous trees, small berry-bearing shrubs
6. Dominant wildlife: lynxes, timber wolves, moose, beavers, songbirds, migratory
birds
Tundra
1. Permafrostlayer of permanently frozen subsoil
2. During short, cool summers, the ground thaws to a depth of a few
centimeters and becomes soggy and wet
3. In winter, the topsoil freezes again
4. Abiotic factors: strong winds, low precipitation, short and soggy summers,
long, cold, and dark winters, poorly developed soil, permafrost
5. Dominant plants: ground-hugging plants such as mosses, lichens, short
grasses
6. Dominant wildlife: few mammals that can withstand the harsh conditions,
musk ox, Arctic foxes, caribou, lemmings and other small rodents

H.

Aquatic Biomes
1. Divided into freshwater and marine
2. Freshwater includes lakes, rivers, streams, and ponds
3. Marine includes open ocean, rocky intertidal zones, and estuaries

I.

Freshwater
1. Abiotic factors: seasonal fluctuations of depth and temperature
2. Biotic factors: freshwater plants, algae, insects, fish, wading birds,
phytoplankton, zooplankton
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J.

K.

L.

Open Ocean
1. Abiotic factors: temperature range varies with latitude and water depth,
sunlight decreases with water depth, water density changes with temperature
and salt content
2. Biotic factors: phytoplankton, fish, dolphins, whales, seals, sea birds
Rocky Intertidal
1. Abiotic factors: alternating exposure to direct sunlight and submergence,
salinity changes, rocky substrate
2. Biotic factors: algae, sea urchins, clams, mussels, starfish
Estuaries
1. EstuariesEstuarieswetlands formed where rivers meet the sea
2. Contain a mixture of freshwater and saltwater
3. Abiotic factors: large fluctuations in salinity, extreme temperature changes
4. Biotic factors: algae, mosses, aquatic plants, insects, shrimp, crabs, amphibians,
birds

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