BASIC CONCEPTS OF FLUID TRANSPORT

A key factor involved in the design of systems providing the transport of

fluids from one location to another is the quantity of power that is required for this
particular operation. For example, mechanical energy may be necessary to
overcome frictional resistance, changes in elevation, changes in internal energy,
and other resistances encountered in the flow system.
The various forms of energy can be related to the total energy balance or the
total mechanical energy balance. On the basis of 1 kg of fluid flowing under steadystate conditions between the inlet and outlet locations in the system, the total
energy balance can be written in differentiated form as

V 21
V 22
Z 1 g + p 1 v 1+
+u +Q+W =Z 2 g+ p 2 v 2+
+u
2 1
2 2

(1)

And the mechanical energy balance as

2

Z 1 g vdp+
1

WhereZ
g
p
v
V

=
=
=
=
=
=

u
=
Q
=
outside source
W
=
Wo
=
F
=

V1
V
+W o=Z 2 g+ 2 + F
2
2

(2)

vertical distance above an arbitrarily chosen datum plane

local gravitational acceleration
absolute pressure
specific volume of the fluid
average velocity of the fluid
correction factor to account for the use of average velocity
(1.0 for turbulent flow and 0.5 for laminar/viscous flow)
internal energy of the fluid
heat energy transmitted across the fluid boundary from an
total shaft work provided from an outside source
mechanical work provided from an outside source
mechanical energy loss due to friction
2

Evaluation of the

vdp
1

term in Eq. 2 may be difficult if a compressible

fluid is flowing through the system because the exact path of the compression or
expression is often unknown. For non-compressible fluids, however, the specific
volume, v, remains essentially constant, and the integral term reduces simply to
v(p2 p1). Consequently, the total mechanical energy balance is especially useful
and easy to apply when the flowing fluid can be considered as non-compressible.

NEWTONIAN FLUIDS
For a Newtonian fluid in a smooth pipe, dimensional analysis relates the
frictional drop per unit length of pipe to the pipe diameter, density of the fluid, and
average fluid velocity through two dimensionless groups, namely the Fanning
friction factor given by

f=

D p
2 2 VL

(3-a)

and the Reynolds number, given by

DV

(3-b)

The friction factor in smooth pipes is a function of the Reynolds number.

However, in rough pipes, the relative roughness /D also affects the friction factor.
Figure 1 presents a plot of the friction factor as a function of the Reynolds number
and /D. Representative values for the surface roughness factor associated with
various materials are also indicated in the figure.
INSERT FIGURE 1
Below a critical Reynolds number of 2100, the flow of a fluid in a pipe is
laminar, and the Fanning friction factor is given by the Hagen-Poiseuille Equation

f=

16 16
=
2100
DV

(4)

A transition from laminar flow to turbulent flow occurs over the range 2100
Re 4000. Since there is doubt as to which type of flow is predominant in this
range, safe design practice favors the assumption of turbulent flow in this
transitional region.
For turbulent flow in smooth pipes, the Blasius Equation provides a
reasonably accurate friction factor over a wide range of Reynolds number as given
by

f=

0.079
4000<<10 5
0.25
()

(5)

The Colebrook Equation gives a good approximation of the friction factor

for rough pipes over the entire turbulent flow range:

1
f

0.5

=4 log

1.256
+
> 4000
3.7 D ( f 0.5 )

(6)

If the velocity, density, and viscosity of the flowing fluid remain constant and
the pipe diameter is uniform over the total pipe length, the mechanical energy loss
due to friction may be obtained from
2

F=

2fV L
D

(7)

In a strict sense, Equation 7 is limited to conditions in which the flowing fluid

is non-compressible and the temperature of the fluid is constant. When one is
dealing with compressible fluids such as air, steam, or any gas, it is good
engineering practice to use Equation 7 only if the pressure drop over the system is
less than 10% of the initial pressure. If a change in the fluid temperature
occurs, Equation 7 should not be used in the form indicated unless the
total change in viscosity is less than approximately 50% based on the
maximum viscosity. If Equation 7 is used when pressure changes and
temperature changes are involved, the best accuracy is obtained by using the linear
velocity, density, and viscosity of the fluid as determined at the average
temperature and pressure.
For turbulent flow in a conduit of non-circular cross section, an equivalent
diameter can be substituted for the circular section diameter, and the equations for
circular pipes can be applied without introducing too large errors. This equivalent
diameter is defined as 4 times the hydraulic radius, R H, where the hydraulic
radius is the ratio of the cross-sectional flow area to the wetted perimeter.
When the flow is viscous, substation of 4R H for D does not give accurate results, and
the exact expressions relating frictional pressure drop and velocity can be obtained
only for certain conduits.
FRICTIONAL LOSSES ENCOUNTERED IN PIPELINES
If the cross-sectional area of a pipe changes gradually to a new crosssectional area, the disturbances to the flow pattern can be small that the amount of
mechanical energy lost as friction due to the change in cross-section is negligible.
However, if the change is sudden, an appreciable amount of mechanical energy can
be lost as friction.
Similarly, the presence of bends, fittings, valves, orifices, or other
installations that disturb the flow pattern can cause frictional losses. All these
effects must be included in the friction term appearing in the total mechanical

energy balance. Recommended expressions for evaluating the important types of

frictional losses are presented in Table 1.
INSERT TABLE
POWER REQUIREMENTS FOR TRANSPORT OF LIQUIDS AND GASES
For non-compressible fluids, equation 2 can be reduced to

W o =g Z +

V2
+ pv + F
2

( )

(8)

Since the individual terms in equation 8 can be evaluated directly from the
physical properties of the system and the associated flow conditions, the design
engineer can apply this equation to many liquid flow systems without making any
major assumptions.

PIPING IN FLUID TRANSPORT PROCESSES

The American National Standards Institute (ANSI) and the American
Petroleum Institute (API) have established detailed standards for the most widely
used components of piping systems. Lists of these standards as well as the
specifications for pipe and fitting materials can be found in the ANSI B31 code
sections. Many of these standards contain pressure-temperature ratings that will be
of assistance to engineers in their design function. Even though safety is the basic
consideration of the code, design engineers are cautioned that the code is not a
design handbook and does not eliminate the need of engineering judgment.
Some of the specific requirements for pumping systems have been included
in the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) requirements. A few of
the more significant requirements of ANSI B31.3 have been summarized and
included in this section since they relate directly to the minimum requirements for
the selection and design of piping systems.
SELECTION OF PIPING MATERIALS
General aspects that need to be evaluated when selecting piping materials
are:
1. Possible exposure to fire with respect to the loss in strength or combustibility
of the pipe and supports;
2. Susceptibility of the pipe to brittle failure or thermal shock failure when
exposed to fire;
3. Ability of thermal insulation to protect the pipe from fire;
4. Susceptibility of the pipe and joints to corrosion or adverse electrolytic effect;

5. Suitability of packing, seals, gaskets, and lubricants used on joints and

connections;
6. Refrigeration effect during sudden loss of pressure with volatile fluids; and
7. Compatibility with the fluid handles.
Specific material precautions and/or alternatives that need to be considered
when selecting piping materials are presented in Table 2. Iron and steel pipes are
specified according to wall thickness by a standard formula for schedule number as
designated by the American Standards Association (ASA). Schedule number is
defined by the American Standards Association as the approximate value of

1000

Ps
=schedule number
Ss

(9)

Where Ss is the safe working stress and Ps, the safe working pressure, defined by

Ps=

Wheretm
Dm
Ps and Ss

=
=
=

2 S s tm
Dm `

(10)

minimum wall thickness, m.

mean diameter, m
kPa

For temperatures up to 120C, the recommended safe working stress is

62,000 kPa for lap welded steel pipe and 49,000 kPa for butt-welded steel pipe.
Thus, if the schedule number is known, the safe working pressure can be estimated
directly from equation 10. Ten schedule numbers are in use at present.
Pipe sizes are based on the approximate diameter and are reported as
nominal pipe sizes. Although the wall thickness varies depending on the schedule
number, the outside diameter of any pipe having a given nominal size is constant
and independent of the schedule number. This permits the use of standard fittings
and threading tools on pipes of different schedule numbers. A table showing outside
diameters, inside diameters, and other dimensions for pipes of different diameters
and schedule numbers is presented below.
INSERT TABLE HERE
Copper tubing and brass tubing are used extensively in industrial operations.
Other metals, such as nickel and stainless steel, are also available in the form of
tubing. Although pipe specifications are based on standard nominal sizes, tubing
specifications are based on the actual outside diameter with a designated wall
thickness. Conventional systems, such as the Burningham wire gauge (BWG), are

used to indicate the wall thickness. Common designations of tubing dimensions are
given below:
INSERT TUBING DIMENSIONS HERE!