COSMETOLOGY STUDY SHEET TEST TWO

Chapter Five: Clues about the Cosmos

~ Redshifts of Galaxies
- Almost all galaxies show red shifted spectra:

=
=

All galaxies are moving away from us!

=
- The farther away the object, the greater the redshift
= 0
0 =71 km/sec*Mpc
RECESSION IS UNIFORM IN ALL DIRECTIONS
Distribution of Galaxies
- The Hubble Law can be used as a distance indicator
Measure the redshift adopt the accepted Hubble Constant Compute distance

=
0
- Large redshift surveys can compare distances to millions of galaxies
- Galaxies are distributes in sheets and filaments surrounding voids
- Universe is homogenous and isotropic (same everywhere and in all directions)
- Universe has a sponge like texture
Microwaves from Every Direction
- Microwave radiation is observed at all points in the sky
- The spectra is a Black Body with T= 2.725 K
- Temperature is direction dependent
- There is a Doppler Shift due to Earths motion thru space
When Doppler Shift is removed, temp is uniform
Common Ingredients in the Universe
- H and He are the most prevalent
H = 74% of mass
He = 24% of mass
- Stars are able to build heavier elements
- Fraction of these elements increase with the age of the Universe
Oldest stars have the fewest of heavy elements
i But, they have base amounts of isotopes:
2
, 3, 4, 7
- The Universe started out with specific amounts of specific isotopes
Comparing Astronomical Ages
- Measured ages of stars:
Oldest stars with radiometric dating:
i.
15.6 +/- 4.6 billion years
ii.
12.3 +/- 3.0 billion years

Oldest Star Clusters:

i 12.0 +/- 1.0 billion years
Oldest White Dwarf Stars:
i 12.7 +/- 0.7 billion years
Oldest stars in the universe seem to be 13 billion years old
~ Olbers Paradox
- In an infinitely big and infinitely old universe, every line of sight should intersect a galaxy.
Therefore, the sky should always be as bright as the sun
- The surface brightness (flux/area) of a star is distance independent
- If all sightlines hit a star, then the surface brightness of a star = the surface brightness of a
typical star (like the sun)
- NOT TRUE! Therefore, the assumption must be wrong

Chapter Six: The Fabric of Spacetime

~ The Curved Space Constant
- Space and time are related, and space is a thing with properties
- One property is curvature. In curved space:
Parallel lines intersect
The sum of the interior angles in a triangle is greater than 180
The circumference of a circle does not = 2r
~ Hints of a Deeper Gravity Theory and General Relativity
- Gravity is a normal inertial motion in spacetime
- Spacetime is curved by the presence of matter and energy
- Curved spacetime determines how matter and energy can move
- The Rubber Sheet Model
Where there is no energy, spacetime is flat (parallel lines stay parallel)
In the presence of matter or energy, spacetime is locally curved
~ Trajectories in Curved Space
- In curved space, initial trajectories follow curved paths (geodesics). Light always follows
the short path
~ Testing General Relativity with Photons and Gravitons
- To be a Valid Scientific Theory, G.R. must make predictions and be testable:
1. Gravitational lensing => the bending of light
2. Gravitational waves => propagating ripples in spacetime
- Gravitational Lensing:
The curvature of spacetime affects the path followed by a photon
G.R. predicts the curve of the photon paths
A single object in the sky could appear as two objects
Gravitational Micro-Lensing = brief brightening of distant objects as lens passes in
front of it. Used to detect MACHOs in the Milky Way Halo
G.L. occurs exactly as predicted by G.R.
- Gravitational Waves

G.R. predicts that gravity waves (gravitrons) propagate from a disturbance at the
speed of light
They carry energy and produce temporary distortions in spacetime
Proved by the observation of neutron stars (BUT NOT YET DETECTABLE!!)
~ The Black Hole and the Event Horizon
- Self-Gravity and objects own local space curvature affects itself
- Gravity always wants to make an object smaller, but is opposed by pressure forces:
Thermal motion is normal stars
Electron Repulsion in White Dwarf Stars
Neutron Repulsion ins Neutron Stars
- However, space can become so curved that no force can resist self-gravity
- When this happens, a black hole is formed
No geodesics lead out of a black hole
- Normal, massive stars become Black Holes (M > 30Msun). Nuclear reactions stop no
pressure collapse
- You cant see a Black Hole directly
Observe their effects on nearby matter (stars orbiting unseen light; hot gas spiraling
accretion discs)
Orbits can reveal BH masses
- Stellar Mass BHs:
Individual stellar corpses
- Super Massive BHs (SMBH):
Millions to billions Msun
Located at the center of galaxies
- Intermediate Mass BHs (IMBH):
Hundreds to thousands Msun
Growing to SMBH (?)
- How close can you go?
As you approach the BH:
1. Curvature of space increases
2. To an outside observer, time slows down
3. Escape gets more difficult
a. At the Event Horizon (Schwarzschild Radius) => v=c
- A BH is an object squeezed into an area smaller than its own event horizon
- BHs have to be contained:
BH Rsun = 3 km
BH Rearth = 9 mm
~ Quasars
- Point like objects in the night sky with extremely high redshifts
- High redshift = extreme distance
- Extreme distance + Observed brightness = Extreme Luminosity
- Point like nature Extremely small
- Small but luminous = BIG BLACK HOLE

Accretion Power:
Falling material forms accretion disc (gas spiraling towards BH)
Collisions heat gas to VERY high temps. Hot dense gas radiates photons (source of L)
Requires SMBH to provide observed luminosity. A quasar will be luminous only as
long as there is material to fill the black hole
Quasars provide important probes of the universe at cosmological distances

Chapter 7: An Expanding Universe

~ Spacetime and the Cosmological Horizon
- Speed of light imposes restrictions on how much universe we can see cosmological
horizon
- Observable universe is a sphere around un with a radius of 14 billion light years
- This could solve Olbers Paradox
~ Cosmic Expansion
- G.R. shows that spacetime does not want to be static natural state is expansion or
contraction
- Particles tend to be dragged along with the expanding/contracting space,
increasing/decreasing their separation with time
- The Scale Factor
Uniform expansion/contraction is characterized by scale factor a(t)
Distance at time t = distance now * a(t)
() = ()
i a(t0)=1
- The Friedman Equation
If we assume universe is homogenous and isotropic (Cosmological Principle):
a(t0) can be found using Friedman Equation:
2
82
2
2
( ) + =
( +
)

3
8
da/dt = 0 is unlikely! The universe wants to expand or contract
~ Recession and Redshift
- If we wait long enough, we should see the distances to all distant galaxies increase
However, it would take billions of years for this change to be noticeable
- Another option Doppler Shift
However, galaxies move with space so there is no Doppler Shift, so this is not helpful
- Another option Cosmological Redshift/Blueshift
Is space expands, wavelength increases
If space contracts, wavelength decreases
If space was expanding
1. Wavelength would increase during travel to us
2. Galaxies would be redshifted
Greater distance greater travel time greater redshift
i Redshift
Contracting blueshift distance/blueshift relation

~ Dark Energy
- Slope of Hubble Relation reflects the rate of expansion (Hubble Constant)
/
0 =
=

Steeper slope = faster expansion

- The Accelerating Universe
d and z measured for extremely distant supernovae
i Hubble Diagram extended to long distances (in the PAST)
Revealed expansion rate in distant past (5 7 billion years ago)
EXPANSION RATE USED TO BE SLOWER THAN IT IS TODAY
WE LIVE IN AN EXPANDING AND ACCELERATING UNIVERSE
- Dark Energy
We expected expansion to slow down
i Matter/energy + gravity = deceleration
Something is opposing gravity! We dont know what it is, so we call it DARK
ENERGY
- Hubbles Discovery of Distance (redshift equation) + Einsteins Discovery of G.R. = Our
universe is getting bigger at an increasing rate
- The universe used to be smaller, therefore, the universe had a beginning
- Redshift and the Scale Factor:

() = ()
- Substitute wavelength for x:

= ( )

- Substitute the expression for z:

1
=
1
( )
OR:
1
( ) =
+1
- Redshift tells how big the universe was!

Chapter Eight Photons and Electrons

~ Blackbody Radiation
- Objects with BB spectra:
1. Have a single temp (interaction between particles share thermal energy)
2. Are opaque (photons produced inside interact with particles and may escape from
surface)
Photons and particles are coupled
- Properties of BB spectrum depend only on temp
1. Wiens Law

0.0029

2. Stefan-Boltzmann Law
= 4

Total Luminosity of a spherical BB:

= 4 2 4
~ Photons and Bound Electrons
- Electrons are attracted to protons and become bound to atoms
They inhabit the electron cloud
- Electrons energy determines their location in the electron cloud
Only specific location allowed (orbitals)
Only specific energies allowed (energy levels)
- Electrons change orbitals by gaining or losing energy
Via collisions or emitting and absorbing photons of specific wavelength
- Patterns of orbitals are determined by the number of protons, neutrons, and electrons
- Electrons can move
Up to higher orbitals if they absorb a photon
Down to lower levels if they emit a photon
~ Photons and Free Electrons
- Free electrons are not bound to atoms
Ionized gas
Plasma
- Free electrons can interact with any photon = scattering
+ = +
- Electrons and photons are both affected: change in direction of travel and change in energy
- An atomic gas is largely transparent to a passing stream of photons
Only specific wavelengths can be absorbed
- An ionized gas is opaque to a passing stream of photons
All wavelengths are absorbed
~ Where does the CMB come from?
- Not within our galaxy
No local structures match the shape of the CMB
CMB Doppler shift does not reflect on local motions
- Not galactic
Local and distant galaxies arent distributed isotopically
Local galaxies arent bright spots in CMB
Distant galaxies have a wide range of cosmological redshifts
i.
CMB isnt smeared
ii.
Cant make a perfect single tem BB spectra from a combination of redshifted
spectra

CMB must come from a single source surrounding us in all directions and is not
confined to galaxies
~ The Cosmic Microwave Background
- Important Details
Cosmic
Uniform
Black Body with temp of 2.725 K
Best observed BB
- Current universe is transparent to CMB
Not now a BB
- CMB must have originated when universe was opaque (and characterized by a single T)
- CMB scenarios:
Universe used to be smaller, denser, and hotter
Universe was a hot, dense, opaque plasma
i.
Pervaded by BB radiation
ii.
Particles and photons were coupled
iii. Universe cools down =>
Universe becomes transparent
i.
Electrons and photons recombine to form neutral atoms
ii.
Particles and photons are decoupled
iii. Existing BB photons now free to travel across the universe
CMB photons created the moment before recombination (last scattering)
- Cosmic redshift does not change the shape of a BB spectrum, but does change the apparent
T. Therefore, the CMB used to be hotter
~ Polarization
- Refers to the orientation of the EM field vectors
Unpolarized light has no preferred orientation
Polarized light DOES have a preferred orientation
- Scattering can change unpolarized light into polarize light
- If CMB photons came from a last scattering before the universe became transparent then
there should be a polarization signature
- CMB polarization is observed!
It is consistent with last scattering interpretation of CMB
~ In Conclusion:
- CMB says that the universe used to be an opaque plasma
- CMB is a picture of the universe from long ago
- CMB indicates we live in an evolving universe
Opaque transparent
Smooth Clumpy
i However, it wasnt originally perfectly smooth
a. CMB is not perfectly uniform (but T < 0.0001 K)
b. Pattern of variations is not random and is incredibly informative