Module 2 Bibliography

Conley WEEK 2

ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY
Baddeley, A.D. (1992). Working Memory. Science, 255, 556-559.
Working memory refers to a brain system of that provides temporary storage of information. It
also is required to be simultaneous with storage and processing of memory. It can be divided into
three subcomponents: central executive, the visual spatial sketch pad, and the phonological loop.
This idea to divide working memory into subsystems has been controversial in cognitive
psychology. This lead to the concept of working memory replaced the idea of a single unitary
short-term memory theory (p. 556). Results from studies of various standardized tests suggest
high correlation between working memory capacity and reasoning skill. The conclusion was that
reasoning was more dependent on previous knowledge and working memory was dependent on
speed of processing (p.557).
Working memory stands at the cross-roads of memory attention and perception. It allows for this
range of distinction of neuropsychological deficits and our understanding of normal cognitive
functioning. If the links between the subcomponents can be sustained and developed, working
memory prevails (p.559).
Driscoll, M. (2005). Psychology of Learning for Instruction (3rd ed.) (pp. 77-91). Boston,
MA: Allyn and Bacon.
Little is known about the sensory memory corresponding to other senses. Findings suggest that
auditory lasted longer than visual sensory memory. The explanation refers to the requirements
for speech perception or when sounds of speech are understood (p.78). Some research suggests
that learners have control over the process and may selectively focus attention where other task
require little attention and happen automatically (p.79). However, the ability to control attention
differs with age, hyperactivity, intelligence, and learning disabilities (p.80). Attention is deemed
necessary but not sufficient and requires pattern recognition for further processing. Three
different models are proposed due to its difficult process to model in the information processing
system. Each model carries implications of how the process operates. Template processing
assumes that mental copies are stored in memory. Alternative prototype is not an exact copy of
what is stored in memory but rather an abstract version. Feature analysis presumes distinctive
features are stored in memory. Feature and prototype models account for most instances of
pattern recognition. However, one phenomena is they are still unable to account for why certain
patterns are recognized even though certain features are not present (p.82-84). The outcome has
shown that what teachers do or dont do in the classroom matters more than what they expect
from student achievement (p.86).
Long-term memory is activated for making sense of information during the working memory
process. It consists of breaking complex task into simple steps. How information is stored during
these steps is also important. To prevent loss of information from working memory, rehearsal
and coding processes are deemed necessary. Research has further shown that any method of
elaborate coding is better for learning than repetition of information. The interest lies in how
learners are taught to use their own strategies. (p.90).

Module 2 Bibliography

Conley WEEK 2

Kalyuga, S. (2010). Schema acquisition and sources of cognitive load. In J.L. Plass, R.
Moreno, & R. Brnken, Cognitive Load Theory (pp. 48-64). New York: Cambridge.
This chapter suggests a number of Cognitive Load Theories or generated principles for efficient
instruction aimed at acquisition of an organized knowledge base. To substantiate these
principles, the concept of schematic knowledge structures must be understood then analyzed to
determine irrelevant sources to the learning processes. Schemas represent stable patterns of
relationships between elements describing knowledge structures that are abstracted from specific
instances. Multiple schemas can be linked together and organized into hierarchical structures.
This organized knowledge are critical for extracting meaning from information, acquiring and
storing in long-term memory, circumventing limitations of working memory, increasing the
strength of memory, guiding retrieval and recall of information, and providing connections to
prior knowledge. New information is always encoded in terms of existing domain-specific
schemas. As learners acquire more knowledge and experience their schemas evolve and become
more refined. However, preexisting schemas often resist change and what is not understood.
Cognitive conflicts result in simplified internal knowledge structures that increase processing
demands on working memory. However, for more advanced learners who have acquired wellorganized schemas, simplified and detailed instruction-based conceptual models may also
conflict with their knowledge base and thus inhibit learning. The major goal of learning is the
acquisition and automation of schematic knowledge structures in long-term memory. Working
memory limitations are minimal to learners whose knowledge is well organized in long-term
memory. Cognitive load is determined by the demands on working memory with a major source
being daily activities that are necessary for learning. This type of load is referred to as intrinsic
cognitive load. When a learner establishes connections in learning elements in working memory,
they experience intrinsic cognitive load. Cognitive load that directly contributes to schema
acquisition includes both intrinsic and germane load. In contrast, extraneous load is associated
with activities irrelevant to learning that are caused by poor instructional design. In conclusion,
appropriate management of instructional sequences is the desired four-component instructional
design model. These instructional principles are directed to achieving desired instructional
effects efficiently and with optimal expenditure of cognitive resources and instructional time.
Miller, G. A. (1956). The magical number seven, plus or minus two: some limits on our
capacity for processing information. Psychological review, 63(2), 81.
A case history of experiments that tested how accurately people can assign numbers to the
magnitudes of various aspects of a stimulus. The concept of the amount of information means
variance in terms of unit of measurement. The idea that anything increases the variance also
increases the amount of information. Experiments resulted in that every time the number of
alternatives increased by a factor of two, one bit of information is added. Another one noted
when we make judgements by less than three tones, the listener is never confused. However, the
channel capacity for judgement of visual position seems to be significantly larger. It determined
that channel capacity does not seem to be valid notion for describing human observers. The
evidence suggests a small capacity for making unidimensional judgements and that the capacity
does not vary from one sensory attribute to another.

Module 2 Bibliography

Conley WEEK 2

After many two-dimensional examples to multidimensional stimuli were provided, one

experiment concluded six different acoustic variables that could change: frequency, intensity,
rate of interruption, on-time fraction, total duration, and spatial location. This is the range that
ordinary experiences would lead us to expect. In further study of the linguistic theory, a test was
conducted on a set of tonal stimuli that varied in eight dimensions, but required only a binary
decision on each dimension. It is undetermined whether we can continue adding dimensions.
However, in human speech there is a limit of app 8-9 distinctive features to the number of
dimensions that we use. Language uses sequences of phonemes, so we make judgments
successively when we listen to words and sentences. Therefore, people are less accurate if they
must judge more than one attribute simultaneously. The span of memory from an experiment on
absolute judgment is an experiment on immediate memory. In order to speak more precisely, we
must utilize grouping or organizing into chunks. Since the memory span is a fixed number of
chunks, we can increase the bits of information that it contains by adding larger chunks. This
process is called recoding. In each experiment, the recoding had shown to increase the span of
memory in every case. The most customary kind of recoding that we do all the time is to
translate into a verbal code. This process is called memorization. The concepts and measures
through these experiments provided by the theory of information provide a quantitative way of
getting showing conclusions.
Schraw, Gregory & Matthew McCrudden. Information Processing Theory. Jul 12, 2013.
www.Education.com
Humans continue to process information with amazing efficiency and often perform better than
computers in problem solving and critical thinking. However; 20th century researchers
developed systematic models of memory, cognition, and thinking, such as the information
processing model (IPM). It consists of three main components, sensory memory, working
memory, and long-term memory. Sensory and working memory enable people to manage limited
amounts of incoming information during initial processing, whereas long-term memory serves as
a permanent repository for knowledge. Several terms have developed to describe this efficient
cognitive processing in working memory such as limited attentional resources, which refers to
the highly limited nature of information processing and automaticity, which refers to being able
to perform a task very quickly and efficiently due to repeated practice. Effective information
processing in sensory memory requires a high degree of automaticity with regard to recognition
of familiar stimuli such as spoken or printed words, faces, and sounds. Unlike sensory and
working memory, long-term memory is not constrained by capacity or duration of attention
limitations. The role of long-term memory is to provide a seemingly unlimited repository for all
the facts and knowledge within memory. Researchers believe that long-term memory is capable
of holding a vast amouont of information for very long periods of time. Research has identified
two key aspects of long-term memory: what types of information are represented, and how
information is organized Encoding and retrieval of information in long-term memory is increased due
to efficient organizational strategies. The IPM provides a conceptual three-component model which
explains these different functions and constraints on human memory and provides an excellent
framework for understanding principles of effective learning.