EXTENDED READINGS:

Classification of Systems for Highways

1. American Association of State Highways and Transportation Officials (AASHTO)
- Describe the means for determining the relative quality of soils for use in embankments, sub-grades,
sub-bases and bases.
- AASHTO is a standards setting body which publishes specifications, test protocols and guidelines
which are used in highway design and construction throughout the United States. Despite its name, the
association represents not only highways but air, rail, water, and public transportation as well.
- The AASHTO Soil Classification System was developed by the American Association of State
Highway and Transportation Officials, and is used as a guide for the classification of soils and soilaggregate mixtures for highway construction purposes. The classification system was first developed
by Hogentogler and Terzaghi in 1929, but has been revised several times since.
2. Unified Soil Classification System (USCS)
- USCS is a soil classification system used in engineering and geology to describe the texture and grain
size of a soil.
- Used in airfield constructions, later been applied to other types of construction such as dams and
foundations.

American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM)

-

also known as ASTM International, is an international standards organization that develops and
publishes voluntary consensus technical standards for a wide range of materials, products, systems,
and services.

ASTM was founded in 1898 as the American Section of the International Association for Testing and
Materials.

A group of scientists and engineers, led by Charles Benjamin Dudley formed the American Society for
Testing and Materials in 1898 to address the frequent rail breaks effected by the fast-growing railroad
industry. The group developed a standard for the steel used to fabricate rails. In 2001, ASTM changed
its name to ASTM International.

National Structural Code of the Philippines (NSCP) - the approved referral codes of the Philippine National
Building Code published by ASEP.
The Association of Structural Engineers of the Philippines, Inc. (ASEP) is the recognized organization of
Structural Engineers of the Philippines. Established in 1961, ASEP has been in existence for more than 50
solid years. In ASEPs roster of members, you will find structural engineers of renowned structural ability,
reliability and professionalism.

Department of Public Works and Highways, DPWH (Kagawaran ng Pagawaing Bayan at Lansangan)
- DPWH is the executive department of the Philippine government responsible for all safety of projects in
the field of public works. It is also responsible for the maintenance of the Philippine road network and
irrigation system.
The DPWH standard specifications relative to mineral filler states that:

Mineral filler shall consist of finely divided mineral matter such as rock dust, slag dust,
hydrated lime, hydraulic cement, flyash or other suitable mineral matter. It shall be free from
organic impurities and at the time of use shall be sufficiently dry to flow freely and shall be
essentially free from agglomerations.
Rock dust, also known as rock powders, rock minerals, rock flour, soil re-mineralization, and mineral fines,
consists of finely crushed rock, processed by natural or mechanical means, containing minerals and trace
elements widely used in organic farming practices.
Blast furnace slag (BFS) is a nonmetallic co-product produced in the process. It consists primarily of silicates,
alumino-silicates, and calcium-alumina-silicates. The molten slag, which absorbs much of the sulfur from
the charge, comprises about 20 percent by mass of iron production. Figure 3-1 presents a general
schematic, which depicts the blast furnace feed-stocks and the production of blast furnace co-products
(iron and slag).
Fly ash, also known as flue-ash, is one of the residues generated in combustion, and comprises the fine particles
that rise with the flue gases.
- Ash which does not rise is termed bottom ash. In an industrial context, fly ash usually refers to ash
produced during combustion of coal.
Coal Fly Ash (CFA) also known as Coal Fly
- fly ash is generally captured by electrostatic precipitators or other particle filtration equipment before
the flue gases reach the chimneys of coal-fired power plants, and together with bottom ash removed
from the bottom of the furnace.

ADDITIONAL NOTES:

Short History of Asphalt in the Ancient times

The Holy Bible mentions at Genesis 6:14 that Noah used bitumen for Ark waterproofing in 2370 B.C.
In the ancient Middle East, the Sumerians used natural asphalt/bitumen deposits for mortar between bricks and
stones, to cement parts of carvings, such as eyes, into place, for ship caulking, and for waterproofing. The Greek
historian Herodotus said hot asphalt/bitumen was used as mortar in the walls of Babylon.
Asphalt/bitumen was used by ancient Egyptians to embalm mummies. The Persian word for asphalt is moom,
which is related to the English word mummy. The Egyptians' primary source of asphalt/bitumen was the Dead Sea,
which the Romans knew as Palus Asphaltites (Asphalt Lake).
In the ancient Far East, natural asphalt/bitumen was slowly boiled to get rid of the higher fractions, leaving a
material of higher molecular weight which is thermoplastic and when layered on objects, became quite hard upon
cooling. This was used to cover objects that needed waterproofing, such as scabbards and other items. Statuettes
of household deities were also cast with this type of material in Japan, and probably also in China.
In North America, archaeological recovery has indicated asphalt/bitumen was sometimes used to adhere stone
projectile points to wooden shafts.

Asphalt is most well known as a road covering more technically termed asphalt concrete, but there are a few
different forms in which the substance may appear. It is a naturally occurring material present in crude oil
and in natural deposits, notably around certain bodies of water and in oil sands. This substance is found in
either liquid or semi-solid form in nature and is characterized by its high viscosity and its sticky, black
appearance. It consists almost exclusively of bitumen, a substance composed of polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons (PAHs).

The major types used in construction are rolled and mastic.

Rolled asphalt is the variety with which most people are probably familiar.
- It is made of aggregate, or solid materials such as sand, gravel, or recycled concrete, with an asphalt
binder.
- This type is used to make roads and other surfaces, such as parking lots, by being applied in layers
and compacted.
- Different types are distinguished according to the process used to bind the aggregate with the asphalt.
Mastic asphalt, also called sheet asphalt has a lower bitumen content than the rolled forms.
- It is used for some roads and footpaths, but also in roofing and flooring.
- Stone Mastic Asphalt (SMA), another variety, is becoming increasingly popular as an alternative.
- Its benefits include an anti-skid property and the absence of air pockets, but if laid improperly, it may
cause slippery road conditions.
Oxidized Asphalt
- Oxidized asphalt is suitable only for roofing and similar applications. Highway uses of oxidized asphalt
are limited to water proofing of structures and filling joints of concrete pavement.
Road tar
- It is a by-product of the distillation process of coal. Tars are produced from gashouse coal tar; cook
ovens tars and water gas tar.

TREATED AND UNTREATED BASE COURSE

TREATED BASE COURSE
- an intimate mixture of native or manufactured aggregates with measured amounts of portland cement
(and possibly other cementitious materials) and water that hardens after compaction and curing to form
a strong durable paving material.
Purpose of Base Course
Flexible pavements
Principal structural components
Distribute the loads to the foundation
Rigid pavements
Provide uniform stable support
Cement Treated Base (CTB) or Cement Treated Base Course (CTBC)
- It is a strong, frost-resistant base for a concrete or asphalt pavement wearing surface.
- CTB consists of native soils, gravels, or manufactured aggregates blended with prescribed quantities of
cement and water.
- CTB can be mixed in-place with on-site soils or mixed in a central plant or pugmill depending on the
project requirements.
Asphalt Treated Base (ATB) or Asphalt Treated Base Course (ATBC)
is a dense-graded HMA with a wide gradation band and lower asphalt content intended for use as a
base course.
- ATB costs less than typical HMA mixes because it can be produced with less expensive aggregates
and lower percentages of asphalt binder.
- In addition to the site paving benefits, ATB can be advantageous because it can provide:
(a) A waterproof barrier to prevent fines infiltration into the subgrade and pavement structure.
(b)

An alternative to untreated base material.

UNTREATED BASE COURSE

has no tensile strength.

asphalt bases spread the wheel load over broader areas than untreated granular bases.
the result of this is that less total pavement structure thickness is required for an asphalt base.
is found in excavated areas and embankment areas .

Overhaul shall consist of authorized hauling in excess of the free-haul distance.

Free-haul distance is the specified distance that excavated material shall be hauled without additional
compensation. Unless otherwise provided in the Contract, the free-haul distance shall be 600 meters.
In determining what constitutes authorized overhaul, it will be assumed that material taken from excavation
will be deposited in embankment after having been hauled the shortest distance.
Borrow - material dug from a borrow pit to provide fill at another. It is the volume of material brought into a section
due to deficiency.
Balling - is the process of transferring one tree to another location by completely uprooting the entire tree to
preserve its value.
The overhaul distance for material obtained and placed within the roadway limits will be measured along
the centerline of the roadway. No allowance will be made for transverse or lateral movement to or from the
centerline except materials moved to or from designated areas outside the roadway limits; such as
Case 1, Borrow Pits, disposal areas, etc.
In such case, measurement shall be along the shortest route determined by the Engineer to be feasible and
satisfactory unless otherwise provided.
If the Contractor chooses to haul material over some other route, and such other route is longer, the computation
for payment shall be based on the overhaul distance measured along the route designated by the Engineer. The
number of cubic metre-kilometres of overhaul to be paid for shall be the number of cubic meters of overhaul
material multiplied by the overhaul distance in kilometers. The unit cubic meter-kilometer is the amount of
hauling required to move one cubic meter a distance of one kilometer beyond the free-haul distance.

Other topics to be discuss by Group-7 which is included in the Finals

Concrete Pavement:
- Concrete pavement characteristics and behavior

PCCP - Portland Cement Concrete Pavement

RCPC Reinforced Concrete Pipe Culvert
-

Transverse expansion, longitudinal and construction joints

Reinforcement of joints. Sub-grade and sub-base for concrete pavement
Concrete proportions and mixtures
Curing of concrete pavement