CFCS 2005 Vol. 41 No. 1

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Forty First Annual Meeting 2005

GUADELOUPE

Vol. XXXXI - Number 1 T-STAR - Invasive Species Symposium

PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

41 ^s^t ANNUAL MEETING

Caribbean Food Crops Society 41 ^s^t Annual Meeting 10-16 July 2005

Salako Beach Resort Gosier, Guadeloupe, French Caribbean

“Alternatives to High Input Agriculture in the Caribbean : Towards the Elaboration of Innovative Systems”

United States Department of Agriculture, T-STAR Sponsored Invasive Species Symposium

EMBEDDING A CARIBBEAN INVASIVE SPECIES SAFEGUARDING STRATEGY WITHIN A REGIONAL INTEGRATION FRAMEWORK : INSTITUTIONAL AND TECHNICAL ISSUES

Special Workshop Edition Edited by Waldemar Klassen, Carlton G. Davis, Alain Xandé, Claude Vuillaume, and Harry Ozier-Lafontaine

Published by the Caribbean Food Crops Society

© Caribbean Food Crops Society, 2005

ISSN 95-07-0410

Copies of this publication may be obtained from :

Secretariat, CFCS c/o University of the Virgin Islands USVI Cooperative Extension Service

Route 02, Box 10,000

Kingshill, St. Croix US Virgin Islands 00850

or from :

CFCS Treasurer P.O. Box 506 Isabela, Puerto Rico 00663

Mention of company and trade names does not imply endorsement by the Caribbean Food Crops Society.

The Caribbean Food Crops Society is not responsible for statements and opinions advanced in its meeting or printed in its proceedings : they represent the views of the individuals to whom they are credited and not binding on the Society as a whole.

2005 CFCS BOARD OF DIRECTORS AND OFFICERS

Chair :

Vice Chair :

Secretary :

Treasurer :

2005 President :

BOARD OF DIRECTORS

Dr. Aiberto Beale, University of Puerto Rico Dr. Guy Anaïs, Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique, Guadeloupe Mr. Kofi Boateng, University of the Virgin Islands Mrs. Aurora Lugo-López, Puerto Rico Dr. Guy Anaïs

REGIONAL REPRESENTATIVES

English :

Mr. Kwame Garcia, University of the Virgin Islands Dr. Richard Harrison, Ministry of Agriculture, Jamaica Dr. Compton Paul, Food and Agriculture Organization, Honduras

Spanish :

Dr. Wilfredo Colón, Universidad del Este, Puerto Rico Mr. Jerry Dupuy, Secretaria de Estado de Medio Ambiente y Recursos Naturales, Dominican Republic Dr. Alberto Beale, University of Puerto Rico

French :

Dr. Guy Anais, Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique, Guadeloupe Mr. Marceau Farant, Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique, Guadeloupe Mr. Xavier Merlini, Association Martiniquaise pour le Développement des Plantes Alimentaires, Martinique

Dutch :

Dr. Lydia Ori, Centre for Agricultural Research, Suriname

ADVISORY BOARD

Mr. Hipólito Mejía, Honorary Member, Dominican Republic Mrs. Altagracia Rivera de Castillo, Centro para el Desarrollo Agropecuario y Forestal, Dominican Republic Dr. Lawrence Lewis, Department of Agriculture, US Vingin Islands Dr. Alain Xande, Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique Dr. William Bnown, University of Florida Mr. Angel Castillo, Instituto Dominicano de Investigación Agropecuaria y Forestal, Dominican Republic Dr. Alberto Pantoja, University of Puerto Rico Dr. Charles McDavid, University of the West Indies

SPECIAL ADVISORS

Dr. Miguel Lugo-López, Special Advisor to the Chairman Dr. Darshan Padda, Special Advisor to the Chairman for Fund Raising

Caribbean Food Crops Society 41 ^s^t Annual Meeting 10-16 July 2005

Salako Beach Resort, Gosier, Guadeloupe, French Caribbean

“Alternatives to High Input Agriculture in the Caribbean: Towards the Elaboration of Innovative Systems”

United States Department of Agriculture, T-STAR Sponsored Invasive Species Symposium

Embedding a Caribbean Invasive Species Safeguarding Strategy within a Regional Integration Framework: Institutional and Technical Issues

TABLE OF CONTENTS

WELCOME AND BACKGROUND……………………………………………………………1 W. F. Brown, Pierre Ehret, Jimmy Cheek, Arlington Chesney, Wendel Parham and Alberto Beale

SESSION I: INSTITUTIONAL ISSUES

INVASIVE SPECIES SAFEGUARDING STRATEGY AND THE CARICOM SINGLE MARKET AND ECONOMY (CSME)…………………………………………………9 Desiree Field-Ridley and Margaret Kalloo

THE INVASIVE SPECIES SAFEGUARDING STRATEGY WITHIN THE ALLIANCE’S FRAMEWORK FOR THE REPOSITIONING OF AGRICULTURE IN THE REGION – THE JAGDEO INITIATIVE…………………………………………… Arlington Chesney

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AN ASSESSMENT OF THE SCIENTIFIC POTENTIAL AT THE UWI IN SUPPORT OF A COMPREHENSIVE REGIONAL RISK REDUCTION STRATEGY WITH RESPECT TO INVASIVE SPECIES……………………………………………………………21 Ranjit Singh

FACTORING BIODIVERSITY, ENVIRONMENTAL, AND NATURAL RESOURCES CONSIDERATIONS INTO A REGIONAL SAFEGUARDING STRATEGY……………… Vyju Lopez, Sean Murphy, Marion Seier ² , and Moses Kairo

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STRATÉGIE DE LUTTE CONTRE LES ESPÈCES EXOTIQUES ENVAHISSANTES DANS LE BASSIN DE LA CARAÏBE: LE POINT DE VUE DES SERVICES DE LA PROTECTION DES VEGÉTAUX DES DÉPARTEMENTS FRANÇAIS D'AMÉRIQUE Pierre Ehret

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TOWARDS OPERATIONALIZING THE CARIBBEAN REGIONAL INVASIVE SPECIES INTERVENTION STRATEGY (CRISIS)………………………………………… 44 Everton Ambrose

SESSION II: TECHNICAL ISSUES

A SYNOPSIS OF THE USDA APHIS CARIBBEAN INVASIVE SPECIES STRATEGIC

PLAN…………………………………………………………………………………………….54

Trang T. Vo, Carolyn Cohen, and C. E. Miller

THE T-STAR SUPPORTED CARIBBEAN BASIN/FLORIDA INVASIVE SPECIES COORDINATING AND FACILITATING INITIATIVE………………………………………58 Carlton Davis and Waldemar Klassen

THE T-STAR SUPPORTED TRADE AND INVASIVE SPECIES INITIATIVE…………… 64 John VanSickle, Edward A. “Gilly” Evans, and Ram Ranjan

UPDATE ON FRENCH CARIBBEAN SAFEGUARDING INVASIVE SPECIES CIRAD-INRA INITIATIVES………… …………………………………………….……… Claude Vuillaume, Pierre-Yves Teycheney, Michel Dollet, Jean Heinrich Daugrois, Claudie Pavis, Alain Palloix, Cica Urbino, Christian Lavigne, and Thierry Goguey, Dominique Martinez, Thierry Lefrançois et Sophie Molia

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TOWARDS A BETTER CON.TROL OF VIRAL CONSTRAINTS HAMPERING THE MULTIPLICATION AND EXCHANGE OF MUSA GERMPLASM………………………….87 Pierre-Yves Teycheney, M. Folliot, S. Galzi, N. Laboureau, M.-L Caruana, P. Piffanelli, J.C. Noa Carazzana, Armelle Marais, Laurence Svanella-Dumas, Thierry Candresse et F.-X. Côte.

STRATEGIES ET METHODES INNOVANTES DEVELOPPEES PAR LA RECHERCHE DANS LES TERRITOIRES FRANÇAIS DU PACIFIQUE ET DE L’OCEAN INDIEN OCCIDENTAL POUR LIMITER L’IMPACT DES ESPECES ENVAHISSANTES……………………………………………………………… Nicolas Barré, Thomas Le Bourgeois, Michel de Garine-Wichatitsky, Jacques Tassin, Vincent Blanfort et Dominique Strasberg

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CARIBVET: A TOOL TO FACILITATE CONTROL OF EMERGING AND EXOTIC ANIMAL DISEASE THREATS……………………………………………………………….96 Sophie Molia, T. Lefrancois, N. Vachiery, and D. Martinez

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UPDATE ON INVASIVE SPECIES INITIATIVES IN THE DOMINICAN REPUBLIC… Colmar A. Serra

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RESEARCH EFFORTS TO DEAL WITH INVASIVE SPECIES IN THE CARICOM REGION……………………………………………………………………………………… 125 Dionne Clarke-Harris and F. Bruce Lauckner

A DEMONSTRATION OF DDIS (DISTANCE DIAGNOSTICS AND IDENTIFICATION SYSTEM) IN PUERTO RICO………………………………… 135 Consuelo Estevez de Jensen, Ruben Quinonez and Timur M. Momol

REFLECTIONS ON THE SYMPOSIUM…………………………………………………… 136 Arlington Chesney

SESSION III: TECHNICAL REPORTS

STEPS TOWARD MANAGING THE ARMORED SCALE, ANDASPIS PUNICAE, IN LITCHII IN FLORIDA AND PUERTO RICO……………………………………………… Jorge E. Pena

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BIODIVERSITÉ TROPICALE ET SUBTROPICALE DANS LES ESPACES INSULAIRES: POUR UNE GESTION DURABLE DE LA BIODIVERSITÉ DANS L'OUTRE-MER EUROPÉEN………………………………………………………………….149 Philippe Feldmann and N. Barré

DEVELOPMENT OF THRIPS TRAPS FOR FRANKLINIELLA OCCIDENTALIS AND

SCIRTOTHRIPS DORSALIS…………………………………

C. C. Chu, M.A. Ciomperlik, Niann-Tai Chang, Marcus Richards, Tian-Ye Chen, Glenn Fitzgerald, Barbara Hefne, P. A. Alexander, and T. J. Henneberry

………………………………151

FIELD TRIALS TESTING THE EFFICACY OF 'CC TRAPS' FOR DETECTING AND MONITORING SCIRTOTHRIPS DORSALIS IN HOT PEPPERS IN ST. VINCENT…… …156 Matthew A. Ciomperlik, M. Richards, C.C. Chu, and C. Cohen

EVALUATION OF VARIOUS INSECTICIDES IN CONTROLLING CHILLI THRIPS, SCIRTOTHRIPS DORSALIS HOOD (THYSANOPTERA: THRIPIDAE), ON PEPPER…….161 Dakshina R. Seal, M. Ciomperlik, M. L. Richards, and W. Klassen

CURRENT STATUS OF INTRODUCED SPECIES OF ACHATINIDAE AND OTHER ECONOMICALLY SNAIL AND SLUG PESTS IN THE EASTERN CARIBBEAN…… …170 David G. Robinson and H. Angela Fields

MITIGATING THE POTENTIAL IMPACTS AND THREATS OF THE CACTUS MOTH, CACTOBLASTIS CACTORUM (LEPIDOPTERA: PYRALIDAE), TO NATIVE AND CULTIVATED CACTUS IN THE CARIBBEAN AND MEXICO…………………….171 Mayra Perez Sandi Cuen and Helmuth G. Zimmermann.

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POSTERS DON'T LET CACTO BLAST US! : A COOPERATIVE EFFORT TO DETECT AND TEST CONTAINMENT OF THE CACTUS MOTH, CACTOBLASTIS CACTORUM (BERG) ON THE US GULF COAST………………………………… …………………… Joel Floyd, Kenneth A. Bloem, Stephanie Bloem, James E. Carpenter, and Stephen Hight

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DISTRIBUTION OF THE CHILLI THRIPS, SCIRTOTHRIPS DORSALIS HOOD (THYSANOPTERA: THRIPIDAE), IN PEPPER FIELDS ON ST. VINCENT………………182 D. R. Seal, M. Ciomperlik, M. L. Richards and W. Klassen

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Proceedings of the Caribbean Food Crops Society. 41(1):1-8. 2005

WELCOME AND BACKGROUND

OPENING REMARKS by Dr. William F. “Bill” Brown, Assistant Dean for Research, Florida Agricultural Experiment Station, University of Florida, 1022 McCarty Hall, PO BOX 110200, Gainesville, FL 32611-0200, Phone: 8-1-352-392-1784; Email: WFBrown@ifas.ufl.edu .

Honorable Pierre Ehret, Dr. Cheek, Dr. Chesney, Dr. Parham, Dr. Beale, distinguished colleagues, ladies and gentlemen. I am very happy to moderate the opening session of this TSTAR Symposium on “Embedding a Caribbean Invasive Species Safeguarding Strategy within a Regional Integration Framework: Institutional and Technical Issues”. In 1999 TSTAR, the Tropical and Subtropical Agricultural Research program funded by the U.S. Department of Agriculture sponsored a workshop at Homestead, Florida as a first attempt to gain an in-depth understanding of invasive species issues. A follow-up workshop was held in 2001 at the University of Guam. The consensus from these two workshops was that the alarmingly increased spread of highly damaging invasive species that has accompanied the globalization of markets and burgeoning growth in trade is doing unprecedented damage to agriculture and to the natural environment. Consequently the U.S. Congress increased the level of funding of the TSTAR program to enable greater research support of programs to mitigate invasive species. At the 38 ^t^h annual meeting of the CFCS in Martinique in 2002 the CFCS Board of Directors took the decision to hold a symposium at the 39 ^t^h annual CFCS meeting in 2003 in Grenada on “Challenges and Opportunities in Protecting the Caribbean, Latin America and the United States from Invasive Species”; and TSTAR was asked to take the lead in organizing this symposium. The Grenada TSTAR Symposium made a large stride in formulating a regional strategy to safeguard the Greater Caribbean Region against invasive species. Also in Grenada the Caribbean Invasive Species Working Group was formed to work toward the operationalization of a Greater Caribbean safeguarding strategy. Thus in June 2004 the Caribbean Invasive Species Working Group conducted a workshop in Port of Spain on “Facilitating Safer US-Caribbean Trade: Invasive Species Issues”. These TSTAR symposia and the workshop highlighted, inter alia, the critical need for timely and reliable information on invasive species to trigger precautionary and preventive measures. However to enable the construction of an invasive species information system certain institutional arrangements must first be put in place. Thus the main purpose of today’s TSTAR symposium is to gain an understanding of institutional and technical issues that must be taken into account as we chart the way forward in our efforts to operationalize a regional safeguarding strategy. Dr. Guy Anais, President of CFCS, invited the Caribbean Invasive Species Working Group to come to Guadeloupe in February, 2005 to meet with him, the CFCS Program Committee and the CFCS Local Arrangements Committee. The agenda for this TSTAR symposium was largely developed during this very pleasant visit. Finally I wish to acknowledge the hard work of my fellow Caribbean Invasive Species Working Group members: Everton Ambrose, Carlton Davis, Gilly Evans, Moses Kairo, Margaret Kalloo, Waldy Klassen, Bruce Lauckner, Aaron Parke, Gene Pollard, Martha Roberts, Mike Shannon, Ranjit Singh and Claude Vuillaume.

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OPENING REMARKS by Mr. Pierre Ehret, Chargé de mission pour la réglementation phytosanitaire des DOM – Ministère chargé de l'agriculture – DGAL/SDQPV, ZAC d'Alco - BP 3056, 34034 MONTPELLIER CEDEX 1, Tel : 33 4 67 10 18 17, email:

pierre.ehret@agriculture.gouv.fr

J'improvise quelques salutations, en l'absence de Mme Sophie Villers, la Directrice Générale de l'Alimentation, puisque je représente ici l'une des sous-directions incluses dans la Direction Générale de l'Alimentation, en l'occurrence la Sous-Direction de la Qualité et de la Protection des Végétaux.

Les problématiques liés aux effets néfastes et aux alternatives à l'intensification de l'agriculture de la Caraïbe sont au cœur des activités de cette direction chargée de la sécurité et de la qualité des aliments, mais également des problématiques de santé animale et de santé des végétaux, qui sont de fait très liées à la problématique alimentaire.

Personnellement, j'aurai l'occasion de présenter des travaux relatifs à la réglementation phytosanitaire et à la protection des territoires et des filières de productions en s'appuyant sur les analyses de risque phytosanitaire, mais je ne doute pas que des collègues vétérinaires ne manqueront pas de vous présenter d 'autres facettes des actions de notre direction générale.

Je profite de cette tribune pour remercier les organisateurs de la rencontre, la CFCS et l'INRA et en particulier leurs directeurs, pour cette invitation et pour l'occasion qui nous est donner de présenter notre travail et celui des collègues des Antilles. Merci beaucoup.

I’m improvising a greeting, in the absence of Mrs. Sophie Villers, the General Director of the General Food Directorate, because I represent here one of the divisions included in this Directorate, the Plant Protection and Plant Quality Division.

Problems connected to the negative effects of intensification on Caribbean agriculture and their alternatives are in the heart of the activities of this directorate in charge of food safety and food quality, but also in charge animal health and plant health, which are actually very connected to the food issues.

Personally, I will have the occasion to present work done in relation with the phytosanitary regulation and to the protection of territories and agricultural productions with the help of phytosanitary risk assessment, but I do not doubt that veterinarian colleagues will present you the other facets of the actions of our Directorate.

I take advantage of this opening speech to thank the organizers of the meeting, for this invitation and for the opportunity given to us to present our work and the work of the colleagues of the French West Indies. Thank you very much.

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OPENING REMARKS by Dr. Jimmy Cheek, Senior Vice President for Agriculture and Natural Resources, University of Florida, 1008 McCarty Hall, P.O. Box 110180, Gainesville, FL 32611-0180; email: JGCheek@mail.ifas.ufl.edu . Distinguished colleagues, Honorable Pierre Ehret, Dr. Chesney, Dr. Parham, Dr. Beale, ladies and gentlemen. It is a great pleasure for me to participate in this symposium on invasive species. Invasive species, from both an ecological and an economic perspective, are certainly very important to the Caribbean and South, Central and North America. When we look at agriculture and natural resources in Florida, we see that they are threatened on a daily basis by new and emerging pathogens – viruses, bacteria, fungi – and by insects, invasive plants and invasive animals including invasive fish. New introductions of invasive species into Florida can come about in several ways: First, some of the new introductions can be attributed to natural events such as hurricanes. Four of these violent storms struck Florida in 2004, and one of these, Hurricane Ivan, brought Asian soybean rust into Florida. A second pathway of introduction is international trade and tourism, which in Florida, as in the Caribbean, involves the arrival of large numbers of visitors and large quantities of goods; and they are sources of some of the introductions of invasive species from throughout the world. And then there are the potential acts of bioterrorists. While no catastrophic bioterrorist attack has occurred in Florida, this certainly is a possibility. If we look at Florida, we see that during a short period of time a number of invasive pests have come into our state: sudden oak death, melaleuca, hydrilla, tropical soda apple, air potato, geranium wilt that affects potatoes, the snakehead fish and other exotic animals. We have also had much greater spread of citrus canker within Florida as a result of the hurricanes last year. In addition, the Burmese python and several other species of non-native snakes now live in the Everglades, and they are becoming major problems in the state of Florida. These are some of the issues that we face. Among the concerns that we have as a university are the recognition of the invasive species within our state and the development of the means to respond to them in appropriate ways. We need to diagnose them and find out what they are as a basis for coping with them. In this respect, we have the Plant Diagnostic Laboratory in Gainesville, which serves as the headquarters of the Southern Plant Diagnostic Network. This network connects the diagnostic capabilities of the twelve southern states and Puerto Rico and employs distance digital information technology for engaging experts at various dispersed locations. The network, centered in IFAS at Gainesville, is very important in making diagnoses, finding out exactly where these harmful species are located and issuing recommendations on how to manage them. With respect to the impacts of invasive species in the state of Florida, as well as in the Caribbean and Latin America, the ecological damage is of very great concern. If you travel through South Florida, you will see that invasive plants such as melaleuca have taken over the entire landscape. In addition to tremendous ecological damage, there are also immense economic impacts, which include both direct losses and costs of control. The control costs are borne not only by the agricultural sector, but also by the environmental and natural resources sectors. Recently I participated in a meeting of state agencies and universities in Tallahassee. A major concern of the Florida Department of Environmental Protection expressed at this meeting was the urgent need for substantial resources to control invasive species on public lands and in public bodies of water. We have extensive tracts of natural lands in the state of Florida owned by our government that are being taken over by hard-to-manage invasive species. We need to generate scientific information on the effects of invasive species on our ecosystems and develop technologies for managing and mitigating their impacts.

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Programs to cope with invasive species must be built on a foundation of public awareness. Citrus canker is an example of an invasive species problem that many people living in Florida’s cities do not understand. Many urban dwellers do not understand how citrus canker

spreads, nor the great danger it poses to our economy, nor the urgent need to swiftly remove diseased trees from back yards and destroy them. Consequently, many urban homeowners have been unwilling to cooperate with the program to eradicate this invasive disease, even though it is

a dire threat to the citrus industry of our state. So public awareness is a critical aspect of the invasive species issue. We need to gain and communicate a deeper understanding of the invasive species problem – including how to slow or stop the spread of harmful species – and of the need to develop technologies for managing them. In some cases we need to build public support to fund programs to cope with invasive species, and we need to shore up public resolve to maintain

a campaign once it is started. So the public must be deeply involved in invasive species issues. If we look at the University of Florida and IFAS, we believe that we are in a unique location to address these issues along with our colleagues in the Caribbean and Central and South America. Invasive species are a major concern to our agricultural producers, our natural resources managers, our university, and our government within the state of Florida, and the

meeting in Tallahassee that I described a moment ago is an example of that. The ecological and economic impacts of invasive species are immense for the state and for the region, and how we deal with and resolve this issue will be critical to the future of our agriculture, natural resources and international programs. I am delighted to be here to represent the University of Florida. I am delighted to be a partner with the Caribbean and with Central and South America in addressing this issue, and I think the number of scientists the university has here is indicative of the priority of the issue, as

is the overall emphasis that the University is placing on invasive species. Thank you very much!

OPENING REMARKS by Dr. H. Arlington D. Chesney, Director, Caribbean Regional Office and Adviser to the Director General, Inter-American Institute for Cooperation on Agriculture, IICA Headquarters, San Jose, Costa Rica. Phone 506-216-02-22; FAX: 506-216-02 58; Arlington.Chesney@iica.int .

Mr. Chairman, Honourable Pierre Ehret, Professor Brown, Professor Jimmy Cheek, Dr. Parham, Dr. Beale, a special salutation to the agricultural scientists of the Caribbean on whose shoulders a significant responsibility resides for the repositioning of agriculture in the Region, members of the media, other distinguished ladies and gentlemen, Good Morning. First of all, let me apologise for the absence of my Director General, Dr. Chelston Brathwaite, who because of last minute changes to his schedule of visits throughout the Caribbean had to leave the lovely island of Guadeloupe this morning. However, he has asked me to assure you that IICA’s support for not only this Symposium Session but indeed the entire Invasive Species Initiative remains steadfast and unwavering. Mr. Chairman, this support is natural to IICA, as our official involvement with Invasive Species is longstanding. It dates back to 1977, when the VIIth Inter-American Conference of Agriculture in Honduras expressed its concern regarding the pest and disease problems of plants and animals throughout the Western Hemisphere. Immediately, in 1978 based on our client-led approach to the development of our Work Programme, a Special Committee of the 18 ^t^h Annual Meeting of our Board of Governors recommended that the Institute develop a proposal to establish a mechanism to coordinate Hemispheric efforts to fight pests and diseases of animals and plants that were causing significant economic losses. Consequently, IICA established a Hemispheric Animal and Plant

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Protection Programme to prevent, control and, if possible, eradicate pests and diseases which (i) cause economic damage to plants and animals in the Hemisphere and (ii) threaten to spread from one region to the other within the Hemisphere. This second objective in a true sense is dealing

with Invasive Species, which I am advised, are defined as species that evolved elsewhere and have been intentionally or unintentionally relocated. As such, Mr. Chairman, IICA has been addressing the issue of Invasive Species, as part of a well respected and established Agricultural Health Programme in the Caribbean, for over a quarter of a century. Within the last decade, our focus has sharpened as a consequence of the invasion into the Region’s agricultural sector of Hibiscus Mealy Bug, Papaya Mealy Bug, Fire Ants, Giant African Snail, Black Sigatoka and Water Hyacinth; the knowledge that these invasions could escalate with increased trade due to globalisation and trade liberalization, with the greater movement of people due to a growing tourism industry in the Caribbean; and with the greater frequency of hurricanes acting as a mechanism for spread.

(i)

Consequently, in the sharpening of this focus, with as appropriate, the support of some of our Strategic Partners, such as the CARICOM Secretariat, FAO, and PAHO, we initiated a number of actions: -

(ii)

An assessment of countries’ capabilities in animal and plant health;

(iii)

Based on these national assessments, sensitisation of the scientific and political community of the need to address the institutional and infrastructural deficiencies that were identified.

(iv)

Promotion of the concept of the Caribbean Agricultural Health and Food Safety Agency (CAHFSA) that will be supportive and add value to effective and functioning National Agricultural Health and Food Safety Agencies or Systems; and

(v)

Advocating the notion of the need for countries to shift emphasis in the prevention of

entry of pests and diseases from borders inwards to borders outwards. We were therefore very pleased when the USDA in 1999, through its Tropical and Sub- Tropical Agricultural Research (T-STAR) Programme, recognized the major challenges posed to Caribbean countries by Invasive Species and the need for concerted action, and organized a Workshop on “Mitigating the Effects of Exotic Pests on Trade and Agriculture – Part A: The Caribbean. In Keeping with our previous work, we presented a paper entitled, “Assessment of the Plant Health Systems in the Caribbean.” Mr. Chairman, I have chronicled IICA’s involvement in this area, to exemplify why it was so easy for us to become totally involved in this recent set of actions, led by the University of Florida, to rekindle efforts to deal with the threat of Invasive Species in a coordinated fashion. With Everton Ambrose very effectively leading our charge, we have been actively involved in all of the Symposia, Workshops and Working Group meetings starting with the Symposium held at the 39 ^t^h Meeting of the Caribbean Food Crops Society in 2003 in Grenada. Further, along with CABI, we have worked on the development of the Strategy Document – Caribbean Regional Invasive Species Intervention Strategy (CRISIS). Today, Everton Ambrose, on behalf of the Invasive Species Working Group (CISWG) will present on a very important subject, “Some

ideas on the operationalisation of CRISIS”. That is, how to move from paper and talk to Action. Mr. Chairman, let me close by repeating that at least under this Administration, IICA’s support to the Invasive Species Initiative is irrevocable. We see it as an important plank in the efforts of Caribbean Countries to facilitate the competitiveness of their agricultural commodities in national, regional and extra regional markets. However, for this Initiative to live up to this expectation there is need for national, regional, hemispheric and international institutions to have one vision, an agreed set of goals and outputs and a clear understanding of the required efforts, singly and jointly. We recommend to you our slogan, “Working Together.” In this way we will eliminate institutional and national borders and recognize only ecological borders.

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Mr. Chairman, thank you very much and we trust that with God’s Blessings the results of this Symposium will contribute significantly to enhancing the quality of life of our peoples.

OPENING REMARKS by Dr. Wendel Parham, Executive Director, Caribbean Agricultural Research and Development Institute (CARDI), P.O. Bag 212, University Campus, St Augustine, Trinidad and Tobago. Phone: +1 868 645 1205/6/7; Fax: +1 868 645 6357; executive@cardi.org .

Thank you Mr. Chairman – Professor William F Brown, University of Florida/IFAS. Honourable Pierre Ehret, Charge de mission DOM, Mission de Cooperation Phytosanitaire, Ministry of Agriculture, France, Dr Alberto Beale, CFCS/University of Puerto Rico, Professor Jimmy Cheek Senior Vice President, University of Florida, Dr Arlington Chesney, Director for Caribbean Operations and Advisor to the Director General of IICA, Participants, Colleagues, Ladies and Gentlemen: A very pleasant Good Morning! It is a pleasure for me to be here and to join others at the Head Table in welcoming you to this T-Star Invasive Species Symposium Session which is a part of our 41 ^s^t Annual Meeting of the Caribbean Food Crops Society. This special workshop entitled “Embedding a Caribbean Invasive Species Safeguarding Strategy within a Regional Integration Framework: Institutional and Technical Dimensions is sponsored by the USDA-funded Tropical and Subtropical Agricultural Research (TSTAR) Program of the Universities of Florida, Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands. On behalf of CFCS and CARDI, I wish to thank the Principals of the TSTAR programme for this kind sponsorship and to consider this CFCS Meeting as an appropriate Forum. At this time, I once again convey greetings on behalf of the CARDI family (The Boards of Governors and Directors and the staff of CARDI) and on my own behalf. As you may be aware CARDI has been actively involved with the work on Invasive Alien Species in the Region and maintains a special interest in this area as we seek to protect and sustain agricultural production and trade in agricultural and food products. Most of the flora and fauna we see around us in the Caribbean are “invasive” in some sense or other, and this includes humans who either invaded the area, were brought into the area, or migrated to the area for various reasons including political, economic, social and other. Very little of the Region is as Columbus found it 500 years ago; the small land area of most islands has ensured that human influence has been able to penetrate, settle and cultivate all but few small areas of original forest mainly in the larger, more mountainous islands. There is no doubt that human influence has been responsible for the introduction of most invasive species, many have been deliberate introductions. Animals were introduced for food and domestic use; plants were introduced for food and ornamental purposes. The mongoose was introduced as an early form of biological control. CAB International listed 552 species as alien to the Caribbean Region and noted that 23 species were considered to becoming major invasive threats.

Although not all the deliberate introductions of species have had the expected benefits, the accidental introductions have rarely been beneficial and have quite often been quite catastrophic. A good example of this was the Pink Mealy Bug (PMB) invasion of the mid 1990s. Somehow a few Pink Mealy Bugs were accidentally imported into Grenada and within a very short time period the whole island was very highly infested and many ornamental and food crops, notably hibiscus, ochro and sorrel were wiped out. CARDI was very proud to have been in the forefront of the successful regional fight against the PMB. We sourced the expertise in the form of Dr Gautam from India. Dr Gautam indicated and demonstrated the biological control methods necessary; laboratories to multiply the

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biological control agents were set up in Grenada and other infected countries and the problem, which at one time seemed set to destroy the environment of the region, was brought under control. The coconut lettuce yellowing, the carambola fruit fly, the Giant African Snail and Asian Chilli thrips are current major concerns. The PMB experience demonstrated to the general public how dangerous invasive species can be. It also was one of the prompts behind the Caribbean Food Crops Society organising a seminar on invasive species during its 39 ^t^h meeting in Grenada in 2003. Out of this seminar came a working group on Invasive Species, which CARDI has been very proud to chair. Our agreement with the University of Florida (UF) has facilitated the very efficient functioning of this working group, as UF has thrust considerable human and financial resources into the group. As most people know the group comprises (besides CARDI and UF), CABI, CARICOM, CIRAD, FAO, Florida A&M University (FAMU), IICA, and UWI. A product of this working group is the drafting of a document entitled “Caribbean Regional Invasive Species Intervention Strategy (CRISIS)” which was drafted by IICA (thanks to Everton Ambrose), by UF (thanks Gilly Evans) and the other members of the group. The CARICOM Secretariat presented it to COTED and COTED mandated CARDI to circulate the document for comments to the CARICOM Governments. This is work in progress. This group led by CARDI, also organised the workshop entitled: “Facilitating Safer US – Caribbean Trade: Invasive Species Issues Workshop” with funding from CDB, UF, IICA, FAO. This was held on 2-4 June, 2004 in Trinidad and Tobago and participants from English, French, Spanish, Caribbean, US, Europe and South Africa attended. An output of that Workshop was a resolution signed by UWI, CARDI, IICA, CABI and UF and sent to governments of the Caribbean Basin countries sensitising them on the issue of invasive species. Another output of the working group is this session being held here today at this 41 ^s^t Annual meeting of the CFCS. We are thankful to CFCS for allowing us this opportunity. The working group is also holding meetings and discussions during the time we are all here in Guadeloupe. I wish to recognise and thank our colleagues in the group for their dedication and hard work in this most important area. I am looking forward to hearing the presentations today and I am sure that we are all going to learn a lot to apprise ourselves of the situation with respect to Invasive Alien Species and will be better prepared to carry the work forward. Once again, welcome and do enjoy and participate in the deliberations. I thank you!

OPENING REMARKS by Dr. Alberto Beale, Agronomy and Soils Department, University of Puerto Rico, Botanic Garden South, Guayacan Street 1193, San Juan, PR 00926-1118 Phone: (787)-767-9705 x 2165; Email a_beale@upr.edu .

Distinguished colleagues, Honorable Pierre Ehret, Dr. Cheek, Dr. Chesney, Dr. Parham, ladies and gentlemen. The Caribbean Food Crops Society is delighted to host this second symposium on invasive species. Recently I read the Proceedings of the first annual meeting of the Caribbean Food Crops Society held 40 years ago, and it records discussions by members of the Society concerning important problem areas in which they could work together. And one of the areas identified for working together was invasive species—insects and other pests that were invading the Region. So it is synergistic to first have TSTAR and now the larger Caribbean Invasive Species Working Group to come and join us in a symposium on this common problem. Our Society offers the 39 Nations, Territories and States in the Greater Caribbean Basin as an audience for this invasive species symposium. I would like to mention an area that we

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should emphasize, and that is institutional collaboration. Indeed greater and more effective institutional collaboration is one of the aims of this specific invasive species symposium. So I heartily welcome all of you to this symposium, and already I can announce that next year at the 42 ⁿ^d annual meeting of the Caribbean Food Crops Society in Puerto Rico we will have a follow-up symposium on this particular topic.

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SESSION I: INSTITUTIONAL ISSUES

INVASIVE SPECIES SAFEGUARDING STRATEGY AND THE CARICOM SINGLE MARKET AND ECONOMY (CSME)

Ms. Desiree Field-Ridley ¹ and Ms. Margaret Kalloo ² . ¹ CARICOM Single Market and Economy Unit, CARICOM Secretariat, Turkeyen, Greater Georgetown, Guyana, Phone: 592 222 0001 – 0075, dfr@CARICOM.org ; ² Agricultural Development Unit, CARICOM Secretariat, Turkeyen, Greater Kingston, Guyana S.A. Phone: 592 225 2961-5, Fax: 592 225 7341, mkalloo@CARICOM.org .

ABSTRACT. The threats from invasive species could increase for CARICOM Member States with the increase in movement of people and trade in goods within the CARICOM Single Market and Economy, and from arrangements for greater liberalisation in the wider Caribbean, the Hemisphere, and in the current international trade arena. The likelihood of increased threats also arises from the aggressive pursuit of tourism by CARICOM countries. Weak sanitary and phytosanitary systems and infrastructure and scarce human and physical resources in CARICOM countries exacerbate this risk. Effective safeguarding cannot be achieved individually and must be based on smart use of the region’s resources to formulate policy measures. A mix of policy prescriptions for safeguarding against invasive species in the CSME must be based on a holistic approach to the principles of prevention, eradication and management. Strategies for monitoring and active surveillance which provide early detection for the prevention of the introduction of more invasive species in the Region must be developed. Modernisation of legislation and strengthening of the national capacity and capability of Member States to identify, analyse and take preventative measures must be prioritised at the regional and national levels. Harmonisation and/or convergence of measures, guidelines protocols and laws must occur. Effective partnerships must be fostered among individuals and across all relevant, departments, institutions and organisations at the national, regional and international levels and the public and private sectors must become intimately involved in any safeguarding initiatives with respect to the threats of invasive species. The proposed Caribbean Agricultural Health and Food Safety Agency (CAHFSA) is intended to take a lead role in the development of policies, programmes and projects that would strengthen the systems and infrastructure of CARICOM Member States thereby instituting some of the much needed safeguards against alien invasive species.

KEY WORDS: Trade liberalisation, sanitary and phytosanitary systems, legislation, harmonisation, CAHFSA, Regional Transformation Programme, holistic approach

INTRODUCTION

The Caribbean Community (CARICOM) comprises of 15 Member States which can be characterised as small vulnerable and developing economies. Until recently the traditional primary agricultural export crops of bananas, sugar and rice were prime sources of foreign exchange for some of the CARICOM States particularly Belize, Guyana and the Eastern Caribbean States. Today, except for Guyana, the contribution of agriculture to the Gross Domestic Product of these States is generally less than twenty percent. The countries are net importers of food with the exclusion of Guyana. Services and tourism have become increasingly significant contributors to Gross Domestic Product and foreign exchange earnings. Except for

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Guyana, services account for more than seventy percent (70%) of GDP at the national level. In Trinidad and Tobago, agriculture’s contribution to GDP is relatively insignificant compared to that of petroleum, natural gas and petrochemicals ¹ . In general, the countries enjoy a rich diversity of tropical flora and fauna, cuisine, culture and political stability. These assets provide the basis for a prosperous tourist industry including prime prospects for ecotourism in territories such as Belize, Guyana, Jamaica, and Suriname. Within the context of increased trade in agricultural products, movement of people and cargo, the threats from invasive species introductions must be seen as an important factor which can impact negatively on the economic well being of CARICOM States. The Caribbean Community Member States are bound by the Treaty of Chaguaramas and its revision which provides for the establishment of the CARICOM Single Market and Economy (CSME). The Treaty set forth the primary objectives for the agricultural sector and the implementation of regional policy is guided by the Regional Transformation Programme for Agriculture (RTP). The execution of the RTP has recently being given a further thrust by the recently proposed strategy which directly addresses several key binding constraints in the agricultural sector of the Community. It includes the issues of agricultural health and food safety and its links with the transportation and tourism sub-sectors.

INITIATIVES TO COPE WITH INVASIVE SPECIES

An alien invasive species is a species, which when introduced to an area outside of its normal ecological range, causes or is likely to cause economic or environmental harm, or harm to human health. Invasive or alien species can have serious economic, environmental, and socio-economic impacts on agricultural and other ecosystems. Many of these species are characterized by their adaptability to new environments making them competitive against native species. Alien invasive species respect neither a country’s boundaries nor its legislative enforcements, whether weak or strong. There are a number of international initiatives including conventions, organisations, and programmes that address various facets or issues related to alien invasive species. Among these is the United Nations Convention on Biodiversity, United Nations Environment Programme, CAB International (CABI) and the 1997 Global Invasive Species Programme (GISP). GISP is a partnership with a mission to conserve biodiversity and sustain human livelihoods by minimizing the spread and impact of invasive species. In the first phase of its programme the global invasive species problem has been assessed and toolkits for policy, regulation, prevention and management have been developed. Phase II is now underway to engage and inform governments and to stimulate action and cooperation nationally, between governments and between sectors (e.g. environment and agriculture) to address invasive alien species threats. It is known that invasive species can negatively impact on agriculture, aquaculture, floriculture, forestry and tourism, and reduce the value and usage of land and waterways. Invasive species can damage buildings, including farm structures, and stored products. Aquatic invasives can obstruct waterways, disrupt transportation and affect the mechanical operations of irrigation pumps and other such machinery and equipment. Their effects can manifest in the reduction of productivity of plants and animals and reduce the saleable value of products and commodities. Their effects with regards to humans cannot be over-emphasised when we consider recent pandemics such as avian influenza. While invasive species may impact on human health, as carriers of disease causing organisms, agents and their vectors, invasive species are also considered to be the greatest threat

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¹ PTPT CARICOM’s Selected Economic Indicators. CARICOM Secretariat

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to biodiversity in geographically and evolutionarily isolated systems such as islands of the Caribbean that are well known for its rich biodiversity in flora and fauna and capitalises on this for its tourism. Cognisant of the impact of invasive species with respect to the environment and the associated linkages with sustainable development issues, the 1992 United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) calls on signatory nations which includes, ten of the fifteen CARICOM Member States to "prevent the introduction of, control or eradicate those alien species which threaten ecosystems, habitats or species."

INCREASING VULNERABILITY OF THE CARIBBEAN TO INVASIVE SPECIES

Perhaps, the best known introduction of an invasive species in CARICOM in time gone by, is that of the Small Indian Mongoose (Herpestes auropunctatus), which was deliberately imported by Jamaican authorities for use as a biological control agent against rats in sugar cane fields. Such was its adaptability to the environment that it has subsequently been linked to the extinction of five endemic species including one rodent species, one lizard species and two species of birds ² . A more recent example of an invasive species in CARICOM countries is that of the Pink Hibiscus Mealy Bug (Maconellicoccus hirsutus) with prevalence in Grenada and Trinidad and Tobago and now in the wider Caribbean. One of the features of this invasion was the rapidity with which it spread. Hard lessons were leant by both countries with respect to pathways, management and preparedness and much has been subsequently documented. Other known examples of invasive species in the Region include the citrus black fly, mango seed weevil and the tropical bont tick. There are a number of factors which predispose CARICOM countries to the risk of entry of invasive species. All Member States of the Community are signatory to the WTO-GATT Agreement and the Agreement on Agriculture and are therefore obliged to grant increased market access for goods. Inherent in increased market access is the increased risk of entry of pest and diseases across the borders of countries. Increased trade translates into increased introduction and movement of packaging material, plant and plant products, biologicals, animal and animal products, fish and fish products, plant and animal ornamentals, pets, insects and their larvae, and humans, all of which are pathways for invasive species. Weak sanitary and phytosanitary systems and infrastructure and scarce human and physical resources in CARICOM Countries exacerbate this risk and herein lies the fundamental problem and challenge to CARICOM countries in safeguarding against the threats of invasive species. To add to this problem, international standards setting bodies are moving towards increased market access in new and innovative ways with respect to the application of science in the removal of barriers to trade. These standard setting initiatives are opening new channels whereby agricultural products which were previously denied entry by many developing countries, by virtue of their legislation, can gain access in the near future. For example, the concept of compartmentalisation being considered by the WTO-SPS Committee and introduced by the OIE (know as the World Animal Health Organization) would allow meat and meat products to be exported from specific enterprises or operations within countries with known incidence of diseases including those such as BSE and Avian Influenza. Of course, the enterprise wishing to export must provide evidence of established bio security measures for scrutiny by the importing country.

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² PTPT Caribbean Regional Invasive Species Threats in the Caribbean Region REPORT TO THE NATURE CONSERVANCY. Moses Kairo and Bibi Ali CAB INTERNATIONAL Caribbean and Latin American Regional Centre Trinidad and Tobago, Oliver Cheesman, Karen Haysom and Sean Murphy CABI Bioscience UK Centre.

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The application of this concept is currently confined to an entire region or zone within the country desirous of exporting. Therefore, depending on the situation, compartmentalisation can be an advantage or a serious threat to importing countries and the issue of trust between trade partners plays a fundamental role in the trade equation. Therefore, in the present trading environment, increasing pressure is being placed on the inspection, monitoring, surveillance and detection, and the disease disaster preparedness systems of CARICOM Member States in order to safeguard the human, plant and animal health population, natural habitats and the environment.

CSME WILL INCREASE VULNERABILITY TO INVASIVE SPECIES

The threats from invasive species increase for CARICOM Member States due to the likely increase in movement of people and trade in goods within the CARICOM Single Market and Economy (CSME), and from arrangements for greater liberalisation in the wider Caribbean, the Hemisphere, and the current international trade negotiations arena. The likelihood of increased threats also arises from the aggressive pursuit of tourism by countries in CARICOM. The CSME is a concept which is designed to represent a single economic space where people, goods, services and capital can move freely among CARICOM Member States and is based on the prerequisite of harmonisation and coordination of social, economic and trade policies by participating Member States. The Single Market is expected to come into full effect by January 2006. The Single Economy in which there will be convergence of macroeconomic policies and integration of regional sectoral policies in the Community is expected to be established in 2008. The CSME is seen as an important platform for the region’s trade and economic linkages with the rest of the world. Within the framework of the CSME, preventive and management safeguards, policies and legislation related to invasive species threats at the national level vary considerably amongst CARICOM countries. The status of legislation (agriculture, health and transportation) varies among countries and it is doubtful whether current legislation has been scrutinised specifically with respect to invasive species. For example legislation, in agriculture and to some extent human health, is being upgraded and strengthened for plant and animal health and food safety insofar as achieving the basic international sanitary and phytosanitary standards, guidelines and measures. In regards to policy on biodiversity and sustainable development, some countries such as the Bahamas, Belize, Jamaica, St. Lucia and Trinidad and Tobago have a defined biodiversity policy while others have none, or at best, are in the rudimentary stages of development.

INTERNATIONAL CIVIL AVIATION ORGANISATION ACTS TO LIMIT SPREAD OF INVASIVE SPECIES

In the maritime and air transportation sub-sectors in CARICOM, legislation, measures and guidelines have not as yet been upgraded specifically with respect to invasive species. However, the International Civil Aviation Organisation of which all CARICOM Member States except Dominica are members, adopted at its 35 ^t^h Assembly in 2004, Resolution A35-19:

Preventing the introduction of invasive alien species which recognizes the threat to biological diversity posed by invasive alien species and that international transportation, including civil air transportation, represents a potential pathway for the introduction of invasive alien species. In this regard, the Resolution “urges all Contracting States to support one another's efforts to reduce the risk of introducing, through civil air transportation, potentially invasive alien species to areas outside their natural range and requested the ICAO Council to continue to work with the

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appropriate concerned organizations to identify approaches that ICAO might take in assisting to reduce the risk of introducing potentially invasive alien species to areas outside their natural range.

Maritime transport regulations for the prevention of pollution by garbage from ships are stated in the Protocol of 1978 and relates to the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (1973), as amended (MARPOL) 73/78). This Protocol entered into force in 1983 and as of December 2003 has been acceded to by all CARICOM states except Grenada and Haiti. Although most countries might have enabling legislation, many do not have the capacity to monitor or enforce the proper disposal of garbage from cruise ships and leisure crafts whilst at sea or anchored off shore. The capacity to monitor or enforce the proper disposal of garbage may also apply to aircrafts. Another issue is the spraying of insecticides on board aircrafts on international flights. This practice sometimes appears to be ineffective – insects and flies are sometimes seen alive on arrival at the destination. Indeed, the Resolution A35-19 adopted by the ICAO Assembly provides the avenue for collaborative efforts to minimise the threats of invasive species in CARICOM Member States and for the interfacing of Member States with the global community.

NEED FOR AN HOLISTIC APPROACH TO MEET THREATS OF INVASIVE SPECIES; BOTH INDIVIDUAL AND COLLECTIVE EFFORTS ARE REQUIRED

In the context of the CSME, the mix of policy prescriptions for safeguarding against Invasive Species in CARICOM countries must therefore be based on a holistic approach to the principles of prevention, management and eradication. Eradication initiatives can be onerous and costly. Management efforts and preventative measures must be targeted at the country level and at the regional level and synchronised with the global initiatives. One of the key strategies for implementing policy measures for invasive species safeguard must be based on an assessment of current legislation and enforcement measures which exist, with the aim being to update and modernise the legislative framework specifically to address safeguarding against invasive species. Legislation with respect to animal health, plant health and food safety should also be reviewed in like manner. Legislation with respect to transportation (ballast water) and ship garbage disposal should also be targeted for review. Legislation with regard to watershed and forestry management, preservation and conservation should be addressed, notwithstanding the obligations imposed by the Convention on Biodiversity and the Barbados Plan of Action. Review and upgrade of legislation in itself is however only half the measure. For those areas requiring enforcement, stringent monitoring and policing of the measures must be effected. Further, legislation is again only as good as the infrastructure for enforcement of the legislation. Systems and infrastructure must be put in place to support the legislation so too the necessary trained human resource pool and the finances to effect and support the legislation. The strategy for prevention, eradication and management/control, should be based on both individual and collective efforts. Partnerships among Member States and partnerships with regional and international agencies and groups should be vigorously fostered and pursued. In the matter of invasive species within CARICOM, we should seek to be our neighbour’s keepers. More cohesive use and sharing of the tools of risk assessments, baseline data, and systematic surveillance and early warning systems, should be pursued. Attention should be paid to the pathways of introduction inclusive of ballast water disposal, packaging materials and their disposal, and last ports of entry by humans.

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CARICOM’S INITIATIVES TO HARMONISE MEASURES VS INVASIVES

The Revised Treaty of Chaguaramas, which provides the legal framework for the establishment of the CSME, calls for harmonised regimes regarding legislation, sanitary and phytosanitary measures, guidelines, standards, and technical regulations, consumer protection amongst others. In this context, Institutions of CARICOM such as the Caribbean Environmental Health Institute (CEHI) ³ and the Caribbean Regional Organisation for Standards and Quality (CROSQ) ⁴ have been established and are currently assisting in some areas of the harmonisation process particularly with respect to development and standardisation of technical procedures and protocols. The Caribbean Agricultural Research and Development Institute, another Institute of the Community, is currently targeted to assist in the invasive species initiative through its research capacity. These Institutions can provide direct and indirect support infrastructure to the initiatives regarding invasive species. To address the issues at the regional and national levels regarding the strengthening of agricultural health and food safety systems and infrastructure inclusive of sanitary and phytosanitary measures, the Community has been given the green light for the establishment of a Caribbean Agricultural Health and Food Safety Agency (CAHFSA). This Agency is charged with the responsibility for coordinating all matters related to animal health, plant health and food safety including sanitary and phytosanitary measures. In that context, the agency is charged with assisting in the modernization and harmonization of legislation, development of databases, development of monitoring and surveillance programmes, development of risk assessment cadre of personnel, at the regional level. The Institution is also mandated to assist Member States in the development and strengthening of their national agricultural health and food safety systems including, building laboratory capacity and capability, training of port quarantine personnel, developing and harmonise procedures and protocols such as for port inspection and the like, and development of databases among other responsibilities ⁵ .

STRENGTHENING CARICOM’S BORDERS

The approach to safeguarding against invasive species within the framework of the CSME lies in strengthening CARICOM borders through an informed and effective briefcase of policy measures. This must include inter alia the development of a regional strategy for invasive species with provisions for the modernisation and harmonisation of national legislation across ministries of health, agriculture, transportation and tourism, forestry and natural resources, and in fostering and building effective partnerships with international regional and national agencies such as Ministries of Finance and Planning, and encouraging the participation of private sector and non-government groups so that systems and infrastructure which guard the borders could be strengthened. In this context the Community has taken its first step in the building of partnerships and actively developing regional policy for invasive species. A draft Caribbean Regional Invasive Species Intervention Strategy (CRISIS) ⁶ initially formulated by the Caribbean Food Crops Society, advanced by the Inter-American Institute for Cooperation on Agriculture (IICA) and

³ PTPT More information provided at: www.cehi.org ⁴ PTPT More information provided at: www.crosq.org ⁵ PTPT 7PP ^t^h PP Revised Feasibility Study for the Establishment of the Caribbean Agricultural Health and Food Safety Agency. CARICOM Secretariat, FAO, IICA and PAHO. May 2005. ⁶ PTPT CRISIS: A proposed framework for enhanced cooperation and effective actions to safeguard the agriculture, natural resources and human health of the individual countries, states, nations or islands in the Caribbean Region from the serious threat and damages of Invasive Alien Species (IAS).

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CABI has recently been refined in partnership with CAB International (CABI), CARDI, the CARICOM Secretariat, Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations (FAO), University of Florida (UF), and University of the West Indies (UWI), and some technicians of CARICOM Member States. The draft has been circulated to governments of CARICOM Member States for their comments and after further refinements, will be tabled for the consideration at the next meeting of the Council for Trade and Economic Development ⁷ in 2006. The COTED, cognisant of the importance of the issues of invasive species has endorsed the proposed activities of the Working Group on Invasive species comprising of CABI, CARDI, CARICOM Secretariat, CIRAD, FAO, Florida A&M University (FAMU), IICA, UF and UWI, and has requested further reports including an update on the development of fundable programmes and projects for the monitoring, management and control of invasive species.

CONCLUSION

In conclusion, safeguarding measures for invasive species within the context of the CARICOM and the CSME must be approached in a holistic manner. Effective safeguarding cannot be achieved individually and must be based on smart use of the region’s resources to formulate policy measures. Regional Institutions (in particular CAHFSA) of CARICOM and Member States must work together to create the synergies and maximise the scarce resources in this initiative in partnership with the international organisations that foster development in the Community such as CABI, FAO, PAHO, and IICA. Strategies for monitoring and active surveillance which provides early detection for the prevention of introduction of more invasive species in the Region must be developed. Modernisation of legislation (agriculture, environment, transport and tourism) and strengthening of the national capacity and capability of Member states to identify, analyse and take preventative measures must be prioritised at the regional and national levels. Harmonisation and/or convergence of measures, guidelines and laws and protocols must occur. Effective partnerships must be fostered across all relevant individuals, departments, institutions and organisations at the national, regional and international levels and finally the public and private sectors must become intimately involved in any safeguarding initiatives with respect to the threats of invasive species.

REFERENCES

Kairo, M.T.K.; Ali, B.; Cheesman, O.; Haysom, K and Murphy, S. (2003). Invasive species threats in the Caribbean Region. Report to The Nature Conservancy. CAB International. 134 pp.

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⁷ PTPT COTED: Ministerial policy making forum within CARICOM.

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THE INVASIVE SPECIES SAFEGUARDING STRATEGY WITHIN THE ALLIANCE’S FRAMEWORK FOR THE REPOSITIONING OF AGRICULTURE IN THE REGION – THE JAGDEO INITIATIVE

Dr. H. Arlington D. Chesney, Director, Caribbean Regional Office and Adviser to the Director General, Inter-American Institute for Cooperation on Agriculture, IICA Headquarters, San Jose, Costa Rica. Phone 506-216-02-22; FAX: 506-216-02 58; Arlington.Chesney@iica.int .

ABSTRACT: The Alliance for the Sustainable Development of Agriculture and the Rural Milieu in the Wider Caribbean is a forum to enable dialogue and the creation of a common vision and agreed goals and objectives for agricultural and rural development in the Caribbean. The Conference of Heads of Government (CHG) authorized Mr. Bharat Jagdeo, President of Guyana, to launch the Jagdeo Initiative on the development and implementation of a process that would result in the resurgence of agricultural potential in member countries, individually and collectively. Through this Initiative ten major key Binding Constraints on agricultural development in the Caribbean have been identified, and corresponding remedial actions required at the national and regional levels have been prescribed. Examples of constraints and remedial actions that would assist in the combat of invasive species include the following: Constraint No. 1: Limited Financing and Inadequate New Investments; remedial actions: (a) establish an Agricultural Modernization Fund (AMF), and (b) define CARICOM’s Agri-Food Needs at 2005 to 2015 to identify investment opportunities (incl. tourism); Constraint No. 2: Deficient and uncoordinated risk management measures including Praedial Larceny; remedial actions: (a) operate a disaster fund within the AMF, and (b) support mandatory farmer and fresh produce trader registration; Constraint No. 4: Outdated and inefficient Agriculture Health and Food Safety Systems; remedial actions: (a) provide funds from AMF to operationalise CAHFSA and national agencies or systems, (b) strengthen the legislative and regulatory trade framework through establishment of CAHFSA and National Agencies or Systems, and (c) collective financing of Good Agricultural Practices (GAP) and Hazard Analysis Critical Control Points (HACCP) protocols to improve industry competitiveness.

KEY WORDS: binding constraints, Agricultural Modernization Fund, CAHFSA, Good Agricultural Practices (GAP), Hazard Analysis Critical Control Points (HACCP) protocols

INTRODUCTION I have been asked by the Organisers of the Symposium to position the Invasive Species Safeguarding Strategy (ISSS) within the Agricultural Alliance’s Jagdeo Initiative. I believe that most of you know of the ISSS and, if you do not know, by 4:30 pm this afternoon you will certainly do. Accordingly, this is one element of the presentation that I do not need to define and /or describe. However, I believe that I do need to provide some background information for the other two elements, the Alliance and the Jagdeo Initiative. This is especially so for non- CARICOM members.

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ALLIANCE FOR THE SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT OF AGRICULTURE AND THE RURAL MILIEU IN THE WIDER CARIBBEAN

Firstly, the Alliance or to give its complete name, the Alliance for the Sustainable Development of Agriculture and the Rural Milieu in the Wider Caribbean. This is a Forum that has been conceptualized by IICA to enable dialogue and the creation of a common vision and agreed upon goals and objectives by the major stakeholders involved in agricultural and rural development in the Caribbean. The members are the Forum of Ministers of Agriculture (that provides the Chairman), the Caribbean Agribusiness Association (CABA), the Caribbean Council for Higher Education in Agriculture (CACHE), the Caribbean Agriculture Forum of Youths (CAFY), the Caribbean Network of Rural Women Producers (CANROP) and the Regional Technology Innovation System (PROCICARIBE). It has, as Observers, regional and international institutions involved in agricultural and rural development, such as, the Caribbean Development Bank (CDB), the Caribbean Food and Nutrition Institute/Pan American Health Organisation, the Caribbean Regional Negotiation Machinery (CRNM), Caribbean Environmental Health Institute (CEHI), and the Caribbean Fisheries Management Project. The CARICOM Secretariat and IICA initially comprised the Secretariat. They were joined by the Food and Agricultural Organisation (FAO) in 2003 and the Caribbean Agricultural Research and Development Institute (CARDI) in 2005. The Alliance and its members are in the process of establishing functioning national chapters in each CARICOM Country. The Jadgeo Initiative has its origin in the request of President Bharat Jagdeo of Guyana, in his capacity as Lead Head for Agriculture within the Conference of Heads of Government (CHG), to the Directors General of FAO and IICA in late 2003. This request was to assist him in the development and implementation of a process that would result in the resurgence of agricultural potential in member countries, individually and collectively. Consequently, representatives of the two institutions, along with the CARICOM

Secretariat, assisted President Jagdeo in the preparation of a position paper that he presented to the 25 ^t^h Meeting of the CHG in Grenada in July 2004. This paper, which was accepted by Heads, highlighted, inter alia, the multifunctionality of agriculture, its economic and socio- cultural importance, the trend of declining production exacerbated by the rulings of the WTO and EU Trade Agreements, the need to put in place a New Agriculture to address this decline and the need for the major stakeholders to identify what were/are the major key Binding Constraints that would limit the success of this exercise. To facilitate the process of identification of the major key Binding Constraints, IICA, with financial support from the Technical Centre for Agricultural and Rural Cooperation (CTA) and logistical support from the CARICOM Secretariat and FAO, organized two regional workshops:

- In October 2004, to brief National Focal Points on the conduct and expected

outputs of national consultations with the major stakeholders; and

- In December 2004, to synthesise, integrate and prioritise the results of the national

consultations. These national and regional consultations resulted in the identification of 10 key Binding Constraints along with some suggested Interventions to address these Constraints. These were ratified by the Forum of Ministers of Agriculture, as part of the Alliance in Jamaica January 2005, and agreed to by the CHG at its Intersessional Meeting in Suriname February, 2005. You would note that the process was fast tracked. This is a reflection of the very limited time available to the Caribbean to reposition its agriculture.

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I will return to the key Binding Constraints and the Interventions subsequently. time, I would wish to indicate some key characteristics/features of the Jagdeo Initiative.

THE JAGDEO INITIATIVE

The Jagdeo Initiative (i) Visualizes a Sector that no later than 2015 has:

At this

a. made substantial progress towards contributing significantly to national and regional development and to economic, social and environmental sustainability;

b. a transparent regulatory framework at national and regional levels, that promotes and facilitates investment and attracts (direct and indirect) inflows of capital;

c. significantly transformed its processes and products and stimulated the innovative entrepreneurial capacity of Caribbean agricultural and rural communities; and

d. enabled the region (as a whole) to achieve an acceptable level of food security that is not easily disrupted by natural and or manmade disasters; and

(ii) Emphasizes that it:

a. finds its legitimacy in the Regional Transformation Programme for Agriculture (RTP), established through Articles 56 and 57 of the Revised Treaty and which has as its main objective:

b. the fundamental transformation of the agricultural sector towards market oriented, internationally competitive and environmentally sound production of agricultural products.

c. is not an attempt at a comprehensive reform of the RTP for Agriculture. Rather, it recognizes that progress within a CARICOM Single Market and Economy (CSME) requires that we operationalise the RTP (with appropriate adjustments as necessary);

d. incorporates and builds on previous actions, such as, the Alliance for the Sustainable

Development of Agriculture and the Rural Milieu (1998), the Caribbean Development Bank’s symposium on the Repositioning of Regional Agriculture (2002), the FAO Food Security Project (2003), and the OECS Policy and Plan of Action (2003/2004);

e. does not attempt to treat with the traditional sub-sectors of sugar, bananas and rice which currently are being addressed separately. A Core Group, comprising the Secretariat of the CARICOM and Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States, the CARDI, CDB, CRNM, FAO and IICA, has been appointed by the CHG to develop and monitor the implementation of the Jagdeo Initiative. However, the Core Group has

initiated a process to determine within each Intervention the actions required at the national and

regional

programme/project actions with cost estimates and appropriate time frames will be developed.

Further, it has identified agencies to lead the implementation of various components of the Proposal.

level

and

those

ongoing

and/or

proposed.

In

this

way,

a

prioritized

set

of

1. The Key Constraints that have been identified by the stakeholders, are:

2. Limited financing and inadequate level of new financing

3. Deficient and uncoordinated risk management measures

4. Fragmented and unorganised private sector

5. Inadequate research and development

18

6.

Outdated and inefficient agricultural health and food safety systems

7. Inadequate land and water distribution and management systems

8. Inadequate transportation systems, particularly for perishables

9. Weak and non-integrated information and intelligence systems and services

10. Marketing – weak linkages and participation in growth market segments

11. Lack of skilled human resources

CONSTRAINTS

SAFEGUARDING STRATEGY

AND

OPERATIONALISATION

OF

THE

INVASIVE

SPECIES

You will note that almost all of these Constraints have a direct bearing on the operationalisation of the ISSS. However, because of time constraints, I will use a few examples of the listed Interventions to illustrate this potential relationship.

Constraint No. 1: Limited Financing and Inadequate New Investments.

Interventions:

i. Establish an Agricultural Modernization Fund (AMF) taking into account the Regional Development Fund.

ii. Conduct a study on CARICOM’s Agri-Food Needs at 2005 to 2015 to identify

investment opportunities (incl. tourism).

iii. Mandatory farmer and business registration to facilitate channeling of financing and

investment from AMF.

Constraint No. 2: Deficient and uncoordinated risk management measures including Praedial Larceny. Interventions:

i. Operate a disaster fund within the AMF.

ii. Support mandatory farmer and fresh produce trader registration.

Constraint No. 3: Inadequate Research and Development. Interventions:

i. Establish, upgrade, consolidate R & D facilities and infrastructure, esp. modernized laboratories.

ii. Increase industry collaboration and investment in research and infrastructure.

iii. Governments should prioritize and facilitate skills training

Constraint No. 4: Outdated and inefficient Agriculture Health and Food Safety Systems.

Interventions:

i. Provide funds from AMF to operationalise CAHFSA and national agencies or systems.

ii. Strengthen the legislative and regulatory trade framework through establishment of CAHFSA and National Agencies or Systems.

iii. Collective financing of Good Agricultural Practices (GAP) and Hazard Analysis Critical Control Points (HACCP) protocols to improve industry competitiveness.

The above indicates very clearly that the Jadgeo Initiative provides a framework within which the ISSS can fit. Specially, it has the potential to provide financial and human resources and the development and operationalisation of the physical – laboratories, marketing and

19

transport - infrastructure, as well as the institutional redefining, restructuring and retooling that are required by the ISSS. It is now for us to work together to make use of this platform, so as to assist in achieving increased trade of agricultural trade and improved incomes to our agrientrepreneurs.

20


AN ASSESSMENT OF THE SCIENTIFIC POTENTIAL AT THE UNIVERSITY OF THE WEST INDIES IN SUPPORT OF A COMPREHENSIVE REGIONAL RISK REDUCTION STRATEGY WITH RESPECT TO INVASIVE SPECIES

Ranjit H. Singh, Department of Agricultural Economics and Extension, Faculty of Science and Agriculture, University of the West Indies, St. Augustine, Trinidad, West Indies. Phone: 868-662- 2003 Ext. 2094 FAX: 868-663-8355; Email: rsingh@fans.uwi.tt

ABSTRACT: While globalization of markets and freer trade may have benefits associated with the expansion of trade, globalization is also associated with the increased risk to agriculture and the natural environment from the incidence of invasive / exotic pests. The impact of invasive species could be severe and long term in nature thereby setting back the development process of countries so affected. Given the importance of agriculture and environmental resources to the development of countries in the region comprising the Caribbean Basin, a strategy for addressing the associated risk and threat is urgently required and timely. Designing an effective strategy for risk reduction and management with respect to invasive species requires an efficient intelligence/early warning system so as to ensure the timely adoption of precautionary measures to prevent entry or measures to contain the spread and damage caused by invasives where the third border has been breached. The response, however, must be informed by scientific knowledge. In this regard the S&T/R&D support is an essential component of any comprehensive strategy to address the threat of invasives. This paper examines the S&T/R&D capacity resident at one of the Region’s major institutions, the University of the West Indies. The methodology for this assessment includes a review of recent research at the UWI as well an examination of the competencies in relevant areas of science that are resident at the various Campuses of the institution.

KEY WORDS: UWI, globalization, Mona, Cave Hill, St. Augustine, contestable fund for R&D, disciplinary area, specialty area, number of researchers, number of publications

RÉSUMÉ : Pendant que la globalisation de marchés et fait plus librement du commerce peut avoir des avantages associés à l'expansion de commerce, la globalisation est aussi associée au risque augmenté à l'agriculture et à l'environnement naturel de l'incidence d'envahissants / les insectes nuisibles exotiques. L'impact d'espèces envahissantes pourrait être sévère et à long terme dans la nature retardant ainsi le processus de développement de pays si affectés. Étant donné l'importance d'agriculture et de ressources de l'environnement au développement de pays dans la région comprenant la Cuvette Antillaise, une stratégie pour adresser le risque associé et la menace est d'urgence exigé et à propos. La conception d'une stratégie efficace pour la réduction de risque et l'administration en ce qui concerne les espèces envahissantes exige un système d'intelligence/signe avant-coureur efficace afin de garantir l'adoption à propos de mesures préventives pour prévenir l'entrée ou les mesures pour contenir la propagation et le dommage provoqué par invasives où la troisième frontière a été faite une brèche. La réponse, pourtant, doit être informée par la connaissance scientifique. À ce propos le S /R le soutien est une composante essentielle de n'importe quelle stratégie complète d'adresser la menace d'invasives. Ce papier examine le S /R le résident de capacité à une des institutions importantes de la Région, l'Université des Antilles. La méthodologie pour cette évaluation inclut une révision de recherche récente à l'UWI aussi un

21

examen des compétences dans les régions pertinentes de science qui sont le résident aux Campus différents de l'institution.

MOTS CLÉ : UWI, la globalisation, Mona, la Colline de Grotte, la Rue. Augustine, le fonds contestable pour R & D, la région disciplinaire, la région de spécialité, le nombre de chercheurs, le nombre de publications

1. INTRODUCTION

Invasive species, according to the Ecological Society of America, refers to those non-indigenous species which have evolved elsewhere and have been purposely or accidentally relocated into an environment where they persist, proliferate and cause harm to the environment as well as to the inhabitants of that environment. Invasive species include both plant and animal organisms. Invasives can adversely affect the environment into which they are transferred in several ways, ultimately destroying or changing the genetic make up of the environment. Invasives, according to research have eaten indigenous organisms, interbred, or in some cases have introduced pathogens or parasites which have severely compromised the environmental integrity of these ecosystems. Research in this area, however, has provided some useful tools to deal with the problem of invasives. Specifically, the approach to invasives can either be proactive or reactive in nature. Prevention of intrusion by invasives can take the form of decontamination, especially in the case of transportation equipment in international trade. The international community has also taken heed to the threats of invasives and has sought to enact new conventions and protocols of trade which reduce the risk of invasives. At the other end of the spectrum, the problem of invasive species can be dealt with, through eradication, where early detection and rapid response is the key to dealing with the invaders. In this situation, continuous monitoring and evaluation of the system is imperative to prevent any further invasions. Invasives can also be contained and controlled. Invasives can be controlled using chemical, mechanical and or biological methods. At this stage it is important to note that with any method used to deal with invasives, restoration of the native environment is important. This is an important step to minimize the risk of reinvasion. The issue of invasive species is currently a ‘hot topic’ in the international arena, especially in the agricultural sector due to several reasons, including the increasing pace of trade and globalization coupled with the expansion of agricultural operations. In the Caribbean Region where there have been tremendous efforts to revive and revitalize the agricultural sector researchers have made significant progress. The main tertiary educational institute in the Region, the University of the West Indies (UWI), has been working with other institutions to address various problems in the sector including that of invasives. In an attempt to assess the capacity of UWI to conduct research in disciplinary areas relevant to invasives, Research Reports from each of the three main Campuses were reviewed, with some degree of emphasis, placed on the research work and publications from the respective Medical Sciences, Engineering, Natural Sciences as well as Agricultural Faculties. Some of the specific publications reviewed included The Mona Campus Report, The Cave Hill Report and the St Augustine Report. The Annual Departmental Reports were also reviewed to determine the capacity for invasive research. This paper provides a summary of research conducted in various disciplinary areas related to research on invasives. The paper also attempts to measure capacity for research in this area based on the number of scientists actively working in associated disciplinary areas.

22

2.

EVIDENCE OF RELEVANT RESEARCH OUTPUT

As indicated above, an attempt was made to determine the capacity for research on invasives at UWI using the publication records of scientists at all three campuses. Table 1 below provides a summary of the number of publications in the key support areas in recent years. The data suggests a concentration of work at UWI on disease control (18 papers). On the other, hand the

effort in the area of pest control was significantly below (8 papers) that for disease control. Similarly, work on Genetics and Biotechnology was less prominent.

A total of 84 scientists were associated with the publication output reported with the

concentration/clustering of scientists appearing in the area of disease research, followed by

genetics and biotechnology.

In addition to the publication record, an alternative indicator of capacity for research at

UWI in invasives was the number of scientists working in associated disciplines. On all three campuses of the UWI a total of 52 scientists were active in disciplines of relevance to invasive research (Table 2). As it stands, at UWI there are currently 22 active scientists in the area of biotechnology and genetics research, 14 scientists working in pest and disease control, 13 in biology and entomology research and 2 in biochemistry research.

Table 1: Summary of Research Publications and the Number of Researchers in the Disciplines Relevant to Invasives

Number of

Number

Disciplinary Area

Publications

of Researchers

Bio Technology

6

20

Genetics

7

20

Pest Control

8

15

Disease Control

18

29

Management Policy

1

4

Table 2: Indication of Research Capacity for Invasive Species:

Number of Scientist

Area of Specialty

Number of Specialists

Biotechnology and Genetics

22

Pest and Disease Control

14

Biology and Entomology

13

Biochemistry

2

3. BIOTECHNOLOGY AND GENETICS RESEARCH

Biotechnological and genetics research is a key area of focus because understanding the genetic make up of the invasive specie as well as the organism or environment which it invades, enables researchers to identify those characteristics which make either the organism or environment vulnerable. In this regard the University of the West Indies has made some significant strides. The list below summarizes some of the current research being conducted in this field;

23

Biotechnology of Selected Crops with a view to Improving Productivity, Yams, dasheen and Coco Yams, Anthuriums.

“Biological and Molecular Characterization of Papaya Ringspot Virus

Exploiting Pepper Genetics Resources Towards Developing a Pepper Industry in the Caribbean

Utilization of Cacao Genetic Resources Towards Developing Resistance to Blackpod and Witches’ Broom Diseases

Construction of a Genome Map for Cacao

“The Evolution of New Virus Genes

Microbial Genetics

The range of individual scientists on the respective campuses conducting research in biotechnology is given in the Table 3 below. It is clearly evident that the university has a significant research capacity in terms of the number of specialists conducting publication oriented research on topics relevant to invasives.

4. PEST AND DISEASE RESEARCH

Pest and disease control is another key support area in the study of invasives. In this regard the UWI has also made significant strides. The list below gives a snapshot of the current research being conducted, with the relevant scientists involved in this area of research, being cited in the Table 4.

Begomovirus and Whitefly in Tomatoes

“Management of Cabbage Pest With Companion Crops and Botanical Formulations

Biocontrol Potential of the Nematode; Management of citrus root Weevil

The impact of Botanical Formulations on citrus root weevil

Pesticidal Potential of various Tropical Plants

Strategies of control of Commelina spp. in Banana Plantations

Non Traditional methods for Nematode Control in Bananas

IPM: Integrated Pest management

24

Table 3: Scientists: Concluding Research in the Area of Biotechnology & Genetics

Mona Campus

St Augustine Campus

Helen N. Asemota M. Chin Paula Tennant Mohammed H. Ahmed. Roye, Marcia E., Wayne A. McLaughlin, D. P. Maxwell Dwight E. J. Robinson Wendell Snow George Grant.

D.

A. Iwaro

S.

Surujdeo-Maharaj

D.

Butler

P.

Umaharan

Marissa Moses

Lambert Motilal,

O.

Sounigo,

J.

M. Thevenin,

C.

Lanaud

A.

M. Risterucci

I. Pieretti,

J. L. Noyer.

Table 4: Scientists: Activity Conducting Research on Pest & Disease Control

Mona Campus

St Augustine Campus

Kathy M. Dalip Dwight E. Robinson Ajai Mansingh. Jacinth Myers Dave G. Hutton

P.

Umaharan

A.

Khan

S.

Seepersad

J.

Walker

C.

Caruth

A.

Hosein

V.

Gajadharsingh

Wendy Ann P. Isaac Richard A. I. Brathwaite

Ayub Khan

5. BIOLOGY AND ENTOMOLOGY RESEARCH

Biology and entomology generally involves the study of living organisms in their natural habitat. The University, as an institution, has a strong Biology and by extension, Natural Sciences Faculty. A list of some of the topics being researched currently is given below and the researchers who are active in these areas are included in Table 5:

Cell wall biochemistry

Food ripening

Uses of Caribbean Plants

Crop ecology and sustainable agriculture

Behavioral ecology

Marine ecology

Fisheries Biology

25

Environmental and microbiology

Plant pathology

Soil microbiology

Mangrove ecology

Microbial ecology

Ecological entomology

Table 5: Scientists: Activity Conducting Research in Biology & Entomology

Mona Campus

Cave Hill Campus

C.

M. Sean Carrington

Karl Aiken Dr. Dwight E. Robinson Mona K. Webber Eric Garraway

Angela Fields

Louis Chinnery

Julia Horrocks

Wayne Hunte

G.

E. Mathison

Leonard O’Garro Sarah Sutrina Lyndon Waterman

6. BIOCHEMISTRY

The concentration of the current research being conducted in biochemistry at the University of the West Indies is summarized by the list below.

Biochemical and molecular Studies on Tuberization on selected crops:

Sweet Potatoes

Yam bean

cassava

pigeon peas

Post Harvest Technology

7. CONCLUSION

This paper sought to examine the R&D effort at the UWI and the cadre of scientists at the institution as a basis for assessing the capacity for research on invasive. The data reviewed was limited to recent years and included data from the three main campuses of the University – the Mona Campus in Jamaica, the St Augustine Campus in Trinidad and the Cave Hill Campus in Barbados. The general indication is that UWI has a large pool of scientists working in a range of disciplines relevant to R&D with respect to invasives. The data however suggests significantly more effort is manifested at Mona and St Augustine than at Cave Hill. While this capacity exists at UWI, any serious attempt to address the risk of invasive to the Caribbean Region would necessarily need to mobilize and engage this capacity. Towards this end a range of strategies may be appropriate, including the establishment of a contestable fund for R&D on invasives.

26


FACTORING BIODIVERSITY, ENVIRONMENTAL, AND NATURAL RESOURCES CONSIDERATIONS INTO A REGIONAL SAFEGUARDING STRATEGY

Vyju Lopez ¹ , Sean Murphy ² , Marion Seier ² and Moses Kairo ³ . ¹ CAB International Caribbean and Latin America Regional Centre, Gordon Street, Curepe, Trinidad and Tobago, Phone: 868- 622-4173, FAX: 868-663-2859, v.lopez@cabi.org, ² CABI Bioscience UK Centre (Ascot), Silwood Park, Ascot, Berks SL5 7TA, UK, s.murphy@cabi.org , m.seier@cabi.org, ³ Center for Biological Control, College of Engineering Sciences, Technology & Agriculture, Florida A&M University, Tallahassee, FL 32307-4100, USA., Moses.Kairo@FAMU.EDU .

ABSTRACT. When dealing with invasive alien species (IAS), attention is usually focused on economic aspects i.e. agricultural management and trade. However, impacts of IAS on the environment, often are not considered at least in the first instance and tend to be quite complex. IAS often have the potential to cause enormous damage to the biodiversity, environment and living natural resources, particularly on small islands. They can alter the structure and function of ecosystems, and can also cause extinction of vulnerable species. Since the Caribbean is one the world’s biodiversity ‘hotspots’ with a range of endemic species, it is necessary that environmental considerations are factored into the development of any regional safeguarding strategy. This involves bringing on board various stakeholders and establishing the key linkages necessary for effective action planning and implementation.

KEY

stakeholders

WORDS:

invasive

INTRODUCTION

alien

species,

small

islands,

ecosystems,

structure,

functions,

The advent of the hibiscus mealybug, Maconellicoccus hirsutus, in Grenada and its subsequent spread during the 1990s was a wake-up call in the Caribbean to the potential and real threat of invasive alien species (IAS), not only to agriculture and trade but also the environment and natural resources. Grenada not only faced agricultural trade barriers but also had to combat the danger posed to the watershed area of Grand Etang as a result of the loss of forests comprising Blue Mahoe, Samaan and Teak trees, which are important hosts of the mealybug (Kairo et al., 2000; (http://www.ceris.purdue.edu/napis/pests/pmb/freg/sa263.html). Indeed, the mealybug has sometimes been called a ‘blessing in disguise’ because it helped tremendously in bringing the issue of IAS to the forefront in the Caribbean and sensitizing decision-makers on the importance of developing national and regional strategies for combating future introductions. It also reiterated the need to focus attention not only on agricultural management and trade, but to factor in biodiversity, environmental and natural resources considerations into any regional safeguarding strategy.

Over the past few years the importance and impact of IAS on the environment has been acknowledged and discussed in numerous environmental fora. Article 8(h) of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), for instance, recognizes the risk posed by IAS and calls on Parties to ‘as far as possible and as appropriate: Prevent the introduction of, control or eradicate those alien species that threaten ecosystems, habitats or species’. In 2002, at the sixth Conference of Parties (COP 6), Decision VI/23 was adopted, which comprised guiding principles and a programme of work for the implementation of Article 8(h). The Decision also recognized IAS as

27

the primary threat to biodiversity in Small Island Developing States (SIDS) and urged donors and other funding sources to make financial support available for the development of strategies and actions in geographically and evolutionarily isolated ecosystems as a matter of urgent priority. This paper draws heavily from Kairo (2004), a publication documenting one of the first attempts in the Caribbean region to collate relevant information on IAS from an environmental perspective.

CARIBBEAN BIODIVERSITY AND ITS IMPORTANCE

Caribbean biodiversity comprises marine and terrestrial / fresh water ecosystems. The region contains 7 per cent of the world’s coral reefs (about 20 000 km ² ) with a great array of marine biodiversity (UNEP 2001). The marine ecosystems, made up of reefs, mangroves and sea grass beds, harbour and sustain a wide range of marine species. These include at least 60 species of coral and 1500 species of fish, of which about a quarter are endemic to the Caribbean. In fact, the wider Caribbean has the highest concentration of biodiversity in the Atlantic Ocean basin and also encompasses the second largest reef in the world, off the coast of Belize. While reef damage resulting from coral bleaching and sedimentation is a major environmental concern, the impact of other phenomena (including IAS) is poorly understood. The Caribbean is one of the world’s biodiversity ‘hotspots’ (Myers et al., 2000). The development of island biotas is characterized by selective colonization and dynamics of evolution that often result in highly endemic populations. Thus, many islands have a disproportionately high biodiversity value. Conservation International estimates that 58% of the 11,500-12,000 plant species in the Caribbean are endemic. In Cuba, for example, 50% of the 6505 species of plants, 30% of mammals, 22% birds, 84% reptiles and 87% amphibians are considered endemic. Additional information can be found on the following web pages:

http://www.biodiversityhotspots.org/xp/Hotspots/caribbean?showpage+Biodiversity http://www.biodiversityhotspots.org/xp/Hotspots/caribbean/. The tranquil beauty and health of the natural environment provide a superb backdrop to the tourism industry, which is an important income generator in many Caribbean economies. Numerous families depend on the biological diversity at the genetic, species and ecosystem level for their livelihoods. Marine environments provide food and employment for coastal communities. Agricultural production depends heavily on the biodiversity of soil dwelling flora and fauna to keep disease-producing organisms at bay. In addition, natural enemies help in the sustainable management of pest species. Forest species not only provide a suitable habitat for numerous organisms but also lumber and a range of other materials and products.

THREATS TO CARIBBEAN BIODIVERSITY FROM IAS

Kairo (2004) discussed the threats of IAS on the environment, biodiversity and living natural resources in the Caribbean, acknowledging that these areas had not received much attention in the past and were therefore lacking in information and knowledge of relevant issues. An assessment of the status of biodiversity on islands (UNEP, 2004) revealed that several factors, including human development, pollution, over-exploitation and IAS, seriously threatened island biodiversity. UNEP (2003) summarized factors influencing the vulnerability of islands to environmental threats (including IAS). In the Caribbean context, these comprised geographic isolation, small physical size, ecological uniqueness and fragility, limited natural resources and capacity, dependence on marine resources and exposure / sensitivity to natural disasters.

28

The impact of IAS can be particularly severe on the indigenous biodiversity of island ecosystems. The biological characteristics that bestow unique conservation value on islands also render them particularly vulnerable to the establishment and impact of invasive species (D’Antonio & Dudley, 1995; Cronk & Fuller, 1995). The introduction of species affects the isolation of island biotas, the very characteristic that underpins their special patterns of development. Furthermore, the limited size of islands increases the probability that habitats can be altered to render them more susceptible to invasive species. Ballast water and hull fouling have been implicated in the introduction of some IAS, e.g. spread of the green mussel in the region. Much of the Caribbean region is in the Atlantic hurricane belt leading to regular habitat disturbances. This opens up new avenues for the establishment of invasive plants, often as part of natural (Pittosporum undulatum in Jamaica (Chai, S. 2004. http://www.jamaicachm.org.jm/Articles/pittosporum_invasion.asp)) or manmade (introduced landscaping plants) restoration efforts in the wake of hurricanes and other disasters. There is generally limited capacity to undertake effective quarantine measures in many of the small Caribbean countries since officials are often spread thinly and unable to manage the large number of entry ports and arriving cargo / passengers. The thriving informal trade in live commodities (fresh fruits and vegetables, animals, birds) between the islands further exacerbates the situation.

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF IAS IN THE CARIBBEAN

In 2003, three countries in the Caribbean (Bahamas, Dominican Republic and Jamaica) developed lists of invasive species as part of the I3N project under the Inter-American Biodiversity Information Network. During the same year, CAB International and The Nature Conservancy began collating information and drew up a list of IAS affecting natural and managed ecosystems of the insular Caribbean (Kairo et al., 2003). This list, best described as a work in progress, is far from comprehensive, with terrestrial species dominating the alien, or naturalized / invasive species (Table 1). The low number of marine species (16 species listed as naturalized/invasive) is probably more reflective of the poor state of knowledge in this system than a true representation of facts.

Table 1. Alien species in Caribbean by broad habitat type (Kairo et al, 2003, Kairo (2004))

Broad habitat type

Exotic

Naturalised and / or invasive

Terrestrial

479

390

Freshwater

55

10

Marine

18

16

Total

552

416

Ecological

impacts

of

IAS

range

from

simple

competition

among

predators

or

competitors to interactions operating at several, often complex, levels.

The deliberate introduction of the Australian native tree Melaleuca quinquenervia into Florida and the neighbouring Bahamas Islands is a good example of cumulative effects across biological scales that can result in complex changes in ecosystem structure and function. This highly invasive tree threatens native biodiversity on account of its strong tendency to form virtual monocultures and its high flammability, as well as alteration of hydrological regimes through soil accretion (Center et. al., 2000). It is also known for its allergenic characteristics.

29

Dichrostachys cinerea a native of the savannas of Africa and India was introduced into Cuba nearly 100 years ago. It regenerates vigorously even from small fragments of roots and has thus expanded its adventive geographic range forming immense monocultures, particularly in disturbed habitats. The small Indian mongoose, Herpestes auropunctatus, which was deliberately introduced into Jamaica in 1872 and subsequently spread to several other islands, has been implicated in the extinction of a number of species (Henderson, 1992). In Antigua for instance, it was one of the major factors that drove the endemic Antiguan Racer snake (AR), Alsophis antiguae to

extinction in all but the small, Great Bird Island (Daltry et al., 2001). Interestingly, the AR faced

a different threat on this island in the form of introduced rats, Rattus rattus. The situation reached

a crisis in 1995 when it was estimated that only about 50 ARs existed in the world (Daltry et al., 2001). Concerted efforts by a range of partners that resulted in the survival and conservation of the AR make an interesting case study (Box 1 below) but even these efforts are hampered because the Great Bird Island can only support a small population of racers.

Box

http://www.antiguanracer.org/html/home.htm)

1:

Case

study

of

the

Antiguan

Racer

(adapted

from

The Problem: The Antiguan Racer (AR), Alsophis antiguae a gentle, harmless grey-brown snake, found only in Antigua and the surrounding islands. Until the advent of the Europeans, it lived in dense forests that covered these islands feeding on lizards and small reptiles. The European settlers cut down forests for huge plantations of sugar cane. Their ships also brought the black rat (Rattus rattus), the population of which soon soared on a diet of sugar cane, and among other things, the eggs of the AR. The ‘smart’ plantation owners then introduced the Indian mongoose Herpestes auropunctatus to kill the rats. But they missed a key point in the habits of the two animals: the rats were mainly nocturnal while the mongoose hunted during the day. So the two animals rarely met. This was disastrous for a range of non-target species including birds, frogs and the AR, which instead became prey for the mongoose. Within 60 years, the AR had completely vanished from Antigua and most offshore islands, the victim of rats, mongoose and human ignorance.

The Solution: Serendipitously, a few ARs survived on tiny, mongoose-free Great Bird Island (GB), where local naturalists and other partners discovered them in early 1990s. A 6-week survey under-taken with permission from Antiguan Forestry Unit revealed that about 50 ARs still existed on GB. It was also realized that there were several other endangered wildlife species that needed protection and conservations. This resulted in the formation of the Antiguan Racer Conservation Project, an international partnership managed by six organizations comprising professionals from the Caribbean, UK and USA. The project used an integrated approach that combined biological research, public awareness, skills transfer, ecological restoration, reintroduction and conservation breeding and habitat management

Mission statement: ‘To conserve the critically endangered Antiguan Racer snake and other indigenous flora and fauna of the offshore islands of Antigua and Barbuda’

The Partners: Antiguan Forestry Unit, Environmental Awareness Group (local NGO), Flora and Fauna International, Durrell Wildlife Conservation Trust, Island Resources Foundation, Black Hills State University (USA)

30

Assistance: Antigua and Barbuda Coast Guard, Zeneca Agrochemicals (Syngenta), Invasive Species Specialist Group, Re-introduction Specialist Group, the Natural History Museum (London), two Professors from the University of Wales (Bangor, UK); a large group of local, regional and international persons who provided assistance with field work, research, education, fundraising and transportation.

Funding: Most by the six managing partners; Additional funds and in-kind contributions:

Government agencies, NGOs, Corporate/Business sectors, Charitable Foundations, Diplomatic missions

Achievements: The AR saved from extinction; Invasive rats cleared from GB and nine other islands; Focused world-wide attention on the snake that was (previously) virtually unknown; Changed public attitudes and turned the snake into a local/national celebrity; Bred ARs in captivity for the first time; Five years spent studying, tagging and identifying individual ARs, making them the most-studied wild snake populations in the world; Persuaded the Government of Antigua and Barbuda to make Antiguan Racer Conservation a priority in its National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan.

Lessons learnt: “Wildlife conservation is all about teamwork. A project will only succeed if people from different organizations work together as a single unit. Different partners have different strengths such as local knowledge, international experience or specialist expertise. By pooling their resources, they make the most of their skills and help each other. Each partner may be responsible for certain tasks, but the overall success of the project depends on how well they operate as a team”.

MANAGEMENT OF IAS AFFECTING THE ENVIRONMENT

In 2002, the COP 6 of the CBD adopted 15 Guiding Principles on the development of strategies to minimize the spread and impact of IAS. The first principle addresses the need for a precautionary approach where scientific information is lacking or not easily available. The others focus on a 3-step hierarchical approach involving, respectively, prevention, early detection and eradication, and containment. At this time, most countries are still in the early stages of putting in place strategies and policies to implement these principles. It is necessary to have a good understanding of the major pathways of IAS in order to develop effective preventive measures. Increased global trade as well as faster movement of humans, biological material and other commodities provide a range of pathways for the unintentional or intentional introduction of IAS (Wittenberg & Cock, 2001). Risk analysis must be carried out prior to any importation in order to reduce or minimize the risk of potentially harmful effects of introductions. Considerable progress has already been made in developing the framework and instruments (especially international standards) necessary for conducting risk analysis (including assessment of environmental risks) for plant health (IPPC, 1996; 2003). The same cannot be said of a range of other sectors, e.g. pet trade and aquaculture. Trade and tourism, two sectors critical to Caribbean economies, often provide the major unintentional pathways for IAS introductions. Shipping operations in the region are growing enormously in response to the expanding petroleum industry. In this case, ships transport bulk oil products on one way routes. With no cargo available on the return route, they often carry huge

31

amounts of ballast water, a large proportion of which is emptied in or near ports. The port of Willemstad, Curaçao is one of the largest in the world in terms of volume and thus the sheer volume of ballast water, if contaminated, increases potential risks of these organisms being introduced. The International Maritime Organization (IMO) has developed guidelines for the control and management of ships' ballast water, the major pathway of marine IAS. In February 2004, a new international instrument (the International Convention for the Control and Management of Ships’ Ballast Water and Sediments) was adopted. Many countries in the region have not adopted the convention - thus, this is a priority. Terrestrial environments, particularly agriculture, have thus far been the targets of a range of activities / initiatives to deal with IAS, while marine environments have largely been ignored until recently. There is generally scant knowledge of marine IAS and their impact in the Caribbean, thus baseline data is urgently required to inform the process. Raising awareness of the problem among relevant stakeholders will be vital as will development of capacity. Potential conflicts of interest, especially as relates to mari-culture, will need to be identified and resolved (Kairo, 2004).

WHO SHOULD BE INVOLVED IN MANAGING IAS?

As the AR case study above amply demonstrates, management of IAS requires a range of partners working together as a team to develop appropriate strategies and use a multi-pronged approach. The characteristics, relative importance and complexity IAS involved and the magnitude of the problem dictates who the potential stakeholders are and what strategies are to be developed. For instance, in the AR case study, there were a relatively small number of key stakeholders since the problem, although complex was localized to an island situation. IAS management involving island chains, large landmasses, and the sea / ocean will require multi- country coordination as well as planning and action involving a wide range of public and private entities. These would include at least transport entities (shipping, trade, and tourism) and production entities (agriculture, fisheries / marine, the environment). Different ministries are often responsible for dealing with different international instruments involving invasive species (e.g. those related to the CBD or the World Trade Organization’s Sanitary and Phytosanitary (WTO SPS) Agreement, or marine issues). There are however clear areas of overlap. Cooperation between the various entities is thus necessary in the development and implementation of effective and efficient responses. Cooperation and collaboration also needs to extend regionally as well as internationally, particularly for those IAS that have a transnational as well as a trans-regional dimension. Thus, organizations with regional and global experience have a vital role to play, particularly in local, national and regional capacity building – both human and infrastructural. Efforts should also focus on engaging the private sector, which, although an important stakeholder, has thus far not been involved to a large extent. And last but not least, the general public, which is often overlooked, must be sensitized and persuaded to become active participants. In particular the education of youth and children and wherever possible and appropriate, their active involvement and participation should be an integral part of any national or regional strategy for the long-term and sustainable management of IAS.

REFERENCES

Chai, S. 2004. Pittosporum invasion of the Blue Mountains http://www.jamaicachm.org.jm/Articles/pittosporum_invasion.asp Center, T.D., Giblin-Davis, R.M., Center, B.J., Makinson, J., Thomas, K., Davies, K.A., Purcell, M., Taylor, G.L., Scheffer, S., Morris, K. & J. Goolsby 2000. Biological control of

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Melaleuca quinquenervia. In Proceedings of U.S. Department of Agriculture Interagency Research Forum on Gypsy Moth and Other Invasive Species. January 18- 21, 2000 Maryland. Editors S.L.C. Fosbroke and K.W. Gottschalk pp 6-7. Cronk, Q.C.B. and Fuller, J.L. 1995. Plant invaders. Chapman & Hall, London. Daltry, J.C., Bloxam, Q., Cooper, G., Day, M.L., Hartley, J., Henry, M., Lindsay, K. & Smith B.E. 2001. Five years of conserving the ‘world’s rarest snake’, the Antiguan racer Alsophis antiguae. Oryx 35: 119-127. D’Antonio, C.M. and Dudley, T.L. 1995. Biological invasions as agents of change on islands versus mainlands. In Islands: Biological Diversity and Ecosystem Function (ed. P.M. Vitousek, L.L. Loope & H. Adsersen), Pp. 103-121. Ecological Studies 115. Springer- Verlag, Berlin. Henderson, R.W. 1992. Consequences of predator introductions and habitat destruction on amphibians and reptiles in the post Columbus West Indies. Caribbean Journal of Science, 28: 1-10. http://www.antiguanracer.org/html/home.htm http://www.biodiversityhotspots.org/xp/Hotspots/caribbean/ . http://www.biodiversityhotspots.org/xp/Hotspots/caribbean?showpage+Biodiversity

http://www.ceris.purdue.edu/napis/pests/pmb/freg/sa263.html

IPPC, 1996. International standards for phytosanitary measures No. 2: Guidelines for pest risk analysis. FAO, Rome. IPPC, 2003. International standards for phytosanitary measures No. 11: Pest risk analysis for quarantine pests including analysis of environmental risks. FAO, Rome. Kairo, M.T.K. 2004. Invasive species: a Caribbean environment and natural resources perspective. Paper presented at the Workshop on Facilitating Safer Caribbean Trade:

Invasive Species Issue, 3-4 June 2004, Trinidad & Tobago.

Kairo, M.T.K., Ali, B.S., Cheesman, O., Haysom, K. and Murphy, S.T. 2003. Caribbean Invasive Species Threats. Report for The Nature Conservancy. 116 pp.

www.iabinus.org/projects/i3n/caribbean_invasives_paper_tnc.PDF

Kairo, M.T.K., Pollard, G.V., Peterkin, D.D. and Lopez, V.F. 2000. Biological Control of the Hibiscus Mealybug, Maconellicoccus hirsutus Green (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae) in the Caribbean. Integrated Pest Management Reviews 5: 241-254. Myers, N., Mittermeier, R.A., Mittermeier, C.G., da Fonseca, G. and Kent, J. 2000. Biodiversity hotspots for conservation priorities. Nature 403: 853-858. UNEP 2004. Status and trends of, and major threats to, island biodiversity. Ad hoc Technical Expert Group on Island Biodiversity. Puerto de la Cruz (Tenerife), Canary Islands, Spain 6-10 September 2004. UNEP 2003. Pilot assessments: The ecological and socio-economic impact of invasive alien species on island ecosystems. Subsidiary Body on Scientific, Technical and Technological Advice, 9th meeting Montreal, 10-14 November 2003.

http://www.biodiv.org/doc/ref/alien/ias-

inlandenpdf#search='UNEP/CBD/SBSTTA/9/INF/33

Wittenberg, R. & Cock, M.J.W. 2001. Invasive Alien Species: A Toolkit of Best Prevention and

Management Practices. CABI Publishing, Wallingford.

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STRATÉGIE DE LUTTE CONTRE LES ESPÈCES EXOTIQUES ENVAHISSANTES DANS LE BASSIN DE LA CARAÏBE : LE POINT DE VUE DES SERVICES DE LA PROTECTION DES VEGÉTAUX DES DÉPARTEMENTS FRANÇAIS D'AMÉRIQUE.

Pierre Ehret, Chargé de mission pour la réglementation phytosanitaire des DOM – Ministère chargé de l'agriculture – DGAL/SDQPV, ZAC d'Alco - BP 3056, 34034 MONTPELLIER CEDEX 1, Tel : 33 4 67 10 18 17, email: pierre.ehret@agriculture.gouv.fr

RÉSUMÉ: La Guadeloupe, la Martinique et la Guyane, les Départements Français d'Amérique sont des régions ultrapériphérique de l'Union Européenne. En conséquence, les dispositions du traité instituant l'Union et le droit dérivé s'appliquent de plein droit, mais il reste possible d'adopter des mesures spécifiques en faveur de celles-ci, quand il existe un besoin objectif de prendre de telles mesures en vue d'assurer le développement économique et social de ces régions.

Afin de tenir compte de la nécessité d'appliquer les règles phytosanitaires européennes aux spécificités propres à assurer la protection des départements d'outre-mer français, il a été décidé de revoir toutes les listes concernant les organismes de quarantaine (annexes I et II) et les mesures phytosanitaires (annexes III à V) pour ces départements. Pour que ces modifications réglementaires puissent être présentées à la communauté internationale tel que le prévoient les accord SPS (accords sur les mesures sanitaires et phytosanitaires), des Analyses de Risque Phytosanitaire (ARP) ont été menées pour 130 bio-agresseurs potentiellement nuisibles de quarantaine. Les chercheurs et experts du Cirad ont assuré la rédaction de ces documents en coordination avec le bureau de la santé des végétaux. Le projet a pu être mené à bien avec l'appui des fonds POSEIDOM 2002 et 2003 de l'UE. En 2005, des ARP seront réalisées pour faire le point sur des plantes potentiellement envahissantes et nuisibles.

Parallèlement, les services déconcentrés de la protections des végétaux (DAF/SPV) des départements d'outre-mer ont préparés des bases de données informatises regroupant les informations relatives aux organismes nuisibles à l'agriculture déjà présents. Ce travail a été mené en collaboration avec les Fédérations Régionales de Défense contre les Organismes Nuisibles et les centres de recherches des l'INRA, de l'IRD et du Cirad implantés localement.

MOTS CLES : Analyse de Risque Phytosanitaire (ARP), réglementation phytosanitaire, échanges d'information, régions européennes ultrapériphériques, Directive 2000/29/CE.

ABSTRACT: Guadeloupe, Martinique and Guyane, the French Overseas Departments of the Caribbean Basin are among the European Outermost Regions. Consequently, as specified in the European Union treaty, they must comply with European rules and have the same rights. Nevertheless, it is possible to take specific measures in their favour, as long as there is a real need of taking such measures in order to improve economic and social development of these regions.

To take into account the necessity to apply specifications related to European phytosanitary rules for the protection of French Overseas Departments, the decision was made to review all lists of quarantine organisms (Appendix I & II) and phytosanitary measures (Appendix III to V) specific to the Overseas Departments. To be able to present these modifications, as it is required by the SPS agreement (Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures), Pest

34

Risk Analyses (PRAs) were completed for 130 harmful organisms, potentially of quarantine importance. Experts and researchers of the CIRAD were in charge of writing these documents in coordination with the Plant Health Office. The project was made possible with funds from EU POSEIDOM 2002 & 2003. In 2005, PRAs will be conducted on potentially harmful and invasive weeds.

At the same time, the decentralized plant protection services (DFA/SPV) prepared databases on agricultural pest and diseases already present in the region. This work was conducted in collaboration with the Regional Federation for Management of Noxious Organisms (FREDON) and the local CIRAD, INRA and IRD research centers.

To fulfill the mission of the phytosanitary services, the sharing of knowledge on the regional situation, as well as on pathways of introduction related to trade, both internal and external to the region, is considered to be of first importance.

KEY WORDS: Pest Risk Analyses (PRAs), European Outermost Regions, information sharing, Phytosanitary regulation, Council Directive 2000/29/EC.

INTRODUCTION

La Guadeloupe, la Martinique et la Guyane, les Départements Français d'Amérique sont des régions ultrapériphériques de l'Union Européenne aux conditions climatiques et agricoles très particulières.

Le flux d'importation très important de végétaux et de produits d'origine végétale provenant d'aires de productions très variées impose une vigilance particulière lors des contrôles phytosanitaires aux frontières de ces régions rattachées à l'espace européen.

Une réglementation phytosanitaire à intégrer dans l'ensemble européen

Cette surveillance est assurée par les services déconcentrés du Ministère chargé de l'Agriculture :

les Services de la Protection des Végétaux des Directions de l'Agriculture et de la Forêt (DAF/SPV) Elle s'inscrit dans la première des missions de ses services, qui concerne la surveillance du territoire et des échanges vis-à-vis des organismes nuisibles. D'autres missions se sont ajoutées à ses missions historiques des SPV, en particulier :

- le contrôle de la commercialisation et de l'application des produits phytosanitaires, ainsi que leur évaluation biologique avant homologation ;

- Contrôle des organismes génétiquement modifiés installés en plein champ et la mise en place de la bio vigilance.

Jusqu'à présent, les contrôles phytosanitaires à l'importation dans les départements d'Outre-mer répondent à une réglementation de 1990 (Arrêté du 03 septembre 1990, complété par un arrêté du 03 décembre 1991 spécifique aux DOM). Ce texte présente la particularité de prévoir l'utilisation du certificat phytosanitaire entre la métropole et les DOM. Il rassemble l'ensemble des informations relatives aux organismes nuisibles de quarantaine, prohibitions et exigences particulières qui complètent la réglementation "métropolitaine" pour tenir compte des spécificités climatiques, bio-géographiques, et agricoles ces départements.

35

Avec la création du marché européen en 1993, une nouvelle réglementation phytosanitaire unique a été adoptée pour l'Europe et est venue se substituer à la "réglementation métropolitaine" de 1990 ^* . La prise en compte des particularités des DOM pour leur intégration dans cette réglementation européenne a été demandée à la France.

Cette intégration est l'occasion de faire le point sur les organismes nuisibles de quarantaine qui constituent le point majeur de la réglementation phytosanitaire. Après près de 15 ans, une réévaluation des listes des organismes nuisibles (ON) réglementés (soit plus de 350 en tenant compte des listes d'ON de lutte obligatoire) s'avère nécessaire. Sur la base des filières prioritaires (importance de la filière de production agricole dans les DOM, importance des importations), les organismes nuisibles sont examinés afin d'apprécier la pertinence de leur présence sur les prochaines annexes. Pour chacune de ses filières, sur la base des connaissances des chercheurs, des bio-agresseurs non répertoriés en 1991 ont également été examinés et pour certains, le choix de les étudier en détail a été fait.

Un passage nécessaire par les ARP

En effet, pour un certain nombre des ravageurs ou pathogènes, il a été décidé de mener à bien une évaluation du risque phytosanitaire. Cette évaluation s'appuie sur la norme internationale d'Analyse du Risque Phytosanitaire (ARP) de la CIPV (Convention internationale de la protection des végétaux). Elle permet de rassembler l'ensemble des informations nécessaires à l'argumentation technique en vue de prendre des mesures phytosanitaires à l'import, en respectant l'esprit de l'accord sur l'application des mesures sanitaires et phytosanitaires (l'“Accord SPS”). Pour éviter toute entrave au commerce international par des obstacles non nécessaires, cet accord prévoit de mettre à disposition de tout pays demandeur, les informations techniques organisées selon la norme internationale de l'ARP lors des modifications de la réglementation phytosanitaire.

Tous les ON retenus dans un premier temps pour figurer dans la réglementation n'ont pas fait l'objet d'une ARP :

- soit parce que leur biologie était bien connue et que leur statut de quarantaine fait l'objet de consensus au niveau des organisations régionales ;

- soit parce que le niveau de connaissance acquis, en particulier sur la répartition et les filières d'introductions possibles, écartait toute possibilité de pouvoir les classer comme ON de quarantaine dans la future réglementation

Ce sont finalement 130 ARP qui ont été rédigées

Ce travail a été mené par le Cirad - Centre de Coopération Internationale en Recherche Agronomique pour le Développement -, en interaction avec le bureau de la santé des végétaux de

^* Réglementation européenne consolidée en 2000 par la directive du conseil 2000/29/CE, retranscrite en droit français par l'arrêté du 22 novembre 2002.

36

la Sous-Direction de la Qualité et de la Protection des Végétaux du Ministère de l'Agriculture et

de la Pêche. Des financements du fonds européen POSEIDOM - Programme d'Options Spécifiques à l'Eloignement et à l'Insularité des Départements français d'Outre-Mer – ont permis

d'assurer une partie du coût de ces travaux en 2003 et 2004.

L’élaboration de ces ARP pour chacun des pathosystèmes étudiés a nécessité :

- un état de l’art sur la présence ou l’absence dans le DOM concerné, et dans les régions adjacentes, ainsi qu’une analyse des extensions géographiques potentielles ;

- des connaissances approfondies sur les caractéristiques biologiques de l’agent pathogène,

du ravageur, et de leur(s) hôte(s) : modes de dissémination, capacité d’établissement, vection, identification des facteurs biotiques et abiotiques favorables au développement des parasites et

ravageurs ;

- une capacité à identifier les incidences économiques potentielles de la contrainte parasitaire en phase d’installation / propagation ;

- une évaluation des incertitudes sur les risques (prise en compte de l’état d’avancement des recherches en cours, identification des recherches qu’il conviendrait d’engager) ;

- une prise en compte de l’efficacité des méthodes de lutte mises en place dans les DOM

concernés, mais également dans les autres pays des régions proches des DOM concernés.

A l'aide des informations rassemblées, et en collaboration avec les SPV des DOM, un projet de

réglementation phytosanitaire, développant les mesures phytosanitaires sous forme de prohibitions et d'exigences particulières tels que le prévoient les annexes III, IV et V de la Directive 2000/29/CE est en cours de rédaction. Il sera présenté au Comité Phytosanitaire Permanent de l'Union Européenne à Bruxelles, qui est habilité à faire évoluer la Directive.

Une ouverture aux espèces invasives des milieux naturels

Outre les risques liées aux organismes nuisibles pouvant être présents sur les végétaux, l'importation volontaire ou involontaire d'un certain nombre de plantes pouvant facilement s’établir dans les espaces cultivés ou les milieux naturels présente un risque maintenant reconnu qu'il convient de préciser. Ce constat général est particulièrement marqué dans les trois

départements insulaires, où l'appauvrissement de la diversité biologique du fait de l'introduction

et de l’établissement d'espèces invasives est déjà observé.

Afin de bien caractériser ce type de risque, déjà identifié et matérialisé en 1991 par la présence de plusieurs plantes supérieures dans la liste des organismes de quarantaine, il est prévu de procéder à la réalisation d'analyses de risque phytosanitaire pour des plantes supérieures à caractère envahissant reconnu dans le cadre d'un projet débutant dans les prochains jours, avec des malherbologistes du CIRAD. Ce travail profite et souhaite contribuer à l'adaptation de la norme d'ARP à la problématique des espèces invasives des milieux naturels ou peu anthropisés, qui a lieu sous l'égide de la CIPV et de diverses organisations régionales de la protection des végétaux.

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Tableau récapitulatif des ARP réalisées en 2003 -2004

ARP

ARP

Pertinentes pour les DFA

détaillée

simplifiées

Total

Canne à sucre

11

9

20

16

Bananier et autres Musacées

7

8

15

15

Agrumes

9

6

15

12

Cultures

maraîchères

principales

4

13

17

16

(Solanacées,

Cucurbitacées,

Brassicacées)

Cultures

florales

(Orchidées,

3

5

8

8

Aracées, etc.)

Ananas et autres Broméliacées

3

2

5

5

Alliacées (oignon, ail)

6

6

6

Manguier

3

1

4

4

Avocatier

2

3

5

5

Papayer

1

5

6

5

Passiflores

2

2

2

Productions horticoles diverses

7

7

5

Litchi

2

2

0

Fruitiers tempérés

3

3

1

Riz

1

2

3

3

Café / Cacao

2

2

4

1

Palmacées

4

4

4

Vigne

1

1

0

Polyphages

1

2

3

2

Total

53

77

130

110

Des bases de données indispensables…

Lors du travail préparatoire à l'évolution réglementaire, la nécessité de pouvoir accéder rapidement aux informations diverses concernant les organismes nuisibles aux végétaux dans les DOM a été identifiée. La première question se posant dans le cas de l'étude préliminaire à l'ARP étant le "statut" de présence sur le territoire étudié, il s'est avéré que pour de nombreux bio- agresseurs, même relativement connus, l'accès précis à ce type d'information pouvait poser problème du fait de la dispersion des sources (chercheurs, vulgarisateurs, bibliothèques, …).

Afin de remédier à cette difficulté, les informations disponibles sont regroupées dans des bases de données informatiques crées et gérées par chaque SPV, après que les informations aient été rassemblées en collaboration avec les Fédérations Régionales de Défense contre les Organismes Nuisibles et les centres de recherches des l'INRA, de l'IRD et du CIRAD implantés localement.

Une prochaine étape prévoit la mise en commun de toutes ses informations, sur une base unique consultable via internet.

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Pour un partage des informations

Cette action s'inspirera des techniques utilisées dans le cadre d'un projet régional développé dans l'Océan Indien et impliquant largement le DAF/SPV du département de la Réunion. Comme dans le bassin de la Caraïbe, les problèmes phytosanitaires sont très similaires dans les différents pays de cette région du globe, et la création d’un réseau régional qui doit permettre d’établir des communications permanentes et d’échanger des informations sensibles en temps réel est perçu comme un outil incontournable au développement des productions végétales et du commerce, en particulier des productions horticoles.

Les constats ayant débouchés sur ce projet dans l'Océan Indien peuvent aisément être utilisés pour le Bassin de la Caraïbe – similitude des écosystèmes et des climats, grande homogénéité des types de production d'un pays à un autre, importance l'activité agricole dans les économies, volonté et nécessité d'une agriculture ouverte sur les échanges. La seule différence notable, outre le nombre de pays concernés, est la présence d'une Organisation Régionale de la Protection des Végétaux déjà active dans le bassin caribéen. Les Services de la Protection des Végétaux des Départements Français d'Amérique, en association avec la SDQPV sont disposés, à l'occasion du travail de leur révision de leur réglementation phytosanitaire, à partager les informations collectées et à participer aux activités communes d'analyses et de gestion des risques phytosanitaires pour le bassin caribéen.

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APPENDIX: ENGLISH TEXT

SAFEGUARDING STRATEGY AGAINST INVASIVE EXOTIC SPECIES IN THE CARIBBEAN: PERSPECTIVE OF THE PLANT PROTECTION SERVICES OF THE FRENCH DEPARTMENTS OF THE AMERICAS

Pierre Ehret, Scientific Officer for phytosanitary regulation of the French Overseas Departments (DOM) – Agricultural Ministry –DGAL/SDQPV, ZAC d'Alco - BP 3056, 34034 MONTPELLIER CEDEX 1, Tel : 33 4 67 10 18 17, email: pierre.ehret@agriculture.gouv.fr

Guadeloupe, Martinique and French Guiana, the French Departments of the Americas, are among the European Outermost Regions with very distinctive climatic and agricultural conditions. The significant flow of plant and plant product imports originating from very varied production areas necessitates the need for particular vigilance during plant protection inspections at the borders of these territories.

A phytosanitary regulation to integrate all of Europe. This monitoring activity is assured by the decentralized services of the Agricultural Ministry: the plant protection services («Services de la Protection des Végétaux») of the departments of agriculture and forestry («Directions de l'Agriculture et de la Forêt») (DAF/SPV). This monitoring activity is one of the primary missions of these services and includes monitoring the territory and trade for pests. Other missions have been added to these historical missions of the plant protection services, in particular:

• Oversight of the commercialization and application of plant protection products, as well as their biological evaluation prior to approval;

• Monitoring of genetically modified organisms established in the field and putting in place biological surveillance. Up until now, phytosanitary inspections of imports into French Overseas Departments (DOMs) have resulted from a 1990 regulation (decree from September 3, 1990, which was amended by a December 3, 1991 decree specifically aimed at DOMs). This text gives the ability to incorporate the use of phytosanitary certificates between the metropolis and the DOMs, and it assembles all information relative to quarantine pests, prohibitions and particular requirements that amend the «metropolitan» regulation so that it takes into account climatic, bio-geographical, and agricultural particularities of the Departments. With the creation of the European Market in 1993, a new and unique phytosanitary regulation was adopted for Europe and it replaced the «metropolitan regulation» of 1990 ⁸ . This new European regulation was requested of France to integrate the above decrees specifically aimed at the DOMs, while taking into account particularities of the DOMs. This integration is the occasion to assess the quarantine pests that constitute the major point of the phytosanitary regulation. After nearly 15 years, a re-evaluation of the list of regulated pests (that is to say more than 350, including the lists of regulated pests under mandatory control) becomes necessary. Based on the most important plant related industries (importance of the agricultural production in the DOMs, importance of imports), pests are examined in order to assess whether

⁸ European regulation consolidated in 2000 by the council’s directive 2000/29/CE, re-transcribed in French law by the decree of November 22, 2002.

40

they should be added to subsequent lists. For each of these industries, based on the knowledge of researchers, the pests not indexed in 1991 were also examined, and for some of these the decision to study them further was made.

PRAs: a necessary step. Indeed, for a certain number of pests and pathogens, it was decided to conduct an evaluation of the phytosanitary risk. This evaluation is based on the international standard for Pest Risk Analysis (PRA) of the International Plant Protection Convention (IPPC). It permits the collection of all data necessary to justify taking phytosanitary measures at import, while respecting the spirit of the Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures (the SPS Agreement). To avoid the use of unjustifiable measures as barriers to world trade, this agreement states that technical data shall be organized based on the international standard for PRA, and shall be made available to all requesting countries when making modifications to phytosanitary regulations. Not all pests initially selected to appear in the regulation were subject to a PRA:

• either because their biology was well known and their quarantine status is agreed upon at the level of regional organizations;

• or because the level of acquired knowledge, in particular regarding distribution and possible pathways of introduction, ruled out all possibility of being able to classify them as a quarantine pest in the future regulation. In the end 130 PRAs were prepared. This work was conducted by the Center for International Cooperation in Agronomic Research for Development (i.e., CIRAD, «Centre de Coopération Internationale en Recherche Agronomique pour le Développement»), in interaction with the office of plant health of the sub-directorate of the quality of plant protection («Sous-Direction de la Qualité et de la Protection des Végétaux») of the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries («Ministère de l'Agriculture et de la Pêche»). Funding from the European POSEIDOM - «Programme d'Options Spécifiques à l'Eloignement et à l'Insularité des Départements français d'Outre-Mer» – made it possible to ensure a part of the costs of this work in 2003 and 2004. The development of these PRAs for each of the host-pest systems studied necessitated:

• ascertaining the status of the presence or absence of the pest in the DOMs of concern and in the adjacent regions, as well as an assessment of its potential extension to new geographical areas;

• detailed knowledge regarding the biological characteristics of the pathogen, the pest, and their host(s): means of dispersal, establishment ability, vectors, identification of biotic and abiotic factors favorable for the development of the parasites and pests;

• an ability to identify the potential economic consequences caused during the introduction and propagation of the pests;

• an evaluation of the uncertainties regarding the risks (taking into account the progress of current research, identification of research that would be suitable to initiate);

• taking into account the effectiveness of the control methods in place in the DOMs concerned, but also in other countries in close proximity to the DOMs concerned.

With the help of the assembled information, and in collaboration with the plant protection services of the DOMs, a phytosanitary regulatory project developing the phytosanitary measures, in the form of prohibitions and particular requirements such as those envisioned by the annexes III, IV and V of the Council Directive 2000/29/EC, is being prepared. It will be presented to the Permanent Phytosanitary Committee of the European Union in Brussels, which has the power to advance the Directive.

41

An opening to species that are invasive in natural areas.

In addition to the risks involved with pests present on plants, the voluntary or involuntary

importation of a certain number of plants able to easily establish in crop production areas or in natural areas presents a risk now recognized as worth mentioning. This general acknowledgement is particularly pronounced in the three island departments, where the decrease

in biological diversity as a result of the introduction and establishment of invasive species has

already been observed.

In order to well characterize this type of risk, already identified and materialized in 1991

by the presence of several higher level plants in the list of quarantine pests, pest risk analyses for

invasive higher level plants will be carried out within the framework of a project with CIRAD weed scientists, which will be initiated shortly. It is hoped that this work will contribute to the implementation of the PRA standard relative to the problem of invasive species in natural undisturbed areas, or in areas only slightly disturbed, which is taking place under the auspices of the IPPC and diverse regional plant protection organizations.

Indispensable databases. While conducting preliminary work for the development of the regulation, the necessity

to be able to quickly access diverse information concerning plant pests in the DOMs was

identified. In gathering preliminary information for a PRA, the first question that comes up is the «status» of presence in the territory under study; for numerous pests, even those that are

relatively well known, it became evident that precise access to this type of information could be

a problem because of the decentralized location of information sources (researchers,

publications, libraries, etc.) In order to remedy this difficulty, the available information is gathered in electronic databases created and managed by each plant protection service, after the information was gathered in collaboration with the regional federations for defense against pests («Fédérations Régionales de Défense contre les Organismes Nuisibles») and the local research centers of

INRA, IRD and CIRAD.

A forthcoming stage envisages the pooling of all this information into a central database

accessible via the internet.

Sharing of information. This action will use as a starting point the techniques used in the framework of a regional project developed in the Indian Ocean and involving in large part the plant protection service of the Department of Reunion. As in the Caribbean, phytosanitary problems are very similar in the different countries in this region of the world, and the creation of a regional network that allows the establishment of permanent communications and the exchange of sensitive information in real time is perceived

as an indispensable tool for the development of crop production and trade, in particular for

horticultural crop production. The observations that led to this project in the Indian Ocean can easily be used for the Caribbean – similarity of the ecosystems and climates, large homogeneity of the types of production from one country to the next, importance of agriculture in the economies, willingness and necessity of an open agricultural market. The only notable difference, besides the number of countries concerned, is the presence of a Regional Plant Protection Organization already active

in the Caribbean. The plant protection services of the French Departments of the Americas

(«Services de la Protection des Végétaux des Départements Français d'Amérique»), in association with the SDGPV (Ministère de l’Agriculture et la Pêche Sous Direction de la

42

Protection des Végétaux), are willing, when working on their revision of their phytosanitary regulation, to share collected information and to work together on activities related to risk analysis and risk management for the Caribbean.

Summary table of the PRAs completed in 2003-2004

Detailed

Simplified

Relevant for the French Departments of the Americas

PRA

PRA

Total

Sugarcane

11

9

20

16

Banana tree and other Musaceae

7

8

15

15

Citrus

9

6

15

12

Principle

market

garden

products

4

13

17

16

(Solanaceae,

Cucurbitaceae,

Brassicaceae)

Floral crops (Orchidaceae, Araceae, etc.)

3

5

8

8

Pineapple and other Bromeliaceae

3

2

5

5

Alliaceae (oignon, garlic)

6

6

6

Mango tree

3

1

4

4

Avocado tree

2

3

5

5

Papaya tree

1

5

6

5

Passionflowers

2

2

2

Diverse horticultural crops

7

7

5

Litchi

2

2

0

Temperate fruit trees

3

3

1

Rice

1

2

3

3

Coffee / Cacao

2

2

4

1

Palmaceae

4

4

4

Grapevines

1

1

0

Polyphagous

1

2

3

2

Total

53

77

130

110

EDITORIAL NOTE: The translation into English of the original French text was made by Ms. Leah Millar, USDA, APHIS, Raleigh, NC. The editors are very grateful to Ms. Millar for this service.

43


TOWARDS OPERATIONALIZING THE CARIBBEAN REGIONAL INVASIVE SPECIES INTERVENTION STRATEGY (CRISIS)

Everton Ambrose, Inter-American Institute for Cooperation on Agriculture (IICA), P O Box 1223 Castries, Saint Lucia, Phone: 758 451 6760/61 ; Fax: 758 451 6774 ; Ambroseiica@candw.lc .

ABSTRACT: The Caribbean Regional Invasive Species Intervention Strategy (CRISIS) promotes a comprehensive and integrated approach to addressing the problem of invasive alien species that variously affect the environment, agricultural production, food security, trade, tourism, public health and agricultural competitiveness. CRISIS is a plan for assisting the Region in preventing and mitigating the introduction, spread and impact of invasive alien species, and for increasing awareness. CRISIS is a framework within which individual country and regional activities could be developed and strengthened, and the sourcing of funds could be facilitated. It encompasses all English, French, Dutch and Spanish speaking countries/territories in the Caribbean Basin including the states of the United States of America (USA) adjacent to the Gulf of Mexico and all invasive species with potential to be harmful to agriculture, natural ecosystems and human health. A Caribbean Invasive Species Working Group (CCISWG) is seeking to secure the adoption of CRISIS by all governments in the Region and by various international bodies. Currently the Working Group is giving high priority to the implementation of a two component project: (a) Timely internet-based tracking pest introductions and interceptions, and (b) Development of a Caribbean pest and disease diagnostic system based on distance digital imaging and internet-based communications.

KEY WORDS: regional safeguarding, internet-based tracking, distance digital imaging, Caribbean Invasive Species Working Group, National Agricultural Health and Food Safety (NAHFS) Committee

RÉSUMÉ: Le plan stratégique régional d’intervention pour lutter contre les espèces envahissantes vise à promouvoir (Caribbean Regional Invasive Species Intervention Strategy - CRISIS) une approche complète et intégrée pour contrôler les espèces étrangères invasives qui affectent à des degrés divers l'environnement, la production agricole, la sécurité alimentaire, le commerce, le tourisme, la santé publique et la compétitivité agricole. CRISIS est un plan d’appui régional de prévention et de contrôle de l'introduction, de la dissémination et de la réduction des impacts des espèces étrangères envahissantes, et de la sensibilisation du public à ce problème. CRISIS est un cadre à l’intérieur duquel chaque pays pourrait développer, co- construire des activités régionales renforcées et mobiliser des fonds spécifiques. Ce réseau regroupe tous les états anglophones, francophones, hispanophones et de langue hollandaise, les états du Bassin Caribéen dont les Etats-Unis d'Amérique (Etats-Unis) et ceux du Golfe du Mexique et concerne toutes les espèces envahissantes ayant un potentiel de nuisibilité pour l'agriculture, les écosystèmes naturels et la santé humaine. Un groupe caribéen de travail sur les espèces envahissantes (Caribbean Invasive Species Working - CISWG) s’est mobilisé, pour favoriser l’adoption de CRISIS par tous les gouvernements dans la Région et par diverses organisations internationales. Actuellement le groupe de travail accorde la priorité à l'exécution de deux projets : (a) Construction d’une Base de données régionale sur le web et actualisée en temps réel sur l’épidémiologie régionale, l’introduction et l’interception de parasites et maladies,

44

et (b) Développement d’un système caribéen de diagnostique de parasites et maladies basé sur la

télé-transmission et la reconnaissance d’images numériques à distance via internet.

1.0. BACKGROUND

Invasive species are organisms whose establishment and spread threaten food security, human health and economic development. They also threaten biodiversity, productive agricultural systems and natural ecosystems. Once well established, invasive species are costly to eradicate or manage hence the need to take proactive or timely intervention to prevent introduction and subsequent establishment. They maybe alien if they were deliberately or accidentally introduced from another area. The main driver in the spread of invasive alien species (IAS) is international trade. Many of these pests hitchhike on board ships, airplanes, trucks, and containers while a large number travel as or in commodities. The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) is addressing the issue of Invasive Species through prevention, eradication, control and mitigation of their impacts combined with legislation and guidelines at national, regional and international levels. Article 8 (h) notes that “each contracting party shall, as far as possible, and as appropriate, prevent the introduction of, control or eradicate those alien species which threaten ecosystems, habitats or species”. Experience has shown that the best way to limit the impact of IAS is prevention rather than eradication or control after their introduction. In 1997, the Global Invasive Species Programme (GISP) was established to develop the knowledge base; the scientific, technical, economical and institutional tools; and a global strategy to deal with invasive species, thus helping to maintain biological diversity. The GISP is coordinated by the Scientific Committee on Problems of the Environment (SCOPE) in the conjunction with World Conservation Union (IUCN), Center for Applied Biosciences International (CABI) and United National Environmental Programme (UNEP). Regional cooperation and coordination has been encouraged to ensure that all countries in

a region are addressing invasive species issues and that the efforts of one country are not undermined by the inaction of another. It is against this background that a symposium on invasive species was organized during the 2003 Caribbean Food Crops Society (CFCS) Meeting in Grenada. Since then a Caribbean Invasive Species Working Group (CCISWG) has been established with responsibility for the development, coordination and implementation of a regional safeguarding strategy – Caribbean Regional Invasive Species Intervention Strategy (CRISIS). CRISIS promotes a comprehensive and integrated approach to addressing the IAS problem. It encompasses changes in the environment, and those that affect production, food security, trade, tourism, public health and agricultural competitiveness. It provides a plan that would assist the Region in preventing and mitigating the introduction, spread and impact of IAS, increase awareness, and a framework within which individual country and regional activities could be developed and strengthened, and facilitate the sourcing of funds. It encompasses all English, French, Dutch and Spanish speaking countries/territories in the Caribbean Basin including the states of the United States of America (USA) adjacent to the Gulf of Mexico and all invasive species with potential to be harmful to agriculture, natural ecosystems and human health.

2.0. PLAN OF ACTION

2.1 Actions implemented. In order to take the strategy forward at the Regional level, a regional workshop entitled “Facilitating Safer United States/Caribbean Trade: Invasive Species Issues”

45

was held in Trinidad in June 2004. The Workshop received comprehensive regional participation. The objectives were to provide a continuing platform to carry out the recommendations developed at the IAS Symposium in Grenada in 2002 and to convene a cadre of opinion leaders in dialogue to arrive at consensus on a proactive policy to address the invasive species issues in the Caribbean. The Workshop concluded that a Greater Caribbean Basin-wide approach is necessary to effectively deal with IAS issues in the Region. The Caribbean Agricultural Health and Food Safety Agency (CAHFSA) is the logical regional coordinating entity to spearhead the regional IAS safeguarding strategy. The Workshop recognized that CAHFSA is specifically a CARICOM serving institution, recommended that it be structured such that its sphere of influence is extended beyond the boundaries of its member states. The Workshop further indicated that forging appropriate and strategic partnerships with the USA and other entities should be assigned high priority in structuring CAHFSA. In so doing, CAHFSA will be better able to mobilize the technical, institutional and financial resources required for extension of both its scope and effectiveness with the IAS issues. As CAHFSA proceeds with plans for a regional safeguarding strategy, serious efforts must be made from the very outset to address environmental, natural resources and biodiversity components of trade. As CAHFSA becomes operational, it may be prudent, given the resource constraints, but recognizing the urgency of the IAS problem to start incrementally with a two component project developed from those identified in the CFCS Action Plan document, (Annex I) viz:

a) Timely internet-based tracking pest introductions and interceptions

b) Development of a Caribbean pest and disease diagnostic system based on distance digital imaging and internet-based communications

Finally, the Workshop voted unanimously to send a resolution with related material, outlining the important issue of invasive species to CARICOM, to be brought to the attention of the CARICOM Council of Trade and Economic Development (COTED). The resolution was presented to the COTED in June 2004 which requested that the CRISIS document as a regional strategy on invasive species be presented together with specific project proposals for action. Additionally, a letter outlining the important issue of invasive species was also sent to individual governments in the Region. The letter and resolution were also sent to certain agencies in the Dominican Republic, Puerto Rico and the French West Indies. A planning session of the CCISWG was held during the Caribbean Food Crops Society Meeting in St. John’s, United States Virgin Islands in July 2004, and another in Trinidad in March 2005. At the Trinidad Meeting, it was agreed that CARDI also should send the letter to appropriate Government agencies in the British Virgin Islands, Bahamas and Cuba as well as to Ministries of Health, Environment, Trade and Fisheries (where these are not under the agriculture portfolio). A minor editing of the letter was agreed for non-governmental agencies. In January 2005, Professor Waldemar Klassen of the University of Florida made a presentation on behalf of the CCISWG entitled Vulnerability of Agriculture to Invasive Species at the Forum of CARICOM Ministers of Agriculture. In May 2005, CRISIS together with a progress report of the activities of the CISWG was presented to the COTED. Member States:

i. Endorsed the Caribbean Agricultural Research and Development Institute (CARDI) as the lead agency in building the necessary strategic partnerships for the control and management of invasive species in the Region

ii. Recognized the CISWG

46

iii.

Requested the CISWG to continue to develop further fundable project proposals with a view to implementation

iv.

Further requested a report from the CISWG on the mobilization of resources and the strategy for implementing projects

v.

Noted the CRISIS paper

vi.

Requested CARDI to circulate CRISIS to all Member States for comments by August 31,

vii.

2005; and Urged Member States to facilitate and support the investigation on the current state of preparedness of the Region regarding invasive species

2.2 Actions Proposed or in Progress. 2.2.1 Coordination of the Plan of Action.

The CISWG consisting of the following institutions

has been at the forefront of actions on invasive species:

CABI CARICOM Secretariat CARDI Centre de Cooperation International en Research Agronomic pour le development (CIRAD) Florida A&M University (FAMU) Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) Inter-American Institute for Cooperation on Agriculture (IICA) University of Florida University of the West Indies (UWI)

This CISWG, chaired by CARDI, will provide policy direction, political guidance, and coordination for the overall Plan of Action. The University of Florida will coordinate the United States interests in the multi-institutional initiative. In this regard University of Florida has obtained a grant from the Tropical and Subtropical Agricultural Research (T-STAR) Programme for “Facilitation and Coordination of the Florida/Caribbean Basin Inter-Institutional Invasive Species Initiative.” The CISWG will meet at least once a year but will be in contact through other means of communications. It will ensure that all countries within the Caribbean Basin participate in the implementation of the strategy. It will encourage cooperation and coordination amongst countries and the regional organizations in the region. It is worthy of note that the CISWG is evolutionary in nature and may expand to reflect the diversity of the issues and representation of the Caribbean Basis entities. The Caribbean Development Bank (CDB) has provided generous financial support to the work of CISWG could be invited to be a member of the CISWG. Also, that CAHFSA is in the planning stage as a CARICOM safeguarding agency and that its specific role and scope is yet to be worked out. The National Agricultural Health and Food Safety (NAHFS) Committee in the countries will be designated as the implementation leader for the programmes at the national level. This Committee is a multi-sectoral committee consisting of the Public Sector (Ministries of Agriculture, Health, Environment and Trade) and the Private Sector. The NAHFS Committee would be closely affiliated to Biodiversity Committee or Committee performing such a function in the country. 2.2.2. Greater Caribbean Basin-Wide Approach. The Greater Caribbean Basin-wide Plan of Action comprises of the following components – Advocacy, Regional Projects and Actions, National Level Activities and Monitoring and Evaluation.

47

2.2.2.1. Advocacy. An overarching objective of the Greater Caribbean Basin-wide Plan of Action is for the Strategy to be endorsed by the Governments in the Caribbean Basin. All countries and institutions in the Caribbean Basin will input to achieve this. Advocacy will be at the CARICOM Meetings of Ministers responsible for Health and Environment in addition to the continuation of the initiatives at the Meetings of the Ministers of Agriculture and Trade (COTED). Advocacy will also be undertaken in the other countries in the Caribbean Basin outside of CARICOM including those of the French Caribbean, Cuba, Central America, South America, the USA and the Dependents of the United Kingdom. Support will be given for the ongoing discussions regarding the establishment of the CAHFSA. However since CAHFSA is mainly agriculture and food safety, efforts will be made to have areas of environment and natural resources included. The Implementation Group, NAHFS Committee or similar body, will be encouraged to take advocacy roles with their national ministers and other contacts at the national level. Available sources of information will be provided including the strategy document, information briefs, policy papers, and a workshop would be held to discuss specific actions in the Greater Caribbean Basin Plan of Action. It is expected that the CISWG and Implementation Groups will meet a least once per year to plan operations. In addition to the endorsement by the governments, support will be sought for the implementation of the CRISIS by all institutions operating in the Greater Caribbean Basin.

Strategic partners will be developed with financial institutions and others where funding may be sourced. 2.2.2.2. Regional Projects and Actions. A set of projects and actions (Annex I) which addresses key issues within the strategy will de undertaken. The following section describes the projects, the prioritization of the projects, the process of submitting the projects for funding and a work plan for the projects with assigned responsibilities. With regard to the actions, some activity has been initiated by CIRAD and will be reported on separately. 2.2.2.2.1. Selected Projects. Attached to the strategy document is a document “Proposed Invasive Species Projects for the Caribbean” consisting of the list of projects identified during the 2003 Caribbean Food Crops Society Meeting in Grenada. Projects: a) Timely internet based tracking of invasive pest introductions and interceptions and b) Development of a Caribbean pest and disease diagnostic system based on distance digital imaging and internet based communications have been combined into the “Caribbean Alien Invasive Species Information System (CAISIS)”. CABI has developed a proposal “Mitigating the threat of Invasive Alien Species in the Insular Caribbean” for funding. The remaining projects if selected will be elaborated and funding will be sought together with any new projects identified. 2.2.2.2.2. Prioritizing the Project. The projects have been prioritized as follows:

1. Project: Caribbean Invasive Alien Species Information System (CIASIS). There is a need for a capability to diagnose and identify IAS. Information needs to be collected, evaluated, synthesized and communicated to the countries. There is need for supportive research and the development of a database. 1a. Project: Development of a Caribbean pest and disease diagnostic system based on distance

digital imaging and internet based communications.

diagnostic capabilities in the countries and develop a network of laboratories and specialists based on the findings. Seek funding to facilitate purchase of equipment, travel of specialists to provide training and to seek solutions to constraints. There is need to determine the pest status in

the countries and provide outreach training and educational programmes. 1b. Project: Timely Internet-based tracking of invasive pest interceptions/introductions. There is a need to determine resource status (personnel, equipment) devoted to invasive species. Develop

There is need for an assessment of the

48

the capability to record and keep track of invasive pests. Maintain and update listing of key invasive species threatening the region and generate and post pest alerts.

2. Facilitation and Coordination of the Florida/Caribbean Basin Inter-institutional

Invasive

Species Initiative. The overall objective is to improve the effectiveness of safeguarding against alien invasive species in the Greater Caribbean Basin that pose major threats to Florida. A long term goal is the establishment of a regional safeguarding mechanism in which the USA would play an important role, and which would give maximum protection to Florida.

3. Project: Mitigating the Threat of Invasive Alien Species in the Insular Caribbean. To establish

a consultative process for the development, proofing and implementation of natural, sub-regional and regional policies, strategies and technologies for the prevention and management of IAS.

4. Project: Assure Region-Wide Adoption of the Emergency Preparedness Plan and Develop

Specific Emergency Actions Plans for Key Pests. An Emergency Preparedness Plan is available

for the Caribbean. Countries will be encouraged to adopt this general plan. In addition, as part of their National Plan of Action (NPA), countries will identify organisms which are invasive species threats and develop specific emergency plans for each pest.

5. Project: Arouse Public Awareness of the Invasive Species Crisis. There is a need to develop

public interventions tailored to specific interests and to establish an annual Caribbean wide “Invasive Species Awareness Week”. Develop news releases, posters, catchy slogans etc., or to use on radio, televisions, posting at ports of entry.

6. Project: Take advantage of opportunities to obtain funding of critical invasive species research

and development needs from USDA-APHIS and USDA-ARS. Submit short project proposals to USDA-APHIS and USDA-ARS to support extra mural research to fill critically needed

information and/or technology gaps in the systems for combating specific invasive species.

7. Project: Engage non-USA scientists in the Caribbean in T-STAR funded research on Invasive

species. T-STAR Administrators should encourage their faculty to involve scientists in various Caribbean countries in developing and submitting joint proposals to the T-STAR Programme.

8. Project: Early Detection of Carambola Fruitfly. Design and submit a Carambola Fruitfly early

detection programme in the island with Trinidad in the south through St. Martin in the north.

9. Project: Restoration of National areas Infested with Non-Native Invasive Plants. There is need

for training/workshop with key personnel of the countries to provide hands on experience at removal of species and restoration of national area(s). 10. Project: Appoint a Caribbean Region Standing Committee to serve as watchdog on the arrival of new invasive species, or on alarming developments in the spread with footholds in the region. The Watchdog Committee would discuss developments and determine whether formation of regional coalitions of public and private sector interests should be recommended to mount appropriate and effective counter measures. 2.2.2.2.3. Submitting the Projects for Funding. The projects will be submitted for funding through the process (outlined in Table I). Project proposals may be submitted directly if the funding source is known and committed.

Table 1: Process for Submitting Projects for Funding

Steps

Activity

1

Terms of Reference for project proposal developed

2

Concept note development and nomination of CISWG coordinators

3

Comments obtained on concept note by members of the CISWG

4

Funders approached and proposal prepared in required format

5

Proposal submitted through the leader of the CISWG

6

Project funded and started

49

The current status of the projects is summarized in Table 2. Actions are being addressed through the French Caribbean Invasive Species Safeguarding Programme.

2.2.2.2.4. Work Plan for Projects. Next step and responsibilities for projects are to be discussed

2.2.2.3. National Level Activities.

Implementing Mechanisms for National Plan of Action.

2.2.2.3.1. National Level Awareness Raising. Support will be given to the NAHFS Committee in

its public awareness activities on invasive species and the strategy designed to address the issue.

These activities can be through face-to-face meetings with Ministers, relevant authorities and stakeholders using available materials (CRISIS document, information briefs, or policy papers). Within each community, a local group of persons will be identified to undertake public awareness activities. One week of each year will be designated as “Invasive Species Awareness Week” during which awareness activities on invasive species will be intensified using amongst others communications materials (videos, posters, leaflets).

2.2.2.3.2. Implementing National Plans of Action. Each country will be encouraged to develop a

National Plan of Action (NPA) to implement national elements of the Strategy. The NAHFS Committee will be responsible for coordinating activities since the process requires working in partnership with other Ministries, private sector, non-governmental organizations and

community based organizations. The process of development of the NPA requires extensive consultation, therefore meetings will be held with stakeholders to receive their input. The “tool kit” of best prevention and management practices for invasive alien species prepared by the Secretariat of GISP will be available. The tool kit provides a step-by-step approach for developing, implementing, monitoring and evaluating NPA for invasive species. It is anticipated that an important component will be the strengthening of technical capacity for effective prevention and management of IAS. A task force comprising CABI, FAO and IICA supported by CARDI will determine what information is available on the state of preparedness of the countries with regards to invasive species. Some countries (Bahamas, Jamaica and Dominican Republic) have prepared a specific list of and prioritization of IAS.

2.2.2.4. Monitoring and Evaluation. Countries will assist in evaluating the success or failure of

the efforts by completing questionnaires and monitoring forms distributed at various stages of implementation. Countries will also evaluate progress of their efforts based on chosen criteria. 2.2.3. Cooperation at International Community Level. Countries cannot be complacent, hence they must be cognizant of emerging threats and act to address these threats. The major trade routes to the region and between countries will be analyzed in order to identify and prioritize possible pathways for the introduction of invasive species. The cooperation of the international community will be solicited in an effort to manage the risk associated with these pathways. It is expected that all countries both regional and international, will cooperate to achieve this. Standards developed by the international committee will be adapted. The CISWG will establish relationship with other international organisations working in that area.

The support of various US Government agencies and departments will be solicited. The European Union, Canada, China and Japan may also be willing to provide funding.

This is divided into National Level Awareness Raising and

3.0. CONCLUSION

The success of this Plan of Action requires acceptance by all countries, citizens and institutions operating in the Greater Caribbean Basin. The Plan has individual components that demand close cooperation amongst Government agencies, and stakeholders at the national and regional levels. It targets local (in-country), national and regional boundaries.

50

4.0. REFERENCES

Anon, (2003). Caribbean Regional Invasive Species Intervention Strategy. Proceedings of the Caribbean Food Crops Society, 39 (1): 131-141 CABI (2005) Mitigating the Threat of Invasive Alien Species in the Insular Caribbean (draft project document). Klassen, W. and others (2003). Proposed Invasive Species Projects for the Caribbean. Proceedings of the Caribbean Food Crops Society, 39 (1): 119-127 Klassen, W. (2005). Draft Caribbean Invasive Alien Species Information System (CIASIS): An Invasive Alien Species Diagnostic/Identification and Tracking System and Database to Facilitate Safeguarding the Region. Caribbean IAS Diagnostic – Identification Network:

Regional Laboratories and Internet-based Regional Network of Specialists with Distance Digital Diagnostic Capabilities UNEP/CBD/SBSTTA/6/INF/10: Toolkit of Best Prevention and Management Practices for Invasive Alien Species – GISP, 215 pp.

51

Table 2: Status of Projects

Strategy

¹

CISWG

Step 1

Step 2

Step 3

Step 4

Step 5

Step 6

PROJECTS

No.

Coordin-

ators

Terms

Concept

Reviewed

Proposal

Proposal

Funded

of

Note

by

Developed

submitted

and

Refer-

Developed

CISWG

started

ence

1a. Timely internet-based tracking of invasive pest introduction

University

√

√

2

of Florida

² CISIS

1b. Caribbean pest and disease diagnostic system

4

³ DDIS

2.

Facilitation and Coordination of

the Florida/Caribbean Basin Inter- institutional Invasive Species Initiative

University

√

√

√

-

of Florida

3.

Mitigating threat of IAS in the

CABI

√

√

Insular Caribbean

-

4.

Adoption of general invasive species

emergency plan

5

5. Arouse public awareness

1

6. Take advantage of opportunities for

funding from USDA

3

7.

Engage non-USA scientists in the

Caribbean in T-STAR research

6

8. Early detection of Carambola fruit fly

7a

9. Restoration of natural areas

8

10. Appoint a Caribbean Region Standing Committee as watchdog

7b

¹ CISWG is the Caribbean Invasive Species Working Group; ² CISIS is the proposed Caribbean Invasive Species Information System; 3DDIS is the Distance Diagnostic and Identification System.

52

ANNEX 1

Projects and Actions Identified

a. Project Title

Early Detection of Carambola Fruit fly

Restoration of natural areas infested with non-native invasive plants

Timely internet based tracking of invasive pest introductions and interceptions

Develop a Caribbean pest and disease diagnostic system based on distance digital

imaging and internet based communications Arouse public awareness of the invasive species crisis

Engage non-USA scientists in the Caribbean in T-STAR funded research on invasive

species Assure region wide adoption of the General Invasive Species Emergency Plan and

develop Specific Emergency Action Plans for key threats Appoint a Caribbean Region Standing Committee to serve as a watchdog on the arrival

of new invasive species, or on alarming developments in the spread of invasive species with footholds in the region Take advantage of opportunities to obtain funding of critical invasive species Research and Development needs from USDA-APHIS and USDA-ARS

b. Actions

Impact of the introduction of new hybrid varieties of bananas and plantains on the

dynamic balance of the populations of some pathogenic agents and pests: nematodes, fungus and virus. Support of a sugar and rum sustainable production and preservation of the agricultural

landscape in the Caribbean by optimizing the processes of variety selection. Promotion of a sustainable citrus fruit cultivation and plant health observatory.

Improvement of the market gardening productions: creation of diseases and pest

resistant tomato and peppers adapted to the Caribbean environment. Towards a global research programme on integrated control of the coconut lethal yellowing disease in the Caribbean.

53


SESSION II: TECHNICAL ISSUES

A SYNOPSIS OF THE USDA APHIS CARIBBEAN INVASIVE SPECIES STRATEGIC PLAN

Trang T. Vo ¹ , Carolyn T. Cohen ² , and C. Ed Miller ³ . ¹ Policy and Program Development, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, 4700 River Road, Unit 20, Riverdale, Maryland, 20737-1238. Phone: 301-734-8390; Fax: 301-734-6357. TRANG.T.VO@USDA.GOV . ² Caribbean Area Director, USDA-APHIS, International Services, Central America & Caribbean Region, American Embassy, Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic Unit 5527, APO AA 34041; Carolyn.t.cohen@aphis.usda.gov . ³ Pest Risk Mitigation Specialist, 7939 Devilbiss Bridge Rd., Frederick MD, USA 21701 Phone: 1-301-898-3123; charles.e.miller@adelphia.net .

ABSTRACT: Since exclusion at the port of entry is no longer adequate to protect U.S.A. plant resources, increased emphasis is being given to mitigating pest risk at the point of origin of items imported into the U.S.A., i.e. off-shore. In each of recent years the Caribbean Area Office has received an allocation US$ 100,000 from the appropriation to APHIS for pest detection. These funds will be used to support seven priority thrusts: (1) cooperative tracking in the Caribbean Region of pests of quarantine significance using the Off-shore Pest Information System (OPIS), (2) surveillance and biological control of exotic tropical fruit flies, (3) cooperative surveys for the giant African snail, TTAchatina fulica TTBowdich and other dangerous mollusks in the Region, (4) Scirtothrips dorsalis surveillance and mitigation, (5) biological control against the pigeon pea pod fly, Melanagromyza obtusa (Malloch), passionvine mealybug, Planococcus minor (Maskell), and the coffee mealybug, Planococcus lilacinus (Cockerell), (6) provide technical expertise to investigate potential emergent pest problems and provide digital imaging equipment to Caribbean quarantine authorities, and (7) assist in the training of plant protection officers in plant quarantine, in the development of manuals for port of entry inspectors, and updating plant health legislation.

KEY WORDS: off-shore, point of origin, Offshore Pest Information System, OPIS, Anastrepha fruit flies, giant African snail, Scirtothrips dorsalis, biological control, emerging pests, infrastructure building

INTRODUCTION

The Greater Caribbean Basin ⁹ is of great importance to the United States both in terms of trade and tourism. Globalization of trade and international movement of people within the region have increased the risk of spread of invasive pest species into the United States. APHIS has traditionally relied on inspection of arriving cargo and passengers at the port of entry as a primary means of excluding exotic pests. In light of the large volume of arriving cargo and people from the region each year, exclusion at the port of entry is no longer adequate to protect U.S. plant resources. This shift in strategy, as recommended in APHIS’ Plant Health Safeguarding Review, calls for increased focus on managing pest risk at the point of origin, i.e.,

⁹

The Greater Caribbean Basin is composed of the Caribbean Islands, Central America, Panama, Colombia, Venezuela, Guyana, and Suriname.

TPTP

PTPT

54

off-shore. This paper identifies on-going and planned pest management efforts by APHIS/IS in the Caribbean to reduce the risk of exotic pest introductions in the United States. A major initiative to address emerging off-shore pest issues is the placement of additional Foreign Service specialists overseas with the primary task of gathering international pest information. These safeguarding officers, called Animal and Plant Health Specialists, will work collaboratively with local scientists to develop appropriate methods for surveying targeted pests. The information collected will be submitted to a central data base maintained by PPQ as part of the process to collect, synthesize and analyze, and utilize offshore pest information known as the Offshore Pest Information System (OPIS). APHIS’ invasive species activities in the Caribbean have centered on surveillance, control, and technical assistance. For the past two years, the IS Caribbean Area office operated on a budget of approximately $100,000 per year from the Pest Detection line item. Seven priority action areas have been identified for the Caribbean region. A number of the activities are pending supplemental funding, and are noted with an asterisk{*}.

One of the priorities of the Caribbean Area Office is the

The Area Office will work with the

Caribbean nations and territories to track pest occurrence, population levels and distribution on

each island.

monitoring of the pests identified by OPIS for the region.

1. OPIS Pests for the Caribbean.

2. Caribbean Area Exotic Fruit Fly Project. The OPIS targeted pest list for the Caribbean region

includes five species of Anastrepha fruit flies (A. fraterculus, A. obliqua, A. serpentina, A. striata

and A. suspensa) plus the Medfly. A. suspensa is found in the Greater Antilles ¹⁰ , A. obliqua is widely distributed throughout the Caribbean, and the other species have limited distribution in the Greater Caribbean. In addition to the OPIS-identified pests, Bactrocera carambolae which occurs in northern South America poses a long-term threat to the Caribbean and the United States.

For species that are not widely distributed, enhanced exclusion efforts are needed to reduce the likelihood of infestation from neighboring islands. To decrease the threat of an introduction in the United States, a concerted effort is needed to control A. obliqua on an area- wide basis. The following actions are needed to meet these objectives.

- Continue providing traps and lure for all islands participating in fruit fly surveys. *This will include the introduction of new multilure traps which have been found to be more effective than McPhail traps in catching a wide number of different Anastrepha species.

- Implement a classical biocontrol program for A. obliqua on *3 to 4 islands in the Lesser

Antilles ¹⁰ . This will be a cooperative program where APHIS would supply the parasites and technical expertise. The program has a high probability of reducing the pest population by 40 to

80% which will decrease the risk to the United States from these islands by about 50% ¹¹ . *If successful, the program could be implemented on other infested islands.

3. Giant African Snail Project.

Caribbean islands.

The Giant African Snail (GAS) has been introduced into five

Recent APHIS surveys have detected the presence of other serious mollusk

¹⁰

¹¹

PTPT

TPTP

TPTP

PTPT

The Lesser Antilles include the British Virgin Islands, U.S. Virgin Islands, and Trinidad and Tobago. Vo, T., W. Enkerlin, C.E. Miller, G. Ortiz, and J. Perez “Economic Analysis of the Suppression/Eradication

of the Mediterranean Fruit fly and Other Fruit Flies in Central America and Panama.” Policy and Program Development, APHIS, USDA, Riverdale, MD, May 2003.

55

pests as well. There is an immediate need for further molluscan surveys in the Caribbean Basin as many of the islands where surveys have yet to be conducted engage in regular commerce or share tourist traffic with GAS and other mollusk pest-infested islands.

Conduct surveys in additional islands and countries.

Distribute the PPQ mollusk identification manual to each country’s primary identifier/office.

*Coordinate with the governments of France, the Netherlands, and Britain for future surveys in their respective territories (French islands of St. Barts, St. Martin; Dutch islands of Aruba, Bonaire, Curacao, Saba, St. Eustatius, Sint Maarten; British islands of Anguilla, British Virgin Islands, and Montserrat).

The proximity of the newly S. dorsalis-infested islands to the

4. Scirtothrips dorsalis Project

United States and the recent interception in Florida of the pest on cargo from infested islands

necessitates that certain actions be mobilized immediately.

- Support the development of inspection, detection, and control procedures and methodology for the Caribbean islands and U.S. ports of entry.

- *Identify natural enemies currently available and work with ARS to initiate a foreign exploration program to identify potential natural enemies.

- Assist infested Caribbean islands with eradication/control activities including *technical visits to determine potential for insectaries.

5. Biological Control Project. The success of the biological control technique against mealybugs

is ample justification for its continuing support and fostering the development of the technology

for other pests. In addition to maintaining support for the control of Pink Hibiscus and Papaya mealybugs, other pests that have been identified as serious threats to the United States and warrant attention are listed below.

- Support additional host studies for the Pigeon Pea Pod fly. *If parasite tests are successful, implement a biological control program on infested islands.

- *Develop biological control programs for two mealybugs that occur in the Caribbean,

Planococcus minor and P. lilacinus. These exotic species have been identified by ARS as serious threats to the United States and are likely to become established if introduced. Field studies for parasites are needed.

6. Emerging Pests. The Caribbean Area Office will continue work to identify early detections of

new pests to this region that may pose a threat to U.S. agriculture. This will allow APHIS to

quickly respond to introductions while populations are low enough for eradication to be considered.

- *Provide Digital Imaging System equipment to Caribbean quarantine authorities. In several

countries, resources are inadequate to screen for and identify intercepted pests. With the aid of

this equipment, APHIS specialists will be able to engage in the identification of pests by long- distance while helping to develop local expertise.

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- Provide funding as needed to support visits by technical experts to evaluate emerging pest situations and advise APHIS and Caribbean countries on appropriate actions.

7. Infrastructure Building - Agricultural Quarantine.

and collateral interviews with host government personnel have highlighted weaknesses in their quarantine protocols. Lack of training critically impairs the island nations' ability to adequately address pest issues.

APHIS visits to Caribbean ports of entry,

- Encourage regional coordination in exclusion activities by supporting attendance of APHIS at the new Caribbean Agricultural Health and Food Safety Agency (CAHFSA) meetings.

-*Work with the CAHFSA or another organization to develop a grant proposal from WTO for the development and delivery of three workshops (one each in English, Spanish, and French) for training plant protection officers and supervisors in plant quarantine activities

- Work with Caribbean countries to update their plant health legislation and prepare manuals

for use by port of entry (POE) inspectors. *Support visits by APHIS experts to evaluate current

procedures and manuals.

REFERENCES

National Plant Board. 1999. Safeguarding American plant resources. A stakeholder review of the APHIS-PPQ Safeguarding System. APHIS, USDA, Wash. D.C. 133 pp., plus appendices. Vo, T. T., C. T. Cohen, and C. E. Miller. 2004. Caribbean Invasive Species Strategic Plan. USDA, APHIS, Riverdale, MD, USA. 19 p.

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THE T-STAR SUPPORTED CARIBBEAN BASIN/FLORIDA INVASIVE SPECIES COORDINATING AND FACILITATING INITIATIVE

Carlton G. Davis ¹ and Waldemar Klassen ² . ¹ Food and Resource Economics Department, University of Florida, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, G091 McCarty Hal, PO Box 110240, Gainesville, FL 32611-0240, USA; Phone: 352-392-1881 X 313. FAX: 352-392-9898; email: CGDavis@ifas.ufl.edu; ² Tropical Research and Education Center, UF/IFAS, 18905 SW 280 Street, Homestead, FL 33031-3314, USA, Phone: 305-246-7001 ext. 257; FAX: 305-246- 7003; Email: Klassen@ifas.ufl.edu

ABSTRACT: Alien invasive species (AIS), highly damaging in agriculture, urban areas, and natural terrestrial and marine ecosystems, are establishing at a rate greater than one per month in Florida, as well as elsewhere in the Greater Caribbean Region. These exotics strongly impede trade and development. The overarching purpose of the project is to greatly improve the effectiveness of safeguarding against AIS in the Greater Caribbean Basin that pose major threats to Florida. A long-term goal in the establishment of a regional safeguarding mechanism in which the U.S., together with other countries, would play an important role and which would give maximum protection to Florida. Specific objectives are to enable us (C. G. Davis, Project Director and W. Klassen, Co-Project Director) to:

1.) Assume a formal leadership role in coordinating Florida Agricultural Experiment Station – wider Caribbean Basin alien invasive species initiatives. 2.) Work proactively to arrive at consensus or near-consensus on priority alien invasive species research and outreach activities by networking with U.S. and wider Caribbean Basin institutions and agencies. This will require organization of collaborative Workshops, Seminars, and consultations, among other things. 3.) Provide leadership in efforts to leverage T-STAR funded alien invasive species projects to garner additional resources in support of these efforts. 4.) Monitor, evaluate, and report on progress and accomplishments with respect to Florida Agricultural Experiment Station – wider Caribbean Basin alien invasive species activities, and on progress towards the formation of a regional safeguarding mechanism.

A Caribbean Basin/Florida alien invasive species Advisory Committee will be formed to assist in organizing workshops and symposia needed to further develop and implement a regional safeguarding strategy. Funds for these events will be leveraged from various sources.

KEY WORDS: T-STAR, regional safeguarding strategy, alien invasive species, facilitation, funding support leveraging.

RÉSUMÉ: Les Espèces Exotiques Envahissantes (EEE), extrêmement nuisibles dans l'agriculture, les régions urbaines, et les écosystèmes terrestres et marins naturels, établissent avec un taux supérieur à un par mois dans la Floride, aussi bien que dans le Grand Bassin de la Caraibe. Ces espèces exotiques entravent fortement le commerce et le développement. Le principal objectif du projet est d’améliorer davantage l'efficacité de protéger contre (EEE) dans le Grand Bassin de la Caraibe; ceci apporte des menaces importantes pour la Floride. Un but à long terme dans l'établissement d'un mécanisme de sauvergarde régional dans lequel les Etats- Unis, ensemble avec d'autres pays, joueraient un rôle important dans la protection maximum de

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la Floride. Des objectifs spécifiques vont nous permettre (C. G. Davis, Directeur du Project and W. Klassen, Directeur Adjoint du Project) de:

1.)

Supposer un rôle directive dans la coordination de la Station Agricole Expérimentale de

2.)

Floride et le Grand Bassin de la Caraibe sur les initiatives d'espèces envahissantes. Travailler proactively pour arriver à un consensus ou un presque consensus de priorité sur

3.)

les espèces exotiques envahissantes et explore des activités par networking avec les Etats- Unis et les plus larges institutions et agences du Grand Bassin de La Caraibe. Cela exigera l'organisation de collaboration d'Ateliers, de Séminaires et de Consultations, entre autres. Fournir des directives dans les efforts de recherche de financement base sur les efforts de la T-STAR (Tropical/Subtropical Agriculture Research) sur les projets d'espèces étrangers envahissants afin de recueillir des ressources supplémentaires dans le soutien de ces efforts.

4.) Surveiller, évaluer et présenter des rapports sur le progrès et les accomplissements concernant la Station d'Expérience Agricole de Floride – Le Grand Bassin de la Caraibe sur les activités d'espèces envahissantes et la formation d'un mécanisme de sauvergarde régional.

Un Comité formé de Conseillers du Grand Basin de la Caraibe et de Floride sera formé en vue d’organiser des ateliers et des symposiums nécessaires pour développer et exécuter une stratégie de protection locale. Les fonds pour ces événements proviendront de sources diverses.

INTRODUCTION

Our purpose is to acquaint you with the T-STAR Supported Caribbean Basin- Florida Inter- Institutional Invasive Species Coordinating and Facilitating Initiative which we will implement beginning in October 2005. We hope you will support this initiative for the following reasons:

1. There is an urgent need to develop a regional safeguarding mechanism to throttle the flow of

invasive species into the wider Caribbean Basin, which include the southern USA (Ambrose

2004; Evans et al. 2003; Klassen and Davis, 2004; Klassen et al. 2002; Bellotti and Schoonhoven 1999; Shannon 1999, 2003; Singh 2004; Vuillaume, et al. 2004);

2. The various research projects on invasive species, including those funded by the TSTAR

Program, by themselves, cannot stem invasions. (Nevertheless research needs to be intensified, since it provides the knowledge and technology needed to cope with invasive species threats by eliminating them, preventing their spread or mitigating the damage they cause.)

3. As you know alien invasive species, highly damaging in agriculture, urban areas, and in

natural terrestrial & marine ecosystems, are establishing at a rate greater than one per month in

Florida, as well as elsewhere in the Greater Caribbean Region (Klassen et al. 2002; Frank and McCoy 1992, 1995; Thomas 2000). 4. These exotics strongly impede trade and undermine overall economic profitability and development (Evans, 2004; Griffin 2000; Roberts and DeRemer 1997). The primary emphasis in this initiative will be alien invasive species affecting agriculture and related areas, since our effort will be funded by a U.S. Department of Agriculture T-STAR grant. We share with many of you the overarching desire to improve the effectiveness of safeguarding against invasive species within the Greater Caribbean Basin. Indeed many of us have worked together for many years in addressing this issue. We are deeply appreciative of the excellent professional collaborative interactions and the warm personal relationships that developed over the years. Also we take great pride in the fact that UF/IFAS through our representation was invited by COTED to join the Caribbean Invasive Species Working Group, which is chaired by CARDI. Since no country or territory within the Greater Caribbean Region

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can adequately prevent invasive species from penetrating its quarantines and becoming established, many of us have concluded that our long-term goal must be the establishment of a regional safeguarding mechanism. We feel that in such a regional program the U.S. should play an important role in cooperation with all other countries and territories in the Region. We are confident that this would give much better protection to the entire Region including Florida. Our initiative has four objectives:

Objective 1. We plan to assume a formal leadership role on behalf of the Florida Agricultural Experiment Station to coordinate UF/IFAS efforts on alien invasive species with related initiatives of our colleagues and institutions in the wider Caribbean Region. This is in keeping with significant increases in T-STAR funding during the past decade allocated to research on invasive species. During the past decade T-STAR has allocated about $6 million or an average of about $600,000 per year to invasive species issues.

1996 1998 2000 2002 2004

14

12

10

8

6

4

2

0

Number Initiated

T-STAR-C Invasive Species Research Projects

Figure 1. Number of research projects on invasive species funded by the T-STAR Program each year from 1996 – 2005. A total of sixty one 3-year projects on various aspects of the invasive species issue were funded.

We seek to encourage the allocation of scarce research funds to support regional safeguarding. Perhaps we can persuade T-STAR management to focus more research funds in support of the Caribbean Regional Invasive Species Intervention Strategy (CRISIS) discussed earlier by Everton Ambrose. This would have the effect of providing additional research support to the application of science-based information and regulatory measures implemented to mitigate invasive species in the wider Caribbean Region.

Objective 2. We will work proactively to develop consensus with respect to priority research and outreach initiatives on alien invasive species issues. This will entail: (a) networking with wider Caribbean Basin and extra-regional support institutions and agencies; and (b) organization of collaborative workshops, symposia, seminars, consultations, etc., and utilization of the outcomes in the planning and formulation of policies and strategies. In order to plan programs, it would be useful to identify (1) the highest priority invasive species already in the Region, and (2) those

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external to the Region. Prioritized lists of invasive species are needed to focus research, educational, regulatory and control programs. Some illustrative examples are as follows:

Some Threats Internal to Caribbean Region

Some Threats External to Caribbean Region

Chilli thrips, Scirtothrips dorsalis

Tropical soda apple, Solanum viarum

Avian influenza H5N1 virus

Sudden oak death, Phytophthora ramorum

Classical swine fever virus

Brown tree snake, Boiga irregularis

What constitutes the “dirty dozen” in each class of pests and diseases, i.e., animal diseases, insects, mites and ticks, plant pathogens, weeds, etc.?

Objective 3. We wish to facilitate efforts to leverage TSTAR-funded projects on invasive species

to garner additional resources in support of these efforts. This will require that we gain a good understanding not only of TSTAR-funded projects, but also of those funded/conducted by others such as NARS, CARDI, UWI, CIRAD, INRA, industry, FAO, European Union, CTA, CIDA, CGIAR institutions, USAID (e.g. IPM CRSP), USDA (APHIS & ARS), Smithsonian, CDB, IDB, World Bank, etc. Additional funding for Project activities is vital since our T-STAR funds are very limited.

• Initial funding for our project is for 2 years (October 1, 2005 to September 30, 2007) with the possibility of extension for a 3rd year.

• Our small grant can fund only essential travel and meeting costs.

The need for additional funding support for invasive species can be illustrated by the recent directive from the CARICOM Council on Trade and Economic Development (COTED) to the Caribbean Invasive Species Working Group - of which we are members - that the following two

proposals, which emerged from a T-STAR supported Symposium in Grenada (2003) and a Workshop in Trinidad (2004), be fully developed:

a. Timely internet-based tracking of invasive pest introductions and interceptions.

b. Development of a Caribbean pest and disease diagnostic system based on distance digital imaging and internet-based communications.

The Caribbean Invasive Species Working Group combined these proposals into one proposal:

“Caribbean Invasive Species Information System” (CISIS). We hope the Caribbean Invasive

Species Information System (CISIS) can be initiated in a step-wise manner with support from various funding sources. Functions of the proposed Caribbean Invasive Species Information System (CISIS) are as follows:

1. CISIS should provide timely information on pests, pathogens and noxious plants affecting crops, livestock, fisheries, stored products, structures, parks, natural ecosystems and food safety.

2. CISIS would also be an internet-linked network of diagnostic laboratories and specialists,

and use distance digital diagnostic technology to expedite rapid identification, decision- making, communication and implementation of emergency measures. As an approach to developing CISIS we, as part of the Caribbean Invasive Species Working Group, are exploring the possibility of basing it on the Offshore Pest Information System (OPIS) software and including several databases already in OPIS, such as the Global Pest & Disease Database, a list of pathways of pest introduction, etc. Also we wish to utilize software from the National Plant Disease Network for distance diagnostic activities.

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We recognize that there are sensitive issues pertaining to security of data, and data sharing between the various countries. Therefore we will need guidance from a Regional Steering Committee, which should include high level officials from regional organizations and from several affected countries. Of course all of this will be idle unless CAISIS as a whole or in parts is funded.

Objective 4. We wish to monitor, evaluate and report on (i) progress and accomplishments of the Florida – Caribbean Basin activities on invasive species, and (ii) on progress towards the formation of a regional safeguarding mechanism. We hope to assemble a Caribbean Region- Florida Alien Invasive Species Advisory Committee for this Project, which will complement the work of the Caribbean Invasive Species Working Group, but which can function beyond the scope of CARICOM. The Advisory Committee is needed to provide expert advice and guidance, and assistance in organizing workshops and symposia needed to further develop and advance a regional safeguarding strategy. We hope that we can hold the inaugural meeting of the Advisory Committee shortly after the funds become available on October 1, 2005; and shortly thereafter conduct a mini-workshop with strategic stakeholders. The counsel of the Caribbean Invasive Species Working Group, the T-STAR Project Advisory Committee, the strategic stakeholders, and of many of you will be critically important in charting the way forward. In closing we are looking to all of you for support, and we are very receptive to your suggestions.

REFERENCES

Ambrose, E. 2004. Overview of the proposed Caribbean regional invasive species intervention strategy (CRISIS). Proceedings of the Workshop, Facilitating Safer US-Caribbean Trade: Invasive Species Issues, Port of Spain, Trinidad and Tobago, West Indies, 2-4 June 2004. Pp. 63-67. Bellotti, A. C. and A. van Schoonhoven. 1999. The role of CIAT in meeting the challenge of new invasive species in the Caribbean Region. p. 159-171. In W. Klassen (chair). Mitigating the effects of exotic pests on trade and agriculture, Part A. The Caribbean. Proceedings of T-STAR Workshop-X, Homestead, Florida, June 16-18, 1999, sponsored by the Cooperative State Research, Education, and Extension Service, USDA. 292 pp. Evans, E. A. 2004. Invasive species: trade and socio-economic perspective. Proceedings of the Workshop: Facilitating Safer US-Caribbean Trade: Invasive Species Issues, Port of Spain, Trinidad and Tobago, West Indies. 2-4 June 2004. Pp. 19-28. Evans, E. A., E. Ambrose, B. Blake, W. F. Brown, A. Chesney, C. G. Davis, M. T. K. Kairo, W. Klassen, B. Lauckner, F. Leimbacher and C. Vuillaume. 2003. Invasive species policy recommendations. Proceedings of the Caribbean Food Crops Society. 39: 128-130. Frank, J. H. and E. D. McCoy. 1992. The immigration of insects to Florida, with a tabulation of records published since 1970. Fla. Entomol. 75(1): 1-28. Frank, J. H. and E. D. McCoy. 1995. Invasive inventive insects and other organisms in Florida. Fla. Entomol. 78(1): 1-15. Griffin, R.L. 2000. Trade Issues and Area-wide Pest Management. pp. 49-53. In Teng-Hong Tan (editor) Joint Proc. FAO/IAEA International. Conference on Area-Wide Control of Insect Pests, May 28-June 2, 1998 & the Fifth International Symposium on Fruit Flies of Economic Importance, June 1-5, 1998. 8 I.A.E.A., Penerbit Universiti Sains Malaysia, Pulau, Pinang. 782 pp.

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Klassen, W. 2004. The Florida and the Third Border perspective. Proceedings of the Workshop, Facilitating Safer US-Caribbean Trade: Invasive Species Issues, Port of Spain, Trinidad and Tobago, West Indies, 2-4 June 2004. Pp. 48-60. Klassen, W. and C. G. Davis. 2004. Report on Workshop – Facilitating Safer US-Caribbean Trade: Invasive Species Issues.” In: Strengthening Partnerships for Sustaining Caribbean Agriculture. Proceedings of the 40 ^t^h Annual Caribbean Food Crops Society Meeting, Vol. 40: 184-197 Klassen, W., C. F. Brodel and D. A. Fieselmann. 2002. Exotic Pests of Plants: Current and Future Threats to Horticultural Production and Trade in Florida and the Caribbean Basin. Micronesica, Suppl. 6; Invasive Species and Their Management. pp. 5-27. Roberts, D. and K. DeRemer. 1997. Overview of Foreign Technical Barriers to U.S. Agricultural Exports. Economic Research Service, USDA. Technical Bulletin No. 9705. Shannon, M. 1999. Challenges in safeguarding Florida and the U.S. against invasive pests. p. 11- 13. In W. Klassen (chair). Mitigating the effects of exotic pests on trade and agriculture, Part A. The Caribbean. Proceedings of T-STAR Workshop-X, Homestead, Florida, June 16-18, 1999, sponsored by the Cooperative State Research, Education, and Extension Service, USDA. 292 pp. Shannon, M. 2003. Challenges in safeguarding the Greater Caribbean Basin against invasive pests, diseases, weeds and other agents: A Florida Perspective. Proceedings of the Caribbean Food Crops Society. 39: 1-5. Singh, R. H. 2004. The economic case for regional safeguarding of agriculture and the environment: The Experience of the Pink Hibiscus Mealy Bug Control Programme in Trinidad and Tobago. Proceedings of the Workshop, Facilitating Safer US-Caribbean Trade: Invasive Species Issues, Port of Spain, Trinidad and Tobago, West Indies, 2-4 June 2004. Pp. 77-85. Thomas, M. C. 2000. The exotic invasion of Florida: a report on arthropod immigration into the Sunshine State. http://doacs.state.fl.us/~pi/enpp/ento/exoticsinflorida.htm. Vuillaume, C., P. Bertrand , P. Rouet, P. Tormin, A. Chidiac, K. Lombion, V. Beauquis, X. Mourichon, G. Theissen, P. Ehret, C. Amar, P. Yves Techeney, C. Pavis, J. H. Daugrois, M. Dollet, T. Goguey D. Martinez, T. Lefrançois, N. Vachiery, S. Molia and M. Petitclerc. 2004. The French Caribbean invasive species safeguarding program. Proceedings of the Workshop, Facilitating Safer US-Caribbean Trade: Invasive Species Issues, Port of Spain, Trinidad and Tobago, West Indies, 2-4 June 2004. Pp. 107-113.

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THE T-STAR SUPPORTED TRADE AND INVASIVE SPECIES INITIATIVE

John Vansickle ¹ , Edward Evans ² and Ram Ranjan ³ . ¹ International Agricultural Trade and Policy Center, Food and Resource Economics Department, University of Florida, 1197 McCarty Hall, PO Box 110240, Gainesville, FL 32611-0240, Phone: 352-392-1881 X 221; Email:

JJVansickle@ifas.udl.edu . ² Tropical Research and Education Center, 18905-SW-280 Street, Homestead, Florida, USA 33031-3314. Phone 305-246-7001 X 272; EAEvans@ifas.ufl.edu

ABSTRACT: This project addresses the problem of the absence of a comprehensive pest risk management system that combines economic and scientific analyses into a single decision- making framework As such the main objective of this project is to develop a comprehensive framework and modeling system, integrating the biological profile of a pest species with economic information, to evaluate potential damages from pest invasion and the impact of alternative management decisions. A key output of the project is the development of user- friendly pest risk software that will integrate the information required of pest risk assessment into a standardized tool that can be used by policy makers/operational managers. Among other things, the software offers guidance over choice of key management options, especially those that require significant private participation.

KEY WORDS: pest risk software, risk management, decision-making framework

INTRODUCTION

This TSTAR project is a cross-regional collaborative endeavor between the University of Hawaii and the Universities of Guam, Florida, and Puerto Rico. UF Researchers include John VanSickle; Edward ‘Gilly’ Evans; Ram Ranjan; Tom Spreen; Donna Lee; and Janaki Alavalapati. Non-UF Researchers include Carol Ferguson (University of Hawaii); Ross Miller (University of Guam); Carmen Alamo Gonzalez (University of Puerto Rico), and Hugh Bigsby (Lincoln University, NZ). These institutions represent the Pacific Basin and Caribbean Basin regions of T-STAR (Tropical/Subtropical Agriculture Research), a special grant program administered by the U.S. Department of Agriculture. This project addresses the problem of the absence of a comprehensive pest risk management system that combines economic and scientific analyses into a single decision- making framework As such the main objective of this project is to develop a comprehensive framework and modeling system, integrating the biological profile of a pest species with economic information, to evaluate potential damages from pest invasion and the impact of alternative management decisions. Based upon the significance of invasive species to the specific regions, several case studies are considered for theoretical modeling as well as empirical and simulation analysis. The case studies for the University of Florida include aquatic weeds, upland invasive plants, cogongrass, the Pink Hibiscus Mealybug and the Papaya Mealybug, the Mediterranean fruit fly (med fly) and soybean rust. The case studies for University of Puerto Rico include the coffee berry borer, the mango seed weevil and plantain black Sigatoka. The case studies for the Universities of Guam and Hawaii include strawberry guava, the brown tree snake, miconia F-2 (Miconia calvescens), the apple snail and the white spot syndrome virus. A key output of the project is the development of user-friendly pest risk software that will integrate the information required of pest risk assessment into a standardized tool that can be used by policy makers/operational managers. Among other things, the software offers guidance

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over choice of key management options, especially those that require significant private participation. Issues such as the optimal combination of public incentives, the extent of compensation provided to private agents for disease eradication, and the scope for perverse incentives that might arise from public policies would be a special feature of the software. Implementation of the Project began in October 2003 and is scheduled for completion September 2006. The main purpose of this paper is to give a brief overview of the project and to report on progress-to-date. Challenges related to data needs and modeling efforts are also discussed.

PROGRESS REPORT

Two main objectives were identified under this project. One, develop a comprehensive invasive species risk management system that incorporates the science with probabilities and economic impacts of invasive species into a single decision-making framework. Two, develop a collaborative interdisciplinary network of institutions and persons involved with invasive species management. Seven activities were identified under the first objective and two under the second. A brief description of the progress made on each of the activities is provided below:

Activity 1: Prepare background paper and begin development of conceptual framework

Result: The background document is available at

http://www.fred.ifas.ufl.edu/iatpc/publication/index.php3?request=working#WPTC0305

Before beginning the development of the conceptual framework, it was considered important to get abreast of the current methodologies and software being used to tackle the invasive species problem worldwide. In order to achieve this objective, John Vansickle, Edward Evans and Ram Ranjan (all with the University of Florida) conducted a trip to New Zealand and Australia during the weeks spanning May 3 ^r^d to 16 ^t^h , 2004. The primary purpose of this trip was to gather information related to the invasive species and farm management issues in that part of the world and to apprise the state of the art in management techniques used by both the policy makers and the grass root level managers. The secondary objective of the trip was to avail of the existing techniques used in these countries to meet such challenges and derive lessons from their experience. In order to meet these objectives various meetings at the university, ministry, corporate and farm levels were organized. In particular, the trip to New Zealand involved travel to Lincoln University in Canterbury, farms and corporate sectors in the surrounding areas, trip to Timaru to meet the makers of Zespri (a Kiwi fruit), meetings with several members of the ministry of agriculture and forestry (MAF) and seminar participation and presentations at MAF, Wellington. The trip to Australia involved seminar presentation at Australian Bureau of Agriculture and Resource Economics in Canberra and meetings with several policy makers involved with developing practicable tools towards invasive species management. The visitors benefited immensely from the open-minded approach of the participants, which led to the acquisition of large amounts of documents, software, and other primary information. Further, the participants expressed high interest in the work presented by the visitors and expressed their willingness to participate in any network created by the University of Florida to help in exchange of information.

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Activity 2: Identify regional and cooperative case studies

Result: A workshop was organized in February of 2004 to bring together participants from Universities of Florida, Hawaii, Guam and Puerto Rico in order to select case studies that would be of high importance to the regions concerned. The presentations focused on the economic relevance of the invasive species under consideration, the methodology planned to approach the case studies and the expected outcomes from the case studies. Participants were also asked to identify case studies of common interest to each other so that opportunities could be created to bring closer participating institutions in terms of sharing ideas, skills and professionals and help them benefit from each other. Based upon the significance of invasive species to the specific regions, several case studies were selected for theoretical modeling as well as empirical and simulation analysis. The case studies for the University of Florida are identified below:

1. Aquatic Weeds -- Donna Lee and Damian Adams

2. Upland Invasive Plants-- Donna Lee

3. Cogongrass-- Janaki Alavalapati and Shibu Jose

4. Pink Hibiscus and Papaya Mealy bug-- Edward Evans and Ram Ranjan

5. Medfly-- Tom Spreen, John VanSickle and Raphael Pierre

6. Soybean Rust -- Edward Evans and Ram Ranjan

The case studies for University of Puerto Rico are identified below:

1. Coffee Berry Borer--- Carmen I. Alamo and Jamille Palacios

2. Mango Seed Weevil--- Carmen I. Alamo and Jamille Palacios

3. Plantain Black Sigatoka--- Carmen I. Alamo and Jamille Palacios

The case studies for the Universities of Guam and Hawaii were identified as:

1. Strawberry Guava-- Julie Denslow, John Yanagida, M. Tracy Johnson

2. Brown Tree Snake-- Stephanie Shwiff, Earl Campbell, Michael Ehlert, Carol Ferguson

3. Miconia F-2-- Teya Penniman, Anne Marie LaRosa, Catherine Chan-Halbrendt

4. Apple Snail-- Robert Cowie, Penny Levin, Carol Ferguson

5. White Spot Syndrome Virus-- John Brown and Carol Ferguson

Venues for collaboration and exchange of information amongst the participating institutions were identified for each of theses case studies and are illustrated in Appendix I.

Activity 3: Develop case studies

The case studies identified by the University of Florida are presently under various stages of development. Here, some of the information related to their proposed methodology and progress is identified. More information related to the case studies could be found at the IATPC-TSTAR web page at: http://www.fred.ifas.ufl.edu/iatpc/fre/tstar/case .

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University of Florida Case Studies

Case #1: Pink Hibiscus (PHM) and Papaya Mealy bug -- Edward Evans and Ram Ranjan

Situation: The PHM has already arrived in the southern region of Florida (and some other territories of the US), but has been kept under control due to an early and efficient use of biological control agents. However, it has not been eliminated and will continue to be considered a secondary pest under biological control.

Objectives:

1. To evaluate the economic damages from Pink Hibiscus Mealybug (PHM) to the economics of Florida and the United States

2. To evaluate and compare the cost-effectiveness of policy options such as quarantines and

biological control agents

3. To predict the long run impact of PHM infestation by using scientific predictions (based on CLIMEX model) over its spatial distribution in the US

Progress: This case study estimates the direct and indirect impacts of the Pink Hibiscus Mealybug infestation on the economies of Florida and the rest of the United States. The approach involves a Markov chain analysis wherein both short run and long run expected damages from infestation are calculated. Use is made of the CLIMEX model that predicts the potential pest-establishment regions in the US. While predictions based upon the CLIMEX model extend the scope of damages beyond Florida, the damages are dependent upon the rate of arrival and detection of species in those regions. Damages are significantly higher when a longer time horizon is considered. When nursery owners bear the full cost of quarantines in the form of loss of sales and treatment costs of infected plants, the cost-effectiveness of quarantines as a regulatory tool is diminished. Preliminary report can be found at: http://www.fred.ifas.ufl.edu/iatpc/archive/WPTC_04-08.pdf .

Case #2:

Damian Adams

Aquatic Weeds (Hydrilla, Water Hyacinth, and Water Lettuce) -- Donna Lee and

Situation: Hydrilla is post-entry in New Mexico. It is established in the Southern States, the New England States (except New York), California and Washington. Water Hyacinth is post-entry in Virginia, Maryland, New Jersey, Kentucky, Tennessee, Missouri, and Arkansas. It is established in the Gulf Coast States, Georgia, the Carolinas, California and Hawaii. Water Lettuce is post-entry in California, Illinois, the Carolinas, Virginia, Ohio, New York, and Delaware. It is established in the Gulf Cost States and Hawaii. Objectives: The invasive aquatic plants Hydrilla (Hydrilla verticillata), Water Hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes), and Water Lettuce (Pistia stratiotes) have the potential to negatively impact recreational use of Florida lakes if consistent, adequate control expenditures are not maintained. A lapse in invasive aquatic plant control expenditures by the State of Florida in the mid-1990’s resulted in invasive aquatic plant growth that choked off access to several lakes. The lapse in control funding was costly to the State in both a budgetary and lost recreational welfare sense. In subsequent years, control expenditures had to be drastically increased to regain recreational use of these lakes. Using aquatic plant coverage data, angler effort data and data on other variables likely to affect angler effort, like lake size and trophic state, and lake access, we model the relationship between these aquatic plants and angler effort. Regression coefficients,

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along with estimated control costs and average angler expenditures per fishing hour are used to simulate the net costs and benefits of three control policy alternatives from assumed initial conditions. Consistent maintenance of these invasive plants at low levels of coverage is shown to be more economically efficient than maintenance at high levels of coverage or sporadic control efforts, both in terms of angler expenditures and state control costs.

Progress: conceptual model development and regression analysis

Case #3: Upland Invasive Plants-- Donna Lee

Situation: Exotic plants have invaded over one million acres, nearly 12% of public conservation land, in Florida. Approximately 43,000 acres are under maintenance control at a cost of $6 million per year. Other affected regions are Hawaii, Puerto Rico and Caribbean Islands.

Objectives: A stylized dynamic model of upland invasive plant management with n invasive species, m management regions, q activities, and r controls will be developed. Model equations will be parameterized with existing data and then solved to show the potential gains and expected trade-offs under alternate management regimes. Research results will highlight the efficiencies gained from a coordinated management plan that includes multiple species and multiple regions.

Progress Report:

Related applications of this study:

Public land use; Ecosystem management; Wildlife

habitat; Wildlife recreation; Endangered species; Bio-economic model; Invasive plant ;management; containing Vs reducing infested acreage

Current situation:

Public conservation land: 10 million acres Invasive species coverage: 1.5 million acres Management goal: reduce IS coverage 25% by year 2010 Management budget: $6 million/year Management accomplishments: 110,000 IS acres controlled in 2003

Ten most unwanted upland invasive plants (of 92 total):

Melaleuca, Brazilian Pepper, Lygodium spp., Chinese Tallow, Australian Pine, Cogon Grass, Ardesia spp., Chinaberry, Air potato and Ligustrum

Model:

Objective: Minimize present value of total control costs (TCPV); TCPV = Σ TC _t (1+r) ^-^t Where: Total annual cost (TC _t ) is a function of acreage controlled (X _t ); TC _t = f(X _t ), f ’>0, f ” >0; and: IS acreage (S _t ) is a function of last year’s acreage (S _t_-₁ ) and acreage controlled (X _t ); S _t = GS _t_-₁ + ∋X _t ; G (2x2), S _t (2x1), ∋ (2x2) and X _t (2x1); G is the matrix of growth and transition probabilities for invasive plants; ∋ is the matrix that measures the effectiveness of the control measures

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Results:

The current management budget of $6 million provides funding to control 42,000 acres of invasive plants per year. Without the program, invasive plants would cover 1.7 million acres by year 2010. With the program, invasive plants are contained at 1.4 to 1.5 million acres based on a plant spread rate of 2.8% per year.

Other simulations

• Sensitivity tests: Plant growth (spread) rates per year: 0%, 4.62%, 7.32%, 9.24%

• Annual cost required to meet acreage target (over $40 million per year, current funding is $6 million per year)

• Market value of land management program (about $13 million per year)

• Non market value of land management program (future work)

Case #4: Cogongrass-- Janaki Alavalapati and Shibu Jose

Situation: It is currently established in approximately 250,000 acres of productive lands in Alabama, Florida, and Mississippi.

Objectives:

1. Estimate the ecological economic impact of Cogongrass on forest productivity and

ecosystem services.

2. Develop cost parameters for the optimal management of Cogongrass

Progress:

http://www.fred.ifas.ufl.edu/iatpc/fre/tstar/case

Conceptual

model

development.

Preliminary

analysis

can

be

found

at:

Case #5: Med Fly-- Tom Spreen, John VanSickle and Raphael Pierre

The research evaluates the potential impact of a Mediterranean fruit fly infestation in Florida. We developed a Bayesian decision framework to analyze the costs of the Florida Medfly prevention, detection and eradication program under early versus late detection scenarios. Early detection is associated with high cost of trapping survey, low eradication cost, and low probability of Medfly establishment, while late detection accounts for a reversed situation. The results suggest the existence of an optimal trapping density per location and per season. This trapping strategy is one that ensures a minimum eradication cost. Partial equilibrium models are also used to investigate welfare changes for the major fruit and vegetable crops under scenarios of a three-month, six-month, and one-year quarantine period.

Case #6: Soybean Rust -- Edward Evans and Ram Ranjan

Situation: There is very limited scope for preventive efforts in this case as the pest has the ability to transport itself through wind over vast measures of space. The question in this case was over the timing of the pest’s arrival rather than whether or not it would arrive. In fact, soybean rust has already arrived in the US. In November of 2004, the first case of soybean rust in the United States was reported in Louisiana. Later on, it was also detected in Florida and Mississippi. This case is of invasive species management when there are limited management options that may be both costly and uncertain. It also involves significant private participation as hosts

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are agricultural plants of high economic value. However, challenges to private participation include providing right incentives, high differences between private and social benefits of pest eradication, unobservability of private actions and trade related barriers.

Objectives: The broad objectives of this project are to:

1. Evaluate the expected damages from pest introduction in the US using a stochastic ecological-economic model that incorporates private decision making based on federal incentives. The role of its secondary host plant, Kudzu, in spreading rust to the soybean growing regions of the US would be investigated and optimal control of Kudzu would be derived.

2. Design optimal management strategies for soybean rust based on scientific information related to its long term survival and spread.

3. Evaluate the implications of trade related polices on soybean rust control and of soybean rust spread on trade.

Progress: Conceptual model developed. The data related to the probabilities of soybean rust transmission to soybean growing States is being generated by APHIS using on-field simulations. Due to the very recent arrival of the pest in the US (2004), not much empirical observation is available as of now.

University of Puerto Rico Case Studies

Project: Economics of Managing Invasive Species in Tropical and Subtropical Areas in the United States of America University of Puerto Rico Case Studies Progress Report Carmen I Alamo-González-UPR, Mayaguez Campus, AES carmen_alamo@cca.uprm.edu , cialamo@hotmail.com

Summary:

The Puerto Rico interdisciplinary regional group identified three relevant invasive species for the agricultural crops sector. The three invasive species selected for the case studies are:

coffee berry borer (Hypothenemus hampei), black Sigatoka (Mycosphaerella fijiensis) and the mango seed weevil (Sternochetus mangier). In February 2004, the three invasive species selected for the case studies were at a pre- entry level. On May 2004 an economic impact analysis on the plantain commodity in Puerto Rico due to a possible introduction of black Sigatoka was done. Considering the spread of the disease in the Caribbean and its proximity to the island, the economic imp act of a possible introduction was preliminarily estimated. Partial Budget analysis was used to estimate the economic impact at farm level. The land chemical control cost was estimated based on a total cost increase of 15% due to black Sigatoka. For the analysis, three levels of yield losses were established (20%, 60% and 80%) and evaluated using three price scenarios ($0.050/Kg., $0.100/Kg., and $0.125/Kg.). The preliminary economic analysis for a possible introduction reports a chemical control cost of $1,020/ha/year ($408/acre/year). Benefit-cost ratios equal or greater than one were reported in the $0.100/Kg. price scenario with yield losses equal or less than 20%, and for the $0.125/Kg. price scenario with yield losses equal or less than 60%. However, in August 2004 black Sigatoka was identified in Puerto Rico. The black Sigatoka introduction requires a new approach to determine the economic impact. A survey was conducted on the plantain and banana farms certified infested in December 2004. The survey

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gathered data related to production, grading, prices, and control costs. Phytosanitary practices at the farm level were identified to estimate the path of infestation. The geographic location and weather information for each farm was collected. Both factors are significant variables in the disease spread, thus affecting control cost and product losses.

A survey is being conducted on commercial mango farms. The survey will gather

information to evaluate economic impact at farm and market levels in a mango seed weevil introduction scenario. The coffee berry borer interdisciplinary group identified three control scenarios to determine possible economic impact at the farm level. The availability of labor and weather conditions are identified as significant variables in the control cost and spread of the invasive.

Cases Studies Update:

Black Sigatoka

A survey was conducted in collaboration with the Agricultural Extension Service of the

UPR to determine the economic impact of black Sigatoka at the farm level. All certified infected farms were surveyed. The Phytosanitary Clinic of the Agricultural Extension Service of the University of Puerto Rico provided the list of infested farms. The Extension Agents of the municipalities with black Sigatoka administered the survey to farmers.

The survey gathered information related to:

a. Farm location and characteristics (location is associated with probabilities of

introduction and spread because the mountain area has more humidity and rain): Both factors

are favorable for the disease introduction and spread.

b. Marketing activities, transportation and seed source: The origin of the seed planted

and product transportation practices are factors that could introduce and spread the disease.

Farms could plant seeds from contaminated farms; while some farmers use the plantain and banana leaves to protect the fruit during transportation to the market place. c. Production, grades and prices before and after black Sigatoka was detected.

d. Control methods used for the disease and the costs associated with them (labor

intensive, mechanical intensive)

Modeling Approach for Black Sigatoka

a. Estimate spread rate: Determine the spread rate before and after tropical storm Jeanne.

The disease was identified in August 2004. The tropical storm came to the island in September

2004. The disease spread vectors are:

1. Winds: Tropical storm

2. Plantain seed source (buying or selling from an infested areas)

3. Marketing:

-Fruits and vegetative material transportation to market places -Selling from the farm to middlemen (intermediaries) which buy banana and plantain through production areas

4. Data related to border inspections and detections from the local and federal protection

agencies

b. No control/ Control Scenario:

-Determine total area at risk and estimate how many years it will take for total spread.

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c.

Partial Budget Analysis: To determine economic impact at the farm level

d. Estimate government investment in inspection, programs, paying farmers for infected

plantation eradication, and control practice incentives.

Modeling Approach for Mango Seed Weevil:

A survey of commercial mango farms is being conducted.

information related to:

a. Control methods and their estimated costs

b. Production characterization and data

c. Market economic impact

The introduction scenario collects

-Trade: export market (quarantine will be imposed) -Local: the introduction of the export mango in the local market will lower prices,

making operation unprofitable.

Due to the spread of the mango seed weevil in the east Caribbean area and its proximity

to the island of Vieques and Culebra a survey of passengers of both islands is planned. There is

no regular inspection program in the intra island public ferry transportation ports (Fajardo, Vieques, and Culebra). The relation between the population of Vieques and the near island of Saint Croix is strong. In Saint Croix, mango seed weevil has already been identified. The survey will gather information related to the introduction of mango, plantain, banana, coffee and other agricultural products by passengers.

Modeling Approach for Mango Seed Weevil:

a. Estimate spread rate:

• Inter island spread rate: Determine the spread rate through East Caribbean Islands (most of the islands already have mango seed weevil). Variables to consider:

- Trade and traffic volume between islands (airplanes, ferries, boats)

- Inspection level in the islands

• Intra-island spread rate: Determine the probabilities of introduction and spread due to Puerto Rico’s intra island traffic. -Determine the traffic volume amongst the east ports of Fajardo, Vieques and Culebra Islands. -Survey of ferry passengers (currently no regular inspection program exists in the intra island public ferry) -Estimate the number of mangos trees growing in backyards (household + collection of wild mango) -Survey house-holders across the island -Data related to border inspections and detections realized by the local and federal protection agencies b. Partial Budget Analysis:

• To determine economic impact at farm level

• Market level Impact Analysis -Local market -Export Market

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Coffee Berry Borer:

The interdisciplinary group looking at coffee berry borer identified three possible control methods or practices that could be evaluated in Puerto Rico (chemical, chemical + biological, and biological). There are two management practices recommended to be implemented along with the three methods of control practices: a. surveillance and monitory practices (borer traps)

and b.-eradication of coffee berry residuals in the plantation after the harvest season ends (Pela y Repela). The group identified three significant variables to evaluate for the control scenarios:

a. Labor cost and availability

b. Weather data (precipitation and temperatures)

c. Farm locality (altitude)

The weather and location variables probably will affect the effectiveness of the biological control and the berry borer spread. A partial budget analysis will be used to estimate the economic impact at the farm level. Control methods, scenario, and levels of infestation associated with production losses will be considered in the analysis.

Modeling Approach for Coffee Berry Borer:

a. Estimate spread rate:

• Country to Country-- Determine spread rate through the infested countries in South and Central America, and Western Caribbean Islands. Variables to consider:

-Trade and traffic volume between countries (land, airplanes, ferries, boats) -Inspection level in the countries -Green coffee, machinery, farm tools, coffee bags (illegal visitors from DR)

• Within Country--

Estimate the introduction and spread rate using data from in a similar tropical coffee production region where pest has infected.

b. Estimate possible changes to actual production losses and control costs considering:

• No control scenario

• Three control scenarios

c. Partial Budget Analysis: to determine economic impact at farm level

• Determine the labor force needed to implement the control and monitoring activities, assuming labor is available

Role of Regulatory Agencies:

Information was required from local and federal regulatory agencies to determine the cost of surveillance, inspection and quarantine programs. Information was also required from the Department of Agriculture of Puerto Rico and APHIS of the United States Department of Agriculture. To estimate probabilities of introduction of the invasive species the following information has been requested from APHIS and DAPR. -Total inspections (time series available data) -Number of inspections of coffee, mango, plantain and banana fruits and vegetative material

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- Number of inspections with positive results in coffee, mango and plantain.

University of Guam and Hawaii Case Studies (No progress report is available on these studies yet)

Case #1:

Strawberry Guava

An Economic Evaluation of Alternative Control Strategies:

The Case of

Situation: Psidium cattleianum Sabine or strawberry guava (hence Psidium), a small tree introduced to Hawaii in 1825, is considered one of the state’s most disruptive alien weeds. On all the major islands, nearly monotypic stands of this species infest thousands of hectares of mesic and wet forest. It is considered a serious threat to native forest ecosystems due to its ability to invade even relatively undisturbed wet forests and form thickets up to 10 m high with dense mats of feeder roots.

Objective: This case study will estimate the expected costs and benefits of Psidium control for conservation and biodiversity, fruit and vegetable production, and koa siliviculture. Four control options will be considered: (a) apply chemical/mechanical control; (b) apply biological control; c) apply a combination of (a) and (b) controls; and (d) apply no control. A model of Psidium spatial distribution and rate of spread will be parameterized based on published information supplemented by interviews with scientists and local land managers. GIS-referenced data will be used to develop statewide estimates of control costs and benefits. Expected economic impacts will be measured over 20 years to account for lag effects of population build up in biological control agents, spreading Psidium populations, and cultural-herbicide management cycles. Partial budgets will be used to value different types of economic impacts. Direct market impacts include control costs in managed forests and conservation areas, and increased koa generation in logged forests. Indirect market effects at commercial fruit farms are lower costs of fruit fly control, higher yields, and/or reduced post-harvest treatment costs with increased access to export markets. Non-market effects from Psidium control are (direct) lower costs of biodiversity restoration in conservation areas and (indirect) reduction in feral pig populations. These impacts will be estimated from known costs of restoration projects to conserve native species in similar environmental conditions.

Case #2: Impact of Apple Snails on Taro Culture in Hawaii

Situation: This case study addresses the rapid invasion of apple snails (Pomacea and Pila sp.) into fresh water streams and taro growing areas of Hawaii and the economic impacts to taro farmers. Taro (Colocasia esculenta) or kalo in Hawaiian, is a sacred food and staple of the Hawaiian diet. Its importance in Hawaii crosses all boundaries including indigenous culture, subsistence food crop, diet and education. Apple snails, also known as golden snails, were introduced to Hawaii as an alternative economic crop about 1989. They have rapidly invaded loì kalo (wetland taro) systems and streams throughout the state, primarily by human introduction/transport and water-borne dispersal.

Objective: Research objectives for this case study include: a) provide an updated assessment of apple snail distribution in the main Hawaiian islands; b) identify the impacts of apple snails to taro culture and the natural environment; c) quantify the direct and indirect costs to farm families and communities; and d) investigate the costs and effectiveness of alternative control measures with a simulation model. Field and questionnaire surveys plus interviews will be conducted with

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taro farmers and others (potentially) affected by the apple snails on five Hawaiian islands. Pest occurrence will be measured by presence/absence of snails, farmer reports on the first time snails were observed in their area and current level of field infestation. A model of snail invasion, farmer control responses, yield loss, monetary and other costs will be estimated from the survey data. The model will be simulated over a 20-year time horizon to investigate different management options. Management alternatives will consider programmatic interventions such

as research into snail control methods, communal efforts like inspection of planting materials

from another watershed, farmer education and technical support, controls on snail transport and

markets, and greater resources for control programs.

Case #3:

An Economic Assessment of Island Management Strategies for Miconia in

Hawaii

Situation: Miconia calvescens is an extremely aggressive, ecosystem-modifying invasive tree found on the islands of Hawaii, Maui, Oahu and Kauai. Miconia was imported into Hawaii as an ornamental. Its first known occurrence was in 1961 at a botanical garden on Oahu. The plant escaped into the wild and began spreading around the islands. Today, the stage of miconia invasion differs by island and includes relatively recent discovery of isolated plants, established but not currently spreading populations, and extensively naturalized and spreading populations.

Objective: This case study will investigate long-term strategic management of Miconia in Hawaii. Specific objectives include: document the management activities, strategies, and costs incurred by the invasive species committees (ISCs) on different Hawaiian islands; estimate models of Miconia spread and damages for important resource uses; simulate the Miconia invasion in the East Maui watershed; evaluate ISC management using cost-benefit analysis and cost-effectiveness of management alternatives. Pooled time-space data on the Miconia invasion and control expenditures will be compiled from ISC records and interviews. Other GIS-referenced data on site attributes will be collected

from secondary sources. An empirical model of Miconia spread and management will be estimated including the probability of infestation, plant densities, control cost functions or partial budgets. Analysis of the economic impacts for East Maui will focus on prospective damages to biodiversity, recreation, and watershed protection. Different valuation techniques will be used.

A dynamic simulation of the Miconia invasion over a 50-year time horizon will track expected

infestations, costs and damages under alternative management regimes. The latter will consider

differences in the timing of intervention, resource levels, and specific control practices.

Case #4: Economic Impact of the Introduction of the Brown Tree Snake (joint study with University of Guam)

Situation: Translocation of the brown tree snake (Boiga irregularis) from New Guinea to Guam

is

believed to have occurred after World War II. The introduction and subsequent establishment

of

the brown tree snake (BTS) on the island of Guam is considered one of the greatest ecological

catastrophes caused by a single introduced vertebrate species in an oceanic insular area worldwide during the latter part of the twentieth century. The impacts from BTS experienced on Guam include: losses related to frequent power outages including infrastructure damage and decline in economic output; human health and safety costs due to snakebite; catastrophic loss of native avifauna and subsequent cascading ecological effects; increased transportation costs to prevent BTS incursions; potential decline in tourism due to travel inconveniences, fear of snakes and/or negative public image from snake introduction.

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Objective: This case study will estimate historical and current BTS damages on Guam, and extrapolate the costs to Hawaii. Secondary and primary data will be collected from various sources including surveys and/or interviews with private businesses, medical providers, electric power authorities, transportation companies and quarantine agencies, tourism officials. An empirical approach will be adopted to compare key factors in island populations, economies and infrastructure across different regions of Guam and between Guam and Hawaii. An analysis of the variations in Guam damages, plus theoretical models from the literature, will be used to project economic impacts from Guam to Hawaii.

Case #5:

Economic Analysis of White Spot Syndrome Virus Eradication in Guam and

Hawaii

Situation: White spot syndrome virus (WSSV) is a major production problem for the cultured shrimp industry. WSSV can be transported with the shipment of broodstock or post-larvae seedstock. It is found in commodity shrimp and can be transferred with bait used by recreational fisherman or in wastes from processing imported shrimp. WSSV produces slower growth rates and high mortalities for shrimp populations. The latter can reach 100% loss within 3-10 days from the onset of symptoms. Together with yellow-head disease (YHD), WSSV losses have averaged about $1 billion per year in major shrimp-growing countries of Asia. WSSV has been detected in Guam, and Hawaii experienced an outbreak at a Kauai shrimp farm in spring 2004.

Objective: This case study was initiated by the University of Guam. The overall objective is to estimate the expected costs of farm sterilizations versus other WSSV control methods for Guam and Hawaii. Secondary data will be collected and key informants interviewed to: characterize shrimp production and trade in Guam and Hawaii; estimate representative shrimp farm budgets for hatchery and grower operations; develop and parameterize a risk management model of WSSV introduction and spread; estimate the costs of various control methods. Control options include farm sterilizations, quarantine barriers, and specific pathogen-free (SPF) certification for live animal transfers. A cost-benefit analysis of the expected returns from virus eradication will be conducted from public and private viewpoints.

Activity 4: Continue development of conceptual framework

Result: A lot of progress has been made towards the development of the conceptual framework. In order to build the conceptual framework for software development, care is being taken to make the framework as generic as possible in terms of its application to a wide range of problems related to invasive species management. The objective is to develop software that would provide end-users several options in terms of how to:

1. capture the direct and indirect economic impacts of invasive species

2. to incorporate the risk and uncertainty aspect of invasive species management

3. to allow for alternative objective functions, keeping in mind that the end users could range from grass root level managers to centralized policy makers

4. to integrate the biological information related to the invasive species and their hosts in the main economic framework of the model

5. to allow for state-of-art modeling linkages and associations between different modules of framework through the use a unified modeling language (UML)

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There are several ways to model uncertain events. For instance, a discrete time Markov chain (DTMC) approach assumes that the probabilities that define system behavior are time homogenous and state independent. Biological parameters such as the arrival and death rate of species per period would, in such a case, be fixed over time. Another way to model biological parameters is through a continuous time Markov chains (CTMC) approach, where the time of occurrence of an event itself is random. The general framework, however, would allow for several other modeling approaches in order to incorporate the needs of specific case studies.

The approach followed in the development of the conceptual framework uses different modules to separate different classes of ‘objects’ so that an abstraction could be achieved at the generic level without compromising on the details within the individual classes. For instance, biological class would contain information related to the pest and its various hosts. Economic class would contain information related to the economic value of the hosts, cost and effectiveness of policy measures, etc. Association and linkages between classes would determine how specific scenarios within one class translate information from one class to another. While optimization is one of the favored options for policy makers, most cases of invasion demand overwhelming information before a meaningful optimization exercise could be performed. Further, policy options are often constrained by limited variability in management tools, especially in case of new invasions. Under such a scenario, the best analysis is often the prediction of long run spatial distribution of pests when optimization is not feasible. The framework would allow for such simulation analyses.

Activity 5: Construct quantitative model

Result: Quantititative models vary with the case studies. However, some quantitative models

have already been developed and applied to a few case studies. These are listed below and are available at the IATPC-TSTAR website:

1. Cox, L. A., Jr., John J. VanSickle, D. A. Popken, & R. Sahu, “Tracking and Testing of US and Canadian Herds for BSE: A Risk Management Dilemma”, Choices, 4 ^t^h Quarter, 2004. http://www.fred.ifas.ufl.edu/iatpc/archive/JRTC_05-01.pdf

2. Lee, D.J., and C.S. Kim, “Managing Upland Invasive Plants on Florida Public Conservation Land”, Manuscript.

3. Ranjan, R. and P. Papajorgji (2005): “Using UML to Model the Economic Impact of Invasive Species: A Case Study of Pink Hibiscus Mealybug”. Selected Paper Presented (by co-author) at the 3PP ^r^d^P^P World Congress on Computers in Agriculture and Natural Resources, Portugal, July 25-28, 2005. http://www.fred.ifas.ufl.edu/iatpc/archive/wccaFinalpaper.pdf

4. Ranjan, R. and R. Lubowski (2005): “How do the Risks of Invasive Pests Affect Land Use? The Case of Florida Cropland”. Selected Paper to be presented at the Southern AERE Sessions in November 2005, Washington DC.

5. Ranjan, R. (2005): “Environmental Restoration of Invaded Ecosystems: How Much Versus How Often?” Selected Paper presented at the AAEA Sessions in RI, July 2005.

http://agecon.lib.umn.edu/cgi-bin/pdf_view.pl?paperid=16118&ftype=.pdf

6. Ranjan, R. and R. Lubowski (2005): “A Model of Producer Incentives for Livestock Disease Management”, Online First, Journal of Stochastic Environmental Research and Risk Assessment. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00477-005-0237-5

7. Ranjan, R. "Invasive Species Management through Tariffs: Are Prevention and Protection Synonymous?" Selected paper Presented at the AERE Sessions of the AAEA

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2005.

bin/pdf_view.pl?paperid=16119&ftype=.pdf .

Meetings,

RI,

http://agecon.lib.umn.edu/cgi-

8. Ranjan, R. “Economic Impacts of Pink Hibiscus Mealybug in Florida and the United States”. Selected paper Presented at the AAEA Meetings, RI, 2005 (Also Presented at the

Annual International Agricultural Trade and Policy Center Conference, December 7-8, 2004). http://www.fred.ifas.ufl.edu/iatpc/archive/WPTC_04-08.pdf .

9. Ranjan, R. & Edward Evans "Private Responses to Public Incentives for Invasive Species Management" (Presented at the 25 ^t^h West Indies Agricultural Economics Conference, Aug 20, 2004 in Paramaribo, Suriname). IATPC/WPTC 04-09. Dec. 2004 .

SOFTWARE PROGRESS REPORT

Activity 6: Develop pest risk software

Result: One of the central objectives of the TSTAR collaborative project is to develop a decision support tool for invasive species management. The IATPC at the University of Florida has been collaborating with IFAS information technology department for developing the software using a state of art modeling language, the unified modeling language (UML). The IFAS technology department has proven expertise in developing user-friendly tools for agricultural sciences and Petraq Papajorgji at the IFAS technology is an active participant on this project. While the objective is to develop a generic software, it was decided at the San Juan meeting that the decision support tool would replicate at least one case study been undertaken by each of the collaborating institutions. The cases selected for University of Florida are Pink Hibiscus Mealybug, Upland invasive species, and cogon grass. Black Sigatoka on plantains would be used as a case study from Puerto Rico and Brown tree Snake and Strawberry Guava would be used as case studies from Hawaii and Guam for the purpose of software development. It was also agreed upon to incorporate several state of art methodologies in the software in order for it to be able to handle a diverse range of management needs that are faced by policy making bodies such as the USDA. Collaboration amongst the Caribbean and the pacific basins on the TSTAR invasive species project provides a great opportunity to model the unique features of the island economies of Puerto Rico, Hawaii and Guam that distinguish themselves from the mainland United States. Most of these island economies are the first ones to be infested by invasive species from other regions of the world and therefore present a first line of defense against such pests. However, the heavy dependence of such island economies on commodity based trade poses a key challenge for preventing pest infestation as the likelihood of pest entry increases with level of trade. One of the objectives of this project is to incorporate such features of these island economies into the decision-aiding software. The software in its current state of development will soon be capable of handling case studies that require evaluation of long term consequences of pest infestation, when the regulatory agency undertakes optimal control measures for its management. More details on this approach can be found in Ranjan (2005) and Ranjan and Papajorgji (2005) and on the following website:

http://invasive.ifas.ufl.edu Appendix III shows some more details on the software.

Activity 7: Testing and validation of model/software Result: Not yet done.

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Objective 2: Develop a collaborative interdisciplinary network of institutions and persons involved with invasive species management.

Activities:

1. Develop network for information exchange through web page, listserv, etc.

In order to create a network for information exchange a web page has been created at the IATPC

website that shares information related to the current progress of the project. This web page can

be accessed at http://www.fred.ifas.ufl.edu/iatpc/fre/tstar/main

A listserv has also been created to bring together people working on similar issues from all over

the

http://www.fred.ifas.ufl.edu/iatpc/fre/tstar/main#listserv

world.

This

listserv

can

be

accessed

at:

2. Conduct annual year-end workshops to present interim result from project

Result: Several meetings are planned for 2005 in order to achieve this objective

1. An annual meeting was held in Puerto Rico on June 21-23 of 2005 that brought together participants from Universities of Florida, University of Guam and Hawaii, University of Puerto Rico and Lincoln University, New Zealand. This meeting included presentations over the progress of case studies, field trips to get a feel of the invasive species problem in Puerto Rico, and a modeling workshop that allowed participants to focus on specific problems related with modeling and empirical analysis.

2. In addition, some of the participants also had an opportunity to participate in a software development meeting organized at the University of Florida, immediately after the Puerto Rico meetings. The meetings in Puerto Rico helped inform the software development process by analyzing specific case studies.

3. A modeling workshop was held at the University of Hawaii in April of 2005, which allowed participants from University of Florida, Puerto Rico and Guam to discuss cases of concern in Hawaii and present their own results so far from the case studies in their regions.

Conclusion

The project has been successful in achieving its broad goals so far. Case studies have benefited from collaboration not only amongst the participating universities but also from governmental agencies such as USDA-ERS and APHIS. Further, state agencies such as Florida Department of Agricultural and Consumer services and APHIS sub-divisions have provided valuable inputs on respective cases studies from time to time. Participants were also encouraged to take up new challenging case studies apart from the initially assigned ones (e.g. bse, etc.). The work on software development has befitted from inputs from collaborating researchers and it is planned to incorporate some of the ongoing case studies into the software which would be available in it s library.

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APPENDIX I:

FIGURE 1. TSTAR CASE STUDIES – PROPOSED REGIONAL COLLABORATION (Compiled by Donna J. Lee, University of Florida)

Hawaii

3

4

Guam

1

Florida

2

5

9

13

11

10

14

7

12

8

6

Puerto Rico

Hawaii

Guam

Puerto

Rico

Florida

1

Strawberry guava

2

Brown tree snake

3

Miconia F-2

4

Apple snail

5

WSSU

6

Coffee berry borer

7

Mango seed weevil

8

Black Sigatoka

9

Aquatic weeds

10

Upland plants

11

Medfly

12

Pink hibiscus , papaya Mealybug

13

Soybean rust

14

Cogon grass

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UPDATE ON FRENCH CARIBBEAN SAFEGUARDING INVASIVE SPECIES CIRAD- INRA INITIATIVES

Claude Vuillaume ¹ , Pierre-Yves Teycheney ² , Michel Dollet ³ , Jean Heinrich Daugrois ⁴ , Claudie Pavis ⁵ , Alain Palloix ⁶ , Cica Urbino ⁷ , Christian Lavigne ⁸ , and Thierry Goguey ⁸ , Dominique Martinez ⁹ , Thierry Lefrançois ⁹ et Sophie Molia ⁹ .

¹ CIRAD Direction Régionale Guadeloupe, Station Neufchâteau Sainte Marie 97130 Capesterre B-E., Phone: 33 (0) 590-86-17-73; FAX: 33(0) 590-86-80-77, claude.vuillaume@cirad.fr ; ² CIRAD FLHOR Guadeloupe, UPR Multiplication vegetative, Station de Neufchâteau , Sainte- Marie, 97130 Capesterre-Belle-Eau Guadeloupe; Phone: +687 43 74 25; FAX: +687 43 74 26, pierre-yves.teycheney@cirad.fr ; ³ CIRAD CP Montpellier, ⁴ CIRAD CA Guadeloupe, ⁵ INRA Guadeloupe, ⁶ INRA Avignon, ⁷ CIRAD FLHOR Guadeloupe, ⁸ PRAM Martinique, 9 CIRAD EMVT Guadeloupe.

ABSTRACT. Currently five collaborative research networks are proposed, and each is to be built as a network around topics on the security, health and emerging diseases of crops in the Caribbean region. The five proposed networks are as follows: (i) begomoviruses on tomato, (ii) coconut lethal yellowing, (iii) emerging and invasive citrus diseases (tristeza, citrus canker, CVC and greening), (iv) established and emerging diseases and pests of sugarcane and (v) cercosporiosis diseases and BSV in bananas and plantains. The first contact missions to finalize the drafts of the networks projects with the various partners began in May 2005 within the framework of a global project financed by the French Government and Guadeloupe Regional Council. Phytosanitary Risk Analyses were made in 2003 and 2004 by CIRAD with the Co- operation Mission of the French Ministry of Agriculture Plant Health Board. A sixth network, CaribVET, has been functioning since 1999. CaribVET is an inspection network recognized at the Caribbean regional level. It includes the veterinary services, laboratories of diagnosis, universities, and national and international partners engaged in monitoring animal health. Within the framework of the activities of this network, missions of technical support and diagnosis in the member states of the Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States (OECS) began in 2004 and will continue in 2005 mainly with funding support of the French Embassy and the Ministère des Affaires Etrangères.

KEY WORDS: collaborative research networks, begomoviruses, tomato, coconut lethal yellowing, citrus diseases, sugarcane, cercosporiosis, banana streak virus, BSV, banana, plantain

RÉSUMÉ: Etat d'avancement des projets Cirad-Inra pour la protection contre les espèces envahissantes dans les départements français de la Caraïbe et dans la Caraïbe insulaire.

Cinq réseaux de recherche font actuellement l'objet de projets de constitution d'un réseau associatif de chercheurs caribéens dans le domaine de la sécurité sanitaire et des maladies émergentes et en progression dans la caraïbe : la maladie à bégomovirus de la tomate, le jaunissement mortel du cocotier, les maladies des agrumes (tristeza, chancre citrique, CVC et greening), les maladies de la canne à sucre et les cercosporioses et le BSV du bananier. Les premières missions de prises de contact et de finalisation de rédaction des projets de réseaux des partenaires débuteront en mai 2005 dans le cadre d'un projet global financé par l'Etat français et le Conseil Régional de Guadeloupe. Des analyses de risques phytosanitaires ont été réalisées en

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2003 et 2004 par le Cirad en relation avec la Mission de Coopération Phytosanitaire du Ministère

de l'Agriculture, de l'Alimentation de la Pêche et de la Ruralité. Un sixième réseau fonctionne depuis 1999, il s’agit de Caribvet, c’est un réseau de

surveillance des caraïbes reconnu régionalement, il inclut les services vétérinaires, les laboratoires de diagnostic, les universités, les partenaires nationaux et internationaux de la surveillance de la santé animale. Dans le cadre des activités de ce réseau, des missions d’appui technique et de diagnostic auprès des Etats de l’OECS ont débuté en 2004 et se poursuivront en

2005 principalement sur financement Ambassade de France.

INTRODUCTION

Five collaborative research networks were proposed by CIRAD and INRA in 2003 during the 39 ^t^h annual CFCS meeting in Grenada CFCS 2003. These networks are being built around topics on security, health and emerging diseases of crops in the Caribbean region, as follows: (i) begomoviruses on tomato, (ii) coconut lethal yellowing, (iii) emerging and invasive citrus diseases (tristeza, citrus canker, CVC and greening), (iv) established and emerging diseases and pests of sugarcane and (v) cercosporiosis diseases and BSV in bananas and plantains. The first contact missions to finalize the drafts of the network-projects with the Caribbean partners began in May 2005 within the framework of a global project financed by the French Government and the Guadeloupe Regional Council. Phytosanitary Risk Analyses were conducted in 2003 and 2004 by CIRAD with the Co-operation Mission of the French Ministry of Agriculture Plant Health Board. A sixth network, CaribVET, has functioned since 1999. CaribVET is an inspection network recognized at the Caribbean regional level. It includes the veterinary services, laboratories of diagnosis, universities, and national and international partners engaged in monitoring animal health. Within the framework of the activities of this network, missions of technical support and diagnosis in the member states of the Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States (OECS) began in 2004 and will continue in 2005 mainly with funding support of the French Embassy and the Ministère des Affaires Etrangères.

CIRAD-1 Traditional Crops - Banana and Plantains. Title project: " Impact of the introduction of new hybrid varieties of bananas and plantains on the dynamic balance of the populations of some pathogenic agents and pests: nematodes, fungi and viruses ". Countries: Cuba, Haïti, Dominican Republic, Guadeloupe, Martinique, Windward Islands, Mexico, Colombia, Ecuador. Problems: 1. Increasing spread of Black Sigatoka disease in the Caribbean area, 2. Introduction into this area of new banana hybrids containing banana streak virus (BSV) genomic sequences in their genomes. Objective of the study and proposed solutions: This project aims to evaluate (i) the durability of resistances to the cercosporioses - black and yellow (Mycosphaerella fijiensis and M. musae) - obtained in interspecific banana hybrids, (ii) the impact of the diffusion on a large scale of these hybrids on the populations of nematodes affecting the banana production, and (iii) potential risks of diffusion of BSV resulting from the activation of BSV sequences integrated into the genome of these hybrids. By the establishing or strengthening scientific exchanges and transfer of methodologies, this project will lead to improved management of the resistance obtained in hybrid varieties, and of the risk of spreading BSV through the diffusion of these hybrids,

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Current status: Studies on the molecular diversity of BSV populations have started in South America (Mexico, Colombia). The collaborative network should be extended to nearby countries (such as Ecuador) and the Caribbean (Cuba). Contacts: Dr. Pierre Yves Teycheney, Virologist, and Mr. Claude Vuillaume, CIRAD (Centre de recherche agronomique pour le développment) Station, Neufchâteau, Sainte Marie 97130 Capesterre B-E. Phone: 33 (0) 590-86-17-73; Fax: 33(0) 590-86-80-77

CIRAD-2 Traditional Crops - Sugarcane. Title: "Support of sustainable sugar and rum production, and preservation of the agricultural landscape in the Caribbean by optimizing the processes of variety selection". Countries: Bélize, Cuba, Haïti, Dominican Republic, Trinidad, Guadeloupe and Barbados. Problems: New or undetected diseases can have a negative impact on Caribbean sugarcane production. Objective of the study and proposal solutions:

The studies to be integrated in the project would be:

1. Characterization of the genetic resources, study of their diversity (microsatellite, and other tools), identification of new quantitative trait loci (QTL);

2. Impact study of the emergent diseases and the major diseases on production and selection (SCYLV phytoplasmas, RSD, etc.);

3. Impact study of the variability of pathogenicity on the durability of varietal resistance (leaf scald);

4. Database on genetic improvement.

Sugarcane, along with banana, is one of the main crops in Guadeloupe. Around 46% of cultivated area is planted with sugarcane. Because sugarcane is important for Guadeloupe, the sugarcane crop needs to be protected from invasive species present in Guadeloupe since long ago, or from those recently introduced. The major damaging pathogens and pests are Ustilago scitaminea (c.a. of smut on sugarcane), Leifsonia xyli subsp. xyli (c.a. of ratoon stunting disease), Xanthomonas albilineans (c.a. of leaf scald) and Sugar Cane Yellow Leaf Virus (c.a. of the yellow leaf disease), the West Indies sugarcane fly, Saccharosydne saccharivora and the sugarcane borer Diatraea spp. The sugarcane crop also needs to be protected from any disease or pest that may be introduced in Guadeloupe. Basic knowledge of sugarcane diseases and pests - including disease dispersion, pathogen variability and condition of epidemics - is important for establishing plant protection plans. To protect sugarcane crops from local invasive species CIRAD has developed local screening procedures to select sugarcane for resistance to major diseases. In addition a seed nursery scheme was established in Guadeloupe using disease free in vitro cultivated plants as the primary source of seed plants. Plants will then be multiplied for 3 years by farmers. Introduction of invasive species through germplasm movement is limited by a 2 years quarantine process at CIRAD - Montpellier. The quarantine process is validated by the plant protection services of French government. Sharing knowledge on sugarcane diseases, diagnostic tools and varietal status among Caribbean countries will be helpful to protect sugarcane crops form diseases and pests. Current status: Contacts have been established with the main Caribbean partners to develop a data base on genetic improvement and for diagnosis training for the major emergent diseases in the countries and in CIRAD CA Guadeloupe Contacts:

Mr Jean Heinrich Daugrois, Sugarcane Pathologist; jean-heinrich.daugrois@cirad.fr

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Mr. Claude Vuillaume, CIRAD (Centre de recherche agronomique pour le développement) Station Neufchâteau Sainte Marie 97130 Capesterre B-E., Phone: 33 (0) 590-86-17-73; Fax:

33(0) 590-86-80-77; claude.vuillaume@cirad.fr .

CIRAD-3 Diversification Crops – Citrus. Title: "Promotion of a sustainable citrus fruit cultivation and plant health observatory". Countries: Cuba, Dominica, Haïti, Jamaica, Dominican Republic, Trinidad and Tobago, and Guadeloupe.

Problems: Progressive spread of the tristeza virus in the Caribbean area.

invasive pests (citrus variegated chlorosis (CVC), bacterial canker and citrus greening disease). Objective of the study and proposal solutions:

Assist citrus growers in a project of rehabilitation, which would consist of establishing durable citrus fruit cultivation within an integrated fruit-bearing and production system. This regional project will be based on research projects developed in the field on varietal development and plant protection (plant health observation), involving integrated pest management and agronomic programs, training and technology transfer, and socioeconomic studies. Current status: Two surveys have been made in 2004 by Cica Urbino, CIRAD FLHOR virologist on the spread of tristeza in Saint Lucia and Dominica. In Saint Lucia the survey completed the diagnosis for CTV. It showed that CTV has spread in the main citrus production areas of Saint Lucia and the recommendation of changing the rootstock is still a topical question. In Dominica CTV was not detected along the western coast, nor in the north and north western sectors of the island. However, CTV was detected in the samples collected in the central and southern areas of Dominica where it been detected previously (10 positives out of 18 samples collected at Layou, Soufriere, Laudat, Grandbay). All the varieties were affected, especially limes. Young plants were found positive at Grand Bay. This reveals the activity of the vector for the transmission of the virus. Lime plants grafted on swingle were found positive at Botanic Gardens Nursery. A proposal for the development of certified citrus plant propagation has been made. Contacts:

Mrs. Cica Urbino, virologist Cirad Flhor Guadeloupe; cica.urbino@cirad.fr ,

Mr. Christian Lavigne, agronomist PRAM Martinique, christian.lavigne@cirad.fr , Mr. Claude Vuillaume CIRAD (Centre de recherche agronomique pour le développement), Station Neufchâteau Sainte Marie 97130 Capesterre B-E, Phone: 33 (0) 590-86-17-73; Fax:

33(0) 590-86-80-77, claude.vuillaume@cirad.fr .

Risk of additional

CIRAD-4 Tomato. Title: "Incidence and epidemiology of tomato begomovirus diseases in different countries of the Caribbean ". Countries: Cuba, Dominican Republic, Trinidad, Guadeloupe and Martinique. Problems: The introduction of the B biotype of Bemisia tabaci was concomitant with the appearance and spread of different begomovirus diseases on tomato in the Caribbean. These diseases have caused severe yield losses, and sometimes, preventing profitable cultivation in the countries of the Caribbean. Objectives of the studies and proposed solutions:

To determine the respective incidences of different begomoviruses species on tomato (mainly TYLCV and PYMV). To determine the key factors in the development of epidemics with respect to the production area scale, and to the plot scale.

84

To model progress of the disease in the plots, in relation with environmental factors; in order to create and evaluate IPM practices, adapted to the different agronomic and socio-economic contexts. Contacts:

Dr Claudie Pavis, INRA Duclos Petit Bourg Guadeloupe; pavis@inra.fr Mrs Cica Urbino, Virologist Cirad Flhor Guadeloupe; cica.urbino@cirad.fr , Mr. Claude Vuillaume, CIRAD (Centre de recherché agronomique pour le développement) Station Neufchâteau Sainte Marie 97130 Capesterre B-E. Phone: 33 (0) 590-86-17-73; Fax: 33(0) 590-86-80-77, claude.vuillaume@cirad.fr .

CIRAD-5 Diversification Crops – Coconut Title: “Towards a global research program on integrated control of the coconut lethal yellowing disease in the Caribbean”. Countries: Cuba, Haiti, Jamaica and Guadeloupe. Problems: Lethal yellowing of coconut is one of the most devastating coconut diseases. To date the French West Indies and lower Caribbean have not been touched by this dreaded scourge. As for the coconut production areas of Cuba, Haiti and Jamaica, they are now partially devastated, and the disease in progressing relentlessly in the Caribbean. Its repercussions are particularly serious in the area with respect to employment in rural areas, conservation of biodiversity, impact on ecosystems, degradation of landscapes, and reduction in visits of tourists to typical Caribbean landscapes and beaches. Objectives of the study and proposed solutions:

The project will aim at characterizing the diversity and the variability of the phytoplasmas associated with this disease, identifying its vectors, defining their etiologic role and identifying resistances in the host plants. Acquired knowledge will make it possible to establish recommendations for varietal selection and methods of a rational struggle for the control of the disease, and for halting its diffusion in the Caribbean. Current status:

For 3 years CIRAD CP has given fresh impulse to research on lethal yellowing of coconut (JMC - YLC). In Africa this thrust resulted in the creation of a PCR-based diagnostic laboratory in Ghana and a triangular collaboration Ghana-Mozambique-Cirad Montpellier. In the Caribbean, several researchers of CIRAD CP carried out missions of expertise on the JMC since 2000, in Honduras, in Haiti, in Cuba and Jamaica. Various types of collaborations are set up gradually including (i) reception in Montpellier of Ph.D. students from Jamaica (from the Coconut Industry Board (CIB)) and from Cuba (from the IIFT), (ii) participation in the Ph.D. examining board in Jamaica, (iii) follow-up of a student in Honduras by electronic mail, and (iv) scientific missions of supports in entomology, phytopathology. A. Slackness joined CIRAD and an agreement has been signed with the Coconut Industry Board of Jamaica (CIB). The implication of CIRAD in this area also results in the membership of the person in charge for the UPR “Jaunissement mortel du cocotier” to Caribbean division of American Phytopathological Society and its participation in several of its meetings, and by the nearest assignment of one of its research entomologists in Mexico in September 2005. Contacts:

Dr. Michel Dollet, Pathologist, CIRAD, Montpellier, michel.dollet@cirad.fr , Mr. Claude Vuillaume, CIRAD (Centre de recherche agronomique pour le développement) Station Neufchâteau Sainte Marie 97130 Capesterre B-E., Phone: 33 (0) 590-86-17-73; Fax: 33 (0) 590-86-80-77, claude.vuillaume@cirad.fr .

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CIRAD-6 The Caribvet network and OECS countries

The Caribbean Animal Health Network (CaribVET), a collaboration network between

institutions and people to improve animal health and the quality and safety of animal products with emphasis on the Organization of Eastern Caribbean States (OECS). Countries : Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and Grenadines, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Antigua and Dominica Objectives of the study and proposed solutions:

The 2004 and 2005 CIRAD missions in the countries of the OECS in relation with the agriculture ministries mainly consisted in identifying the assets and the needs for the veterinary services in terms of diagnosis of the animal diseases, formation, and technology transfer; and the need to actively integrate the veterinary services of the countries of the OECS into regional dynamics. These missions are thus integrated perfectly in the development of the Caribbean network of animal health in complement of the FCR sets of themes, FSP épidémiosurveillance, and of the development of the Caribvet.net Web site. They contribute thus to the success of these improvements of regional collaboration in animal health. http://www.caribvet.net . Contacts:

Dr. Thierry Lefrancois Domaine de Duclos, 97170 Petit BourgGuadeloupe, FWI; thierry.lefrancois@cirad.fr . Dr. Sophie Molia Domaine de Duclos, 97170 Petit Bourg Guadeloupe, FWI; sophie.molia@cirad.fr .

Title:

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TOWARDS A BETTER CONTROL OF THE VIRAL CONSTRAINTS HAMPERING THE MULTIPLICATION AND EXCHANGE OF MUSA GERMPLASM

Pierre-Yves Teycheney ¹^, M. Folliot ² , S. Galzi ³ , N. Laboureau ²^, ³ , M.-L Caruana ³ , P. Piffanelli ⁴ , J.C. Noa Carazzana ⁴^, ⁵ , Armelle Marais ⁶ , Laurence Svanella-Dumas ⁶ , Thierry Candresse ⁶ and F.-X. Côte . ¹ CIRAD-FLHOR, Station de Neufchâteau, Sainte- Marie, F-97130 Capesterre Belle Eau, Guadeloupe; Email: teycheney@cirad.fr . ² CIRAD-FLHOR, TA50/PS4, Boulevard de la Lironde, F-34398 Montpellier cedex 5, France; ³ CIRAD-AMIS/UMR BGPI, TA 41/K, Campus International de Baillarguet, F-34398 Montpellier cedex 5, France; ⁴ CIRAD-AMIS UMR PIA, Avenue Agropolis, F-34398 Montpellier cedex, France; ⁵ Cinvestav-IPN, Irapuato, Mexico; ⁶ UMR GD2P, IBVM - INRA - BP 81 33883 Villenave d Ornon cedex - France .

ABSTRACT: Viruses are currently the major constraints for the multiplication and diffusion of safe Musa germplasm worldwide. A multi-disciplinary research program was developed in order to tackle the problems caused by Banana Streak Virus (BSV) and Banana Mild Mosaic Virus (BanMMV), which are two of the main virological constraints, and implement a comprehensive technical itinerary for the production of virus-free germplasm. Immuno-molecular diagnosis tools were developed for the sensitive detection of BSV and BanMMV. Together with existing tools for the detection of other viruses infecting Musa spp, they now allow the selection of parental clones that can be used for the mass production of certified virus-free vitro plants. These tools made it possible to carry on epidemiological studies on BanMMV and to provide evidence for the potential spread of BanMMV isolates either as a consequence of cultural practices or as the result of a yet not described vector-borne transmission mechanism. They also allowed the identification and characterization of a new virus infecting Musa spp, Banana Virus X (BVX), which causes no visible symptoms and shares several features with BanMMV. In vitro multiplication is often reported as the main cause for triggering the production of episomal infectious BSV particles in banana hybrid species harbouring some or all of the B (Musa balbisiana) genome, through the activation of BSV endogenous pararetrovirus (EPRV) sequences integrated into the B genome. Nevertheless, mass production of vitro plantlets remains the most widely used method for the diffusion of either Musa germplasm or new improved hybrid species. A better understanding of the effects of in vitro culture on BSV EPRV activation is thus necessary in order to evaluate the risks of spreading BSV through the wide diffusion of banana plantlets. Therefore, natural triploid plantain cultivars (AAB) and interspecific tetraploid hybrids (AAAB) were assayed for their activation patterns through in vitro culture. Results confirmed that in vitro culture activates BSV integrated sequences but also showed that, for the cultivars and hybrids studied, the percentage of BSV-infected plantlets reached a maximum of 10 to 20 % then decreased when increasing the number of subcultures. Ongoing research aims at characterizing the virological status of BSV-free plantlets after their transfer to the field, in order to explore the possibility of identifying banana germplasm with B genome that could be multiplied and distributed safely with regards to BSV. Furthermore, the resources of Musa genomics and immuno-cytology were successfully combined in order to get insights into the organization of BSV integrated sequences, paving the way for the characterization of mechanisms leading to the activation of BSV EPRV sequences in Musa and the implementation of novel strategies to counteract this phenomenon.

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KEY WORDS: Banana Streak Virus (BSV), Banana Mild Mosaic Virus (BanMMV), Banana Virus X (BVX), endogenous pararetrovirus (EPRV), immuno-cytology, genomics

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STRATEGIES ET METHODES INNOVANTES DEVELOPPEES PAR LA RECHERCHE DANS LES TERRITOIRES FRANÇAIS DU PACIFIQUE ET DE L’OCEAN INDIEN OCCIDENTAL POUR LIMITER L’IMPACT DES ESPECES ENVAHISSANTES

Nicolas Barré ¹ , Thomas Le Bourgeois ² , Michel de Garine-Wichatitsky ¹ *, Jacques Tassin ¹ , Vincent Blanfort ¹ et Dominique Strasberg ³ . ¹ IAC-CIRAD BP 73, Païta, Nouvelle-Calédonie, ² UMR C53 PVBMT CIRAD, ³ UMR C53 PVBMT Université de la Réunion.

RÉSUMÉ: La Nouvelle-Calédonie et la Réunion, collectivités françaises du Pacifique et de l'océan Indien, recouvrent des hauts lieux de la biodiversité jouxtant des zones d'activité agricole, pastorale et forestière. Afin de se préserver des impacts des invasions biologiques relevant d’organismes très divers (vertébrés, insectes, plantes, pathogènes), ces deux collectivités d'outre- mer doivent élaborer et mettre en place des procédures appropriées (contrôle des introductions, détection et éradication précoce, contrôle ou éradication des populations établies). Par leurs actions de recherche, le CIRAD, l’Université de la Réunion et l’IAC interviennent en appui à ces processus de décision, en aidant à la hiérarchisation des espèces et des impacts, à la compréhension des processus écologiques et en proposant des méthodes d'intervention et de gestion innovantes. Ces approches, développées en milieux insulaires tropicaux paraissent applicables à l'environnement caribéen.

MOTS

d’Invasion,

ESSENTIEL:

Stratégie

Nationale

pour

la

Biodiversité,

l’Analyse

de

Risque

ABSTRACT: New Caledonia and Reunion Island are French overseas territories, respectively situated in the Pacific Ocean and the Indian Ocean. They both are biodiversity hot spots, but are also agricultural, pastoral and forestry areas. To preserve their environments against the impacts of biological invasions resulting from very diverse taxa (vertebrates, insects, plants, pathogens), these two overseas territories must develop and promote appropriate methods (prevention of new introductions, early detection and eradication, and control or eradication of established species). The research activities of CIRAD, University of la Reunion and IAC contribute to these decision processes, by improving the hierarchical classification of invasive species according to their impacts, by improving the understanding of underlying ecological processes, and by proposing innovative intervention and management methods. This approach for invasive species control in tropical insular areas could also be appropriate in the Caribbean environment.

INTRODUCTION

La Reunion et la Nouvelle Caledonie sont des iles françaises tropicales situees respectivement dans l’ocean Indien et dans l’ocean Pacifique. La premiere, proche de Maurice, est a 800 km a l’est de Madagascar; la seconde est un archipel situe a 1500 km a l’est de l’Australie. Il est maintenant bien connu que les iles, dont la faune et la flore ont evolue dans un relatif isolement depuis des millenaires, sont particulierement sensibles a l’impact des especes introduites. La réunion et la Nouvelle-Calédonie sont remarquables de ce point de vue. Iles oceaniques tres isolees, leurs ecosystemes et leur biodiversite sont particulierement riches et originaux, avec un taux d’endemisme eleve. Mais elles sont aussi fragiles et menacees, la menace venant principalement des especes introduites. Celles-ci sont responsables de

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nombreuses extinctions de par le monde, en particulier dans des milieux ayant evolue en situation d’isolement biogeographique, mal prepares a resister a des especes d’origine continentale qui ont developpe des adaptations et des strategies efficaces pour conquerir des espaces et des niches nouvelles. Les milieux naturels et la biodiversité ne sont pas les seuls à souffrir des ces espèces étrangères. Elles font aussi subir un préjudice considérable aux activités humaines, en particulier agricoles et pastorales. En conséquence, et comme proposé par Tassin et al., (2005) et Blanfort et Orapa (à paraître), la recherche doit produire des outils pour aider à réduire l’impact écologique et économique de ces espèces, a) par la conduite d’inventaires sur les différents taxons pour mesurer la biodiversité existante et son évolution, b) par la mise au point d’enquêtes, de suivis et d’expérimentations pour quantifier l’impact des espèces introduites sur cette biodiversité, c) par la fourniture d’informations sur les risques générés par des introductions d’espèces allochtones et les moyens d’éviter leur entrée sur le territoire, d) par la mise au point d’outils et de méthodes pour permettre une détection précoce des introductions et leur éradication rapide, e) par la mise au point de méthode de gestion des milieux visant la prévention des invasions et le contrôle des processus d’envahissement. Enfin, f) la recherche doit mettre au point ou valider des procédés pour l’éradication, quand cela est possible, ou le contrôle de ces espèces, et tester des méthodes permettant le suivi et l’évaluation de leur efficacité. Première étape: la recherche doit fournir des informations sur l’état de la biodiversité existante, sur la présence d’espèces invasives et sur leurs impacts potentiels. Quelques exemples sont présentés pour les plantes et les vertébrés (Tableau 1). Ils montrent une exceptionnelle biodiversité en Nouvelle-Calédonie (3 fois plus de plantes natives qu’à la Réunion) et une vulnérabilité particulière de la Réunion où le nombre de taxons introduits atteint (dans le cas des plantes et oiseaux) ou dépasse nettement (dans le cas des mammifères) celui des taxons autochtones, avec une proportion importante de pestes majeures. La Réunion est en effet soumise aux effets dévastateurs de la «vigne maronne» Rubus alceifolius, du troëne, Ligustrum robustum, du Merle des Moluques Acridotheres tristis, du Bulbul orphée Pycnonotus jocosus, des rats, du chat et du Cerf rusa Cervus timorensis, ce dernier restant encore localisé. Les zones pastorales des Hauts sont exposées aux invasions par Acacia mearnsii et Ulex europaeus. Les zones sèches de Nouvelle-Calédonie subissent les effets de la Passiflore Passiflora suberosa, du Jatropha gossypiifolia, du «faux mimosa» Leucaena leucocephala. La forêt humide est menacée par Miconia calvescens, une peste majeure en Polynésie et à Hawaï, dont la présence a été récemment confirmée sur plus de 100 ha dans le sud de Nouméa. Parmi les oiseaux, l’abondance du Merle des Moluques et la propagation du Bulbul cafre Pycnonotus cafer sont aussi préoccupantes, et pour les mammifères, celles des rats, du chat et du chien, du cochon sauvage et du Cerf rusa. Les effets des pestes sont divers, mais pas toujours totalement appréhendés. La recherche tente d’objectiver l’importance de l’impact de ces espèces introduites, en particulier cerf rusa, cochon et plantes des pâturages en Nouvelle-Calédonie, vigne maronne, troëne et Acacia mearnsii à la Réunion. Les espèces envahissantes ont tendance à pénétrer les formations naturelles, à contrarier la régénération des espèces locales et à s’y substituer (passiflore, vigne maronne, faux mimosa, troëne…), à coloniser les espaces pastoraux (Jatropha gossypiifolia, faux basilic (Ocimum gratissimum), Acacia mearnsii, ajonc d’Europe (Ulex europeus), à modifier les milieux et altérer leur restauration (plantes, cerfs), à entrer en compétition (oiseaux) ou à se comporter en prédateur (oiseaux, rats, chat, chien, cochon) des espèces locales. La raréfaction ou la disparition de certaines espèces d’oiseaux endémiques comme le «tuit tuit» Coracina newtoni (classé EN par l’UICN) à la Réunion, l’Egothèle Aegotheles savesi (CR), le Râle de Lafresnaye Gallirallus lafresnayanus (CR), le Méliphage toulou Gymnomyza aubryana

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(EN), la Cagou Rynochetos jubatus (EN) en Nouvelle-Calédonie ne peuvent s’expliquer que par l’action des espèces introduites, avant tout celle des mammifères prédateurs.

Tableau 1: Plantes, oiseaux et mammifères natifs et introduits à la Réunion et en Nouvelle- Calédonie (en partie d’après Gargominy, 2003).

Espèces natives

Espèces

introduites

Pestes majeures

et (pourcentage)

PLANTES

Réunion

915

1014 (52 %)

100

Nouvelle Calédonie

3261

772 (19 %)

50

OISEAUX

Réunion

24

20

(45 %)

3

Nouvelle Calédonie

112

13

(10 %)

3

MAMMIFERES

Réunion

2

7 (78 %)

5

Nouvelle Calédonie

9

12

(57 %)

6

En second lieu, la recherche doit pouvoir fournir des informations pour éviter de nouvelles introductions. Cela est possible par l’application de protocoles pour l’analyse de risques, la surveillance aux frontières, la mise en place d’une réglementation appropriée et la constitution de listes d’espèces autorisées ou interdites. Dans le Pacifique, les espèces invasives présentes et potentielles sont connues et ont fait l’objet d’inventaires exhaustifs et de recommandations par le SPREP (South Pacific Regional Environmental Programme) (Sherley 2000). Pour autant qu’elles soient correctement renseignées et actualisées, ces listes régionales permettent d’apprécier les « risques de voisinage », si la distribution des espèces menaçantes est assortie de données quantifiées sur l’importance relative des flux entre les îles (transport maritime et aérien, vents dominants, trajets d’oiseaux migrateurs etc.). Des recommandations spécifiques ont été formulées, que la recherche valide et auxquelles elle apporte des adaptations :

- Le protocole sur l’Analyse de Risque d’Invasion (Invasion Risk Analysis protocole) est en cours d’approbation par l’Organisation Européenne de Protection des Plantes (European Plant Protection Organisation). Ce protocole fait suite au protocole d’Analyse de Risque Phytosanitaire de l’EPPO et a été adapté du Programme Australien d’estimation des risques liés aux mauvaises herbes (Australian Weed Risk Assessment Programme). Le protocole d’Analyse de Risque d’Invasion prend en compte la biologie et l’écologie de l’espèce candidate, sa répartition, son potentiel invasif ailleurs dans le monde. Il permet de statuer sur la menace d’une espèce sur une région donnée et de décider objectivement de l’acceptation ou non de son introduction. Ce test mis en œuvre à la Réunion sur l’herbe du Laos Chromolaena odorata a montré le potentiel très envahissant de cette plante justifiant que son introduction soit interdite et qu’elle fasse même l’objet d’une surveillance particulière compte tenu de sa présence à Maurice

- Les Directives pour la Prévention des Pertes de Biodiversité dues aux Espèces envahissantes (Guidelines for the Prevention of Biodiversity loss caused by Alien Species) rédigées par l’UICN.

- Citons également cette initiative récente de l’UICN France qui va établir un réseau inter DOM/TOM pour faire le bilan sur la situation concernant les espèces envahissantes dans

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les îles françaises, formuler des conseils et coordonner des actions à partir d’un bureau qui sera établi à la Réunion.

Outre une réglementation stricte aux frontières, il existe à la Réunion et en Nouvelle- Calédonie un réseau dense de partenaires administratifs, scientifiques et institutionnels ainsi que des relations nationales et internationales suivies avec des spécialistes du monde entier qui permettent à tout moment de s’informer sur la meilleure conduite à tenir et d’intervenir avec le maximum d’efficacité. A la Réunion les acteurs interviennent comme suit.

- La réglementation et le contrôle aux frontières sont assurés par le Service de la Protection des Végétaux (SPV) dépendant de la Direction de l’Agriculture et de la Forêt (DAF) ; la réglementation sur la protection des espèces et des milieux est du ressort de la Direction de l’Environnement (DIREN). Les Conseils Régional et Général interviennent également au niveau décisionnel et politique.

- La gestion de l’environnement et des espèces envahissantes est assurée par ces mêmes administrations ainsi que par l’Office National des Forêts (ONF), le Conservatoire Botanique National de Mascarin (CBNM). Les ONG formulent quant à elles des avis et recommandations.

- Les actions de conseil, d’expertise et de recherche sont assurées par le CIRAD, l’Université de la Réunion et le CBNM. Ils conduisent pour le compte des institutions locales ou en partenariat avec elles des actions de recherche-développement sur la connaissance et la mise en place d’outils de gestion des espèces envahissantes. Ces organismes établissent également des collaborations dans le cadre de projets communs et bénéficient d’appuis de l’Afrique du Sud : Center of Excellence for Invasions Biology (CIB), South African National Botanical Institute (SANBI), de l’Indonésie : Indonesian Oil Palm Research Institute (IOPRI), de la Thaïlande : National Biological Research Center (NBCRC), de l’Australie : Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO), de l’Europe : Centre International pour l’Agriculture et les Sciences Biologiques (CABI-Bioscience), Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS) En Nouvelle-Calédonie

- la réglementation et le contrôle aux frontières sont de la compétence du Service d’Inspection Vétérinaire, Alimentaire et Phytosanitaire (SIVAP) dépendant de la Direction des Affaires Vétérinaires, Alimentaires et Rurales (DAVAR).

- Certains volets de la réglementation (espèces protégées, espèces nuisibles, chasse) et la mise en œuvre de la gestion de l’environnement, des ressources naturelles et des espèces envahissantes sont du ressort des Directions concernées de chacune des trois Provinces.

- Les actions de recherche en accompagnement de la gestion des espèces envahissantes sont conduites par l’Institut de Recherche pour le Développement, IRD (insectes) et l’IAC (plantes envahissantes, ravageurs des cultures, oiseaux, ongulés). Un groupe de travail interinstitutionnel sur les espèces envahissantes a été créé en 2004 qui a commandité à l’IRD une expertise collégiale sur les espèces envahissantes afin d’évaluer la menace et de mettre en place une stratégie de protection et d’intervention spécifique. La recherche a également noué des collaborations avec des institutions de recherche et des administrations nationales et internationales de la région comme le CSIRO en Australie, le Department of Conservation et l’Université d’Auckland en Nouvelle- Zélande, le Plant Protection Service, la Land Resources Division du SPC (Secretariat of the Pacific Community), le SPREP. Des bases de données peuvent être consultées comme le Global Invasive Species Database, développé par le Groupe Spécialisé sur les Espèces

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Invasives de Nouvelle Zélande (Invasive Species Specialist Group ISSG) qui a produit par ailleurs le fascicule sur les « 100 World Worst Invasive Species». Plus spécifiquement, le Centre de Recherche sur les Ecosystèmes Insulaires du Pacifique basé à Hawaï (Pacific Island Ecosystems Research Center) propose un prototype d’aide à la décision pour évaluer le risque potentiel généré par les introductions d’oiseaux. Enfin, un nouveau réseau, le Pacific Invasives Learning network a vu récemment le jour.

-

L’ensemble de ces dispositifs constitue un outil précieux pour mieux apprécier les menaces générées par les espèces envahissantes, mieux les prévenir et les contrôler. En troisième lieu, la recherche doit aussi fournir des méthodes et outils pour détecter les espèces qui auraient échappé au contrôle et les éradiquer rapidement. Cela implique notamment des capacités à identifier les espèces nouvelles. La recherche doit être en mesure de fournir cette expertise. Les réseaux de compétence listés ci-dessous tant au niveau local qu’international, les bases de données et les systèmes de reconnaissance disponibles permettent de hiérarchiser les menaces et de décider du bien fondé d’une intervention et de la stratégie à mettre en œuvre (spatialisation et dynamique de l’espèce, mode de propagation, type de lutte, durée, moyens). Le dernier volet concerne l’éradication ou le contrôle des espèces établies dont il est avéré qu’elles altèrent ou menacent la biodiversité locale et les activités agricoles. La recherche fournit des données sur les traits de vie de ces espèces et sur leur impact, permettant de juger de la nécessité, de la possibilité et des chances de succès d’un programme de lutte. Les bases de l’organisation de la lutte peuvent aussi être proposées, sachant qu’il est toujours plus coûteux, compliqué et aléatoire de lutter contre une espèce établie et largement répandue que contre une espèce encore confinée, en cours d’installation. Les invasions biologiques étant le résultat de la combinaison de caractères propres à l’espèce, mais aussi de l’état de l’écosystème et de l’ampleur de sa transformation par les activités humaines actuelles et passées, leur gestion requiert des connaissances sur la structuration génétique, l’écologie et la biologie de l’espèce en question, sur son mode de reproduction et propagation et ses ennemis naturels. La gestion doit aussi se fonder sur la connaissance d’éventuelles interactions avec tout ou partie des composantes du milieu agissant de façon positive ou négative sur la dynamique de l’espèce. Dans les milieux anthropisés, la prise en compte des pratiques est capitale pour la mise au point d’outils de gestion. En Nouvelle- Calédonie, des outils d’aide à la décision informatisés visent à fournir des diagnostics des pâturages pour améliorer leur gestion ce qui reste le meilleur moyen de prévention vis-à-vis des plantes envahissantes. Certains outils comme les cartes de distributions actuelles ou potentielles et les SIG sont précieux pour comprendre la répartition et la propagation des espèces : la Vigne maronne est particulièrement présente dans le nord et l’est de la Réunion et l’observation de sa distribution actuelle permet d’établir des corrélations avec l’altitude, le climat, les types d’habitats les plus vulnérables et de prédire la zone potentielle d’installation de l’espèce. En Nouvelle-Calédonie, Jatropha gossypiifolia établi au nord, est en expansion dans le sud le long de la route principale, ce qui permet de formuler des hypothèses sur les processus de propagation et de proposer des moyens pour les prévenir. Les plantes envahissantes des forêts sèches, l’un des milieux les plus menacés de Nouvelle-Calédonie, viennent des pâturages voisins, étouffent la végétation native et empêchent sa régénération. Passiflora suberosa est précisément cartographié dans certains îlots de forêt sèche prioritaires en intégrant les pâturages environnants, afin de comprendre les conditions spatio-temporelles de son développement (lisière, ouvertures, effet des herbivores, mise en défens…), et d’évaluer le succès des mesures de contrôle entreprises. En résumé, la gestion intégrée des plantes invasives dont la finalité est d’aboutir à une restauration de l’habitat aussi proche que possible de son état «initial» (dont la caractérisation est

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en soi un sujet de recherche!) repose sur la gestion écologique, le contrôle mécanique ou chimique (choix du produit et du mode d’application, période, stade physiologique…) et le contrôle biologique si on peut disposer de la preuve que ce dernier est efficace et sûr. A la Réunion par exemple, la lutte biologique est en cours de mise au point contre la Vigne maronne. Un hyménoptère tenthrède Cibdela janthina a été sélectionné et étudié par le CIRAD (biologie, écologie, spécificité) et les résultats ont été présentés à un comité de pilotage qui va décider ou non de le lâcher en milieu naturel semi confiné (cages de moustiquaire) pour acclimatation et mise en place des populations avant une production de masse et un lâcher complet. Les exemples passés d’erreurs de manipulations en lutte biologique incitent en effet au respect de protocoles stricts, et à une décision argumentée, validée et collective pour le recours à cette stratégie. Cette gestion intégrée doit aussi être englobante car l'imbrication des milieux agricoles et pastoraux avec les milieux naturels favorise les risques d'invasion de ces derniers. L’évaluation des interactions entre ces milieux menacés est un élément indispensable pour apprécier les conditions de coexistence entre des activités agricoles et la préservation de milieux naturels qui permettront la mise en place de modes de gestion durables et viables. Pour les ongulés qui font l’objet de recherches en Nouvelle-Calédonie, et en prenant l’exemple du cerf rusa, gibier apprécié dont la chasse et la capture sont les seuls moyens de contrôle, la gestion des populations est source de conflits d’intérêt et requiert une approche pluridisciplinaire, concertée et prudente. Cela implique notamment de connaître l’importance culturelle, nutritionnelle et économique de ce gibier pour les communautés locales permettant de décider de plans de chasse et de gestion et de leur suivi. La recherche a par ailleurs pour mission d’explorer les conditions dans lesquelles l’effectif des populations est compatible avec la préservation des écosystèmes. Mais dans un milieu dont la végétation a évolué en l’absence d’herbivores, les mécanismes de défense n’existent pas. Il n’y a pas d’effet de seuil, et même à très faible densité, les cerfs peuvent avoir un effet déterminant sur des espèces végétales localisées ou à faible effectif, mais très appétées. Pour des habitats de petite surface abritant des espèces rares, comme le sont les forêts sèches, l’exclos peut être une solution, à condition que les plantes envahissantes préalablement régulées par les cerfs puissent être contrôlées. Enfin, dans des situations particulières, par exemple sur des îlots, l’éradication peut être une solution réaliste et efficace.

CONCLUSION

En conclusion et en nous appuyant sur les recommandations formulées dans la Stratégie

Nationale pour la Biodiversité, la recherche apporte ses connaissance, développe des outils et participe à la construction d’un plan intégré de gestion des espèces envahissantes à la Réunion et en Nouvelle Calédonie comportant:

- la prévention des introductions par le recours aux protocoles d’analyse des risques d’invasion;

- la mise en place d’une réglementation et de dispositifs de surveillance adaptés,

- l’établissement d’observatoires et de campagnes de sensibilisation du public permettant la détection rapide d’espèces introduites;

- l’eradication precoce de celles-ci par les moyens disponibles et, si cet objectif n’est pas atteint, par le developpement de programmes de recherche et d’intervention pour leur controle, debouchant enfin sur des programmes de restauration des milieux s’appuyant sur des campagnes de formation et de sensibilisation du public.

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RÉFÉRENCES BIBLIOGRAPHIQUES

Invasive Species Specialist Group www.issg.org

Global Invasive species database www.issg.org/database

IUCN Union mondiale pour la Nature www.iucn.org

The Global Invasive Species programme http://jasper.Stanford.EDU/GISP/

Blanfort, V., Orapa,W (à paraître). Editeur scientifique, Actes de l'atelier de travail régional sur les plantes envahissantes des espaces pastoraux. IAC/MAE, Ambassade de France en Australie. 24-28 novembre 2003, Koné, Nouvelle Calédonie, SPC, IAC, Suva, 130p. Gargominy, O., ed. (2003) Biodiversité et conservation dans les collectivités françaises d'outre- mer, pp x et 246. Comité Français pour l'UICN, Paris, France. Sherley, G., ed. (2000) Invasive species in the Pacifi : a technical review and draft regional strategy, pp 190, Apia, Samoa. Tassin J., Blanfort V., Triolo J., Lavergne J., Le Bourgeois T., Strasberg D., Meyer J-Y, 2005. Le rôle des collectifs dans la lutte contre les plantes exotiques envahissantes dans l’outre- mer français. Conférence internationale, Biodiversité, Science et gouvernance, Paris 24- 28 Janvier 2005.

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A PEER REVIEWED PAPER

CaribVET, A TOOL TO FACILITATE CONTROL OF EMERGING AND EXOTIC ANIMAL DISEASE THREATS

S. Molia ¹ , T. Lefrancois ¹ , N. Vachiery ¹ , and D. Martinez ¹ . ¹ CIRAD, EMVT Département, Domaine de Duclos, Prise d’eau 97170 Petit Bourg, Guadeloupe ; sophie.molia@cirad.fr

ABSTRACT. The Caribbean Animal Health Network (CaribVET) is a collaboration among institutions (veterinary services, research or diagnostic laboratories, international organizations) and individuals to improve animal health and the safety of animal products throughout the Caribbean. It aims at promoting collaborations and a regional approach for animal diseases control and emergency preparedness, strengthening national epidemiosurveillance networks, developing and harmonizing regional veterinary diagnostic capacities, and fostering communication and exchange of information among individuals involved in animal production and health in the Caribbean. Control of re-emerging and exotic animal disease threats has been at the forefront of CaribVET activities. The network was initiated in 1995 with the Caribbean Amblyomma Programme, an eradication program for Amblyomma variegatum, a tick imported from Africa and associated with severe diseases of ruminants (heartwater and dermatophilosis), whose spread to the Lesser Antilles threatened the rest of the Caribbean and the American mainland. Projects were set up to help control classical swine fever, an OIE listed disease reintroduced into Hispaniola in 1996, and to improve surveillance in disease-free neighboring islands. CaribVET also contributed to establishing collaborations for surveillance and diagnosis

of West Nile virus, an arthropod-borne virus first detected in the Caribbean in 2001 and affecting

humans, horses and birds. Other CaribVET activities include training, organization of regional

meetings and dissemination of information through the CaribVET website www.caribvet.net.

KEY WORDS: Network, animal health, Caribbean, epidemiology, emerging disease, exotic disease, regional approach

CARIBVET, UN OUTIL POUR FACILITER LE CONTROLE DES MALADIES EMERGENTES ET EXOTIQUES

RÉSUMÉ: Le Réseau Caribéen de Santé Animale (CaribVET) est un réseau de collaboration entre divers organismes (services vétérinaires, laboratoires de recherche et de diagnostic, organisations internationales) pour améliorer la santé animale et la sécurité des produits d’origine animale dans la Caraïbe. Il travaille à promouvoir les approches régionales en matière de contrôle et de prévention des maladies animales, à renforcer les réseaux nationaux d’épidémiosurveillance, à développer les capacités régionales de diagnostic vétérinaire, et à faciliter la communication et l’échange d’informations entre acteurs de la santé animale dans la Caraïbe. Le contrôle des maladies émergentes et exotiques est une activité importante de CaribVET. Le réseau a démarré en 1995 avec le Caribbean Amblyomma Programme, un programme d’éradication d’Amblyomma variegatum, une tique importée d’Afrique, associée à de graves maladies des ruminants (cowdriose et dermatophilose), et dont l’expansion dans les Petites Antilles menaçait le continent américain. Un projet régional a été mis en place pour contrôler la peste porcine classique, une maladie de la liste A réintroduite à Hispaniola en 1996, et pour prévenir la contamination des îles voisines. CaribVET a aussi permis d’établir une

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collaboration pour la surveillance et le diagnostic du virus West Nile, un arbovirus introduit dans le Caraïbe en 2002 et qui affecte les chevaux, les oiseaux et les humains. Les autres activités de CaribVET incluent la formation, l’organisation de réunions régionales et la diffusion d’informations sur le site web CaribVET.

INTRODUCTION

The general sanitary situation of animal production in the Caribbean is considered favorable as compared to other tropical areas plagued by major infectious diseases such as foot and mouth disease, avian influenza, contagious bovine pleuropneumonia, or peste des petits ruminants. Nevertheless, pathogenic agents of economic importance are present in the Caribbean and have justified the creation of a regional animal health network. The adoption of a regional approach for transboundary diseases control was first implemented in 1995 with the Caribbean Amblyomma Programme (CAP), aimed at eradicating the tropical bont tick Amblyomma variegatum from infested islands of the English-speaking Lesser Antilles. The need for veterinary diagnostics in terms of both routine and emergency analysis in the region was unfortunately demonstrated in 1996 with the introduction into Haiti of classical swine fever, a major swine disease listed by the OIE (World Organisation for Animal Health), which later spread to the adjacent Dominican Republic. The same year, a study on animal health in the Caribbean conducted by the Director of the OIE gave two main recommendations: the creation of a regional laboratory network for animal disease surveillance and the strengthening of animal health programs. This was followed in 1997 by two seminars: an FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations) seminar in Haiti on the control of classical swine fever and emergency strategies in the Caribbean, and an OIE-IICA (Inter-American Institute for Cooperation on Agriculture)-WTO (World Trade Organisation) seminar in Trinidad on safeguarding animal health in trade in the Caribbean. As a follow-up to these consultancies, a project entitled “Building an Inter-Caribbean Epidemiological Network” was implemented with funding from the French Ministry of Foreign Affairs, in collaboration with IICA, OIE and the Ministries of Agriculture of the Caribbean countries. The first phase of this project consisted of establishing an inventory of the veterinary diagnostic capacities in the Caribbean, through questionnaires and evaluation visits to the different laboratories. A database directory of laboratories and the first version of a website were developed and the results were presented at a seminar held on May 27 ^t^h -28 ^t^h 1999 in Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic (Klotz and Martinez 1999). The second phase of the project consisted of finalizing the epidemiological surveillance network organization, defining epidemiological surveillance activities for the diseases considered to be of major importance, developing the website, making recommendations for quality assurance systems and providing training for personnel in the laboratories. Results of these activities were discussed during a seminar held on November 27 ^t^h -28 ^t^h , 1999 in Gosier, Guadeloupe, and the Caribbean Network of Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratories and Epidemiology, later known as Caribbean Animal Health Network (CaribVET), was officially created (Quirin et al. 2000). CaribVET works as a collaborative network among institutions and individuals to improve animal health and the quality and safety of animal products throughout the Caribbean. Its members include veterinary services, veterinary diagnostic laboratories, government agencies, research institutes, representatives of the private livestock sector and universities from mainly Caribbean but also North, Central or South American countries (Table 1). It also works in collaboration with regional and international organizations such as CARICOM (Caribbean Community and Common Market), OIRSA (Organismo Internacional Regional de Sanidad Agropecuaria), IICA, FAO, OIE, as well as the EU (European Union) and the USDA (United

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States Department of Agriculture). The specific objectives of CaribVET are to: 1) foster communication and exchange of information between people involved in animal production and health in the Caribbean; 2) promote collaboration and a regional approach for disease control and emergency preparedness; 3) develop and harmonize regional veterinary diagnostic capacities; and 4) strengthen national epidemiosurveillance networks through training and skills building (in fields such as epidemiology, risk analysis, or geographic information systems). Activities developed within CaribVET include animal health projects aimed at controlling specific animal diseases present in the Caribbean and considered to be of major importance:

classical swine fever, salmonellosis, Amblyomma variegatum and tick-borne diseases. Collaborations can be set up to survey the introduction of emerging pathogens, as was the case for West Nile virus. CaribVET also works to develop cross-cutting activities such as training, strengthening of surveillance systems, and capacity building of veterinary services. Communication and exchange of information are fundamental within CaribVET and are achieved through regional meetings and updating of the CaribVET website www.caribvet.net.

CONTROL OF MAJOR DISEASES

1. Tick Management Activities within CaribVET. The tropical bont tick Amblyomma variegatum and its associated diseases heartwater and dermatophilosis constitute a major problem for livestock production in the Caribbean (Pegram et al. 1998) and clearly demonstrate the economic strain that can be caused by introduced pathogens. Amblyomma variegatum is thought to have first been introduced in the Caribbean with the importation of cattle from Senegal to Guadeloupe around 1828 (Barré et al. 1995). The tick was thereafter reported on Marie Galante around 1835 and on Antigua around 1895. For more than fifty years, the tropical bont tick remained restricted to these three islands, but Martinique was infested in 1948 with the introduction of cattle from Guadeloupe. The range of the tick’s distribution increased greatly between 1967 and 1995, with 14 new islands becoming infested. This spread is thought to be associated with the expansion of another species first introduced in the Caribbean in 1933: the cattle egret Bubulcus ibis (Corn et al. 1993). The presence of Amblyomma variegatum on most of the islands of the Lesser Antilles and the occurrence of heartwater on three of them represents a threat to the rest of the Caribbean and the American mainland. Environmental conditions of the tropical and subtropical American continent are favorable for the establishment of A. variegatum, and two indigenous Amblyomma tick species, A. maculatum and to a lesser degree A. cajennense, both of which have been shown to be vectors of Ehrlichia ruminantium under experimental conditions (Barré et al. 1987). Potential losses due to the establishment of A. variegatum and its associated diseases in the mainland countries have been estimated at US$ 762 million per year (Pegram et al. 1998), justifying the implementation of tick control campaigns on infested islands of the Caribbean. The Caribbean Amblyomma Programme (CAP) was set up in 1995 to eradicate A. variegatum from the infested islands of the English-speaking Lesser Antilles. It is a regional program that has been supported by CARICOM, FAO, IICA, the EU and the USDA. Its policy guidance is provided by the Amblyomma Programme Council whose members are representatives of governments, funding agencies, and research institutes (Table2). At the same time, a tick and tick-borne diseases control campaign has been implemented on the infested islands of the French Antilles: Guadeloupe, Marie Galante, Désirade, St Martin, and Martinique, with funding from the EU and the French government (Barré et al. 1996). The steering committee for the latter program is composed of representatives of the veterinary services, research institutes and sanitary defense organizations (Groupements de Défense Sanitaire or GDS, see Table 1). Technical and scientific coordination as well as mutual assistance and

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reciprocity between these two eradication programs have been developed through CaribVET for increased efficiency. Surveillance and treatment protocols and policy guidelines are reviewed regularly during meetings where experiences are shared. Training is provided to veterinary services of all participating countries on subjects including participatory epidemiology, database use, and geographic information systems. A user-friendly database application specifically conceived for managing tick surveillance data has been developed with a view to standardize information storage and treatment among all islands implementing tick control campaigns. This database, developed under Access® and named TickINFO, has been extensively enhanced thanks to the feedback of agents working in the field. The latest version, TickINFO4+GIS, includes a variety of automated tools to produce summary surveillance reports and graphs, and source files for geographic information systems. Surveillance reports and maps produced by TickINFO can easily be uploaded on the CaribVET website through passwords specific to each country. This collaboration also encompasses other essential aspects of tick control campaigns such as production of public awareness supports and dissemination of information through the CaribVET website. CAP efforts in the last ten years have enabled six previously infested islands to be declared provisionally free of Amblyomma (Fig.1.). Islands with larger cattle populations, however, such as Guadeloupe, Marie Galante, Martinique and Antigua still remain heavily infested. Additional funding and increased collaboration must be secured to control the prevalence of A. variegatum on infested islands and to prevent the reinfestation of provisionally-free islands.

2. CSF Activities within CaribVET Classical swine fever (CSF) is a major swine disease, listed by the OIE, and is present in various countries of South and Central America as well as in three countries of the Caribbean:

Cuba, Haiti and the Dominican Republic (Paton and Greiser-Wilke 2003, Vargas Teran et al. 2004). CSF has been endemic in Cuba since the 1930’s with severe outbreaks during 1993-1997 (Frias-Lepoureau 1997). CSF had been endemic in Hispaniola since the 1920’s but the introduction of African swine fever in 1979 led to the systematic slaughter of the swine population on the island in 1984. This also eliminated other swine diseases, such as CSF. Hispaniola remained free of CSF for 12 years until the disease was reintroduced into Haiti in August 1996 (Jeannot 1997). A failure to rapidly detect its entry led to its spread throughout the country and to the death of 80% of the swine population. In spite of reinforced surveillance at the Haitian-Dominican border, CSF spread to the Dominican Republic in March 1997 and caused major economic losses (Frias Sosa 1997). Control programs based on vaccination of the swine population were implemented by the Ministries of Agriculture of the infected countries. A meeting was held in Jamaica in October 1999 during which representatives of the EU and the CARIFORUM countries (forum of the Caribbean ACP States) decided to set up a project for the control of CSF in Haiti and the Dominican Republic, and for surveillance on Jamaica, the Bahamas and Belize. Although Cuba was not formally a partner of the project, coordination was maintained with this country for potential future regional eradication of CSF. The two-million euro project for the “Control of Classical Swine Fever in Hispaniola and Surveillance in The Bahamas, Belize and Jamaica” (EU Project N° 7.ACP.RPR.385) was thus initiated in 2001 and placed for three years under the CAFP (Caribbean Agriculture and Fisheries Programme) with the technical assistance of CIRAD (French Agricultural Research Centre for International Development) of Guadeloupe. The CAFP-CSF project aimed at supporting and developing national CSF control activities in infested countries and reinforcing surveillance in neighbouring non-infested countries. It made full use of the collaborations and networks already existing through CaribVET. The specific objectives of the project included the education and training of all the participants in CSF

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surveillance, including farmers, local leaders, non-governmental organisations, veterinary agents, and epidemiologists. The national surveillance systems were restructured to cover as much of the territory as possible, to provide a better flow of information, and to rely on improved CSF laboratory diagnostics. Massive vaccination campaigns were implemented following the advice of FAO experts who showed that the vaccine strategy had a very favourable cost-benefit ratio (Otte 1997). All activities and responsibilities were fully described in specific written procedures for each activity field (vaccination, information, surveillance, and diagnostics). Communication supports including DVDs, multimedia CDs, manuals, leaflets and posters were made readily available to all participants, translated and distributed in participating countries. Finally, collaboration and coordination mechanisms were set up to integrate the national veterinary services into a regional system of CSF surveillance and alert. Another CSF-related CaribVET project was set up in 2003 to implement an inter-laboratory comparison test for CSF diagnosis. Efficient diagnosis is at the cornerstone of any surveillance and control programme and the objectives of this project were to: 1) verify the quality of CSF diagnosis in the laboratories of the three infected Caribbean islands, 2) increase communication among the laboratories, and 3) pave the way for a routine quality assurance procedure and the eventual creation of a CSF reference laboratory for the Caribbean. This project was funded by the Fonds de Coopération Régionale of Guadeloupe and was implemented in collaboration with the Institute of Virology, Veterinary School of Hanover, which is the EU reference laboratory for CSF.

CONTROL OF EMERGING DISEASES

CaribVET has been instrumental in reacting to the introduction of new pathogens such as West Nile virus. West Nile virus was first introduced into the North American continent in 1999 causing an outbreak of human encephalitis and the death of wild birds, both free-living and in a zoological park in the northeastern United States (Lanciotti et al. 1999). The virus subsequently spread throughout the North American continent (Gould and Fikrig 2004), and it was hypothesized that it would reach the Neotropics through bird migrations (Rappole et al. 2000). The first report of the presence of West Nile virus in the Caribbean concerned a man of the Cayman Islands (CDC 2002). Surveys undertaken in 2002 led to the detection of neutralizing antibodies in birds and horses in Mexico (Blitvitch et al. 2003, Fernandez-Salas et al. 2003) and Guadeloupe (Quirin et al. 2004), and in birds in the Dominican Republic (Komar et al. 2003), Jamaica and Puerto Rico (Dupuis et al. 2003). Antibodies against West Nile virus were subsequently detected in El Salvador (Cruz et al. 2005), Cuba (Kouri and Guzman 2005), and Trinidad (Douglas 2005). Following the detection of West Nile virus antibodies in Guadeloupe, a surveillance system was created on the island involving the veterinary services, direction of social and sanitary affairs, the hospital and CIRAD. Serologic and molecular diagnostic techniques were imported with the collaboration of the Colorado State University and surveillance was set up in humans, birds, horses and mosquitoes (Lefrançois et al. 2005). Based on the Guadeloupe experience, a West Nile virus collaboration network was created through CaribVET to implement surveillance, samples analysis, and diagnostic transfer with other Caribbean countries interested in West Nile fever. This project was funded by the Fonds de Coopération Régionale of Guadeloupe and involved Barbados, Cuba, Dominica, the Dominican Republic, Haiti, Jamaica, St Lucia, and Trinidad (Table 3). Descriptive epidemiological data gathered in the different countries are expected to be used for risk analysis and modeling of West Nile virus circulation in the Neotropics.

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CROSS-CUTTING ACTIVITIES AND COMMUNICATION

Independently of projects concerning specific animal diseases, CaribVET also develops cross-cutting activities including training and exchange of advice and expertise. A variety of training courses and workshops on different subjects have been organized in the last five years, with funding from various sources (Fonds Inter-Ministériel de Coopération, French Ministry of Foreign Affairs, EU-CAFP, FAO, USDA), to build up veterinary services capacities in the region:

- ELISA serologic diagnosis for Cowdria, Babesia and Anaplasma (Trinidad, June 2000)

- Salmonella diagnostic techniques (Trinidad, September 2000)

- Epidemiosurveillance and product quality (Guadeloupe, December 2001)

- Methodology in animal health surveillance (Dominican Republic, July 2002)

- Application of GIS in animal health studies (Dominican Republic, July 2003)

- Increasing the sustainability of surveillance mechanisms (Antigua, October 2003) Private sector involvement in animal health surveillance systems (Barbados, March 2004) GIS and use of Arcview® (Antigua, November 2004) Quality assurance in CSF diagnostics (Cuba, May 2005) ([CaribVET], 2005)

CaribVET members also share their expertise with colleagues in terms of specific diseases, epidemiology, organization of surveillance systems, protocols for diagnosis, etc, so that the number of skills and skilled personnel available for all in the region are enlarged. Communication and information dissemination constitute the core activities of CaribVET. A proper regional surveillance system can only work on a regular, trusted and transparent exchange of sanitary information. To realize these ideals CaribVET, with the help of funding agencies such as USDA, EU, and FAO, contributes to the organization of regional meetings where veterinarians and other stakeholders of animal health can present what is being done in their respective countries and can reinforce collaboration for increased efficiency of animal disease control programs. Recently organized meetings include the annual CAP meetings held in a different program member country every year, CSF control coordination meetings held in Antigua in October 2003 and in the Dominican Republic in March 2004, and the meeting of the Continental Plan for CSF Eradication in Cuba in May 2005.

The main information tool of the network is the CaribVET website www.caribvet.net. This website was originally developed to host online databases of the veterinary diagnostic laboratories and animal health surveillance systems in the Caribbean. More information was subsequently added including CAPWEB, information on and generated by the CAP, and proceedings of the main conferences and meetings held in the region. In 2004 at the concluding meeting of the CAFP, the CaribVET website was recognized as useful by the CARICOM Ministries of Agriculture, and by international organizations, and it was suggested to develop it further. A new version is currently being developed to improve the user-friendliness and aesthetics and to include more information on animal health projects, surveillance protocols and diseases, training available, livestock statistics, etc.

CONCLUSIONS AND DISCUSSION

In a context of global trade and increased international travel, the risk of transferring diseases through animals and animal products is high. Veterinary services also have to provide reliable, accurate and transparent data for import/export decision-making in compliance with the Sanitary and Phytosanitary regulations of the WTO. This is a special challenge for Caribbean countries,

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where resources available for agriculture development are quite limited, and this is why a regional animal health network is essential: it builds up national veterinary capacities and mutualizes efforts to control animal health. Since its creation in 1999, CaribVET has facilitated the development of control programs of major animal diseases such as classical swine fever and tick-borne diseases, and has provided resources for assistance and expertise in case of introduction of new pathogens such as West Nile virus. CaribVET brings together animal health stakeholders of the whole region and its website TTwww.caribvet.netTT is regarded as a useful tool to disseminate regional sanitary and scientific information. The main strengths of CaribVET are that it is based on a mutual willingness to collaborate, does not rely on special funding to meet infrastructure expenses, and that its regional dimension ensures an optimized use of the limited resources available. Its main weakness is that it functions with funding from various sources, mostly linked to specific animal diseases projects, and therefore lacks a constant operating budget. Sustainable financial support is crucial for an efficient animal health network. Funding for CaribVET has been secured for at least a year and potentially three years through the FSP (Fonds de Solidarité Prioritaire) of the French Ministry of Foreign Affairs, but additional funding is needed urgently to maintain the Caribbean Amblyomma Program. Discontinuation of Amblyomma control activities would potentially lead to the reinfestation of provisionally free islands and ruin the last ten years of efforts. Participation in CaribVET has to be promoted to widen the scope of animal health activities through new or reinforced collaborations. The needs of CaribVET members in terms of training, equipment and infrastructure, organization, etc, must be clearly identified so that projects can be built at a regional scale, which will optimize available resources and facilitate fundraising. Perspectives identified so far include strengthening veterinary services through training, developing diagnostic capacities and quality assurance, and building emergency preparedness plans for infectious diseases that could potentially be introduced in the Caribbean, such as foot and mouth disease or highly pathogenic avian influenza. The CaribVET website also needs to be further developed to include more information. A new version of www.caribvet.net is currently in progress and it is hoped that the improved user-friendliness, with databases that can be filled with online forms, will contribute to the enrichment of content and the timeliness of its information.

REFERENCES CITED

Barre, N., E. Camus, J. Fifi, P. Fourgeaud, G. Numa, F. Rose-Rosette, and H. Borel. 1996. Tropical bont tick eradication campaign in the French Antilles. Current status. Ann N Y Acad Sci 791: 64-76. Barre, N., G. Garris, and E. Camus. 1995. Propagation of the tick Amblyomma variegatum in the Caribbean. Rev Sci Tech 14: 841-55. Barre, N., G. Uilenberg, P. C. Morel, and E. Camus. 1987. Danger of introducing heartwater onto the American mainland: potential role of indigenous and exotic Amblyomma ticks. Onderstepoort J Vet Res 54: 405-17. Blitvich, B. J., I. Fernandez-Salas, J. F. Contreras-Cordero, N. L. Marlenee, J. I. Gonzalez-Rojas, N. Komar, D. J. Gubler, C. H. Calisher, and B. J. Beaty. 2003. Serologic evidence of West Nile virus infection in horses, Coahuila State, Mexico. Emerg Infect Dis 9: 853-6. [CaribVET] Website of the Caribbean Animal Health Network. 2005.

http://www.caribvet.net/Informations/Documents/FirstCaribeanInterLabo30052005.php

[CDC] Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2002. West Nile Virus activity — United States, 2001. MMWR. 51(23):497–501.

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Corn, J. L., N. Barre, B. Thiebot, T. E. Creekmore, G. I. Garris, and V. F. Nettles. 1993. Potential role of cattle egrets, Bubulcus ibis (Ciconiformes: Ardeidae), in the dissemination of Amblyomma variegatum (Acari: Ixodidae) in the eastern Caribbean. J

Med Entomol 30: 1029-37. Cruz, L., V. M. Cardenas, M. Abarca, T. Rodriguez, R. F. Reyna, M. V. Serpas, R. E. Fontaine,

D. W. Beasley, A. P. Da Rosa, S. C. Weaver, R. B. Tesh, A. M. Powers, and G. Suarez-

Rangel. 2005. Short report: serological evidence of West Nile virus activity in El Salvador. Am J Trop Med Hyg 72: 612-5. Douglas, K. 2005. West Nile virus update 2005 – Western hemisphere (01). ProMed mail archive no. 20050106.0033. Available from: URL: http://www.promedmail.org Dupuis, A. P., 2nd, P. P. Marra, and L. D. Kramer. 2003. Serologic evidence of West Nile virus transmission, Jamaica, West Indies. Emerg Infect Dis 9: 860-3. Fernandez-Salas, I., J. F. Contreras-Cordero, B. J. Blitvich, J. I. Gonzalez-Rojas, A. Cavazos- Alvarez, N. L. Marlenee, A. Elizondo-Quiroga, M. A. Lorono-Pino, D. J. Gubler, B. C. Cropp, C. H. Calisher, and B. J. Beaty. 2003. Serologic evidence of West Nile Virus infection in birds, Tamaulipas State, Mexico. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 3: 209-13. Frias-Lepoureau, M.T., 1997. Reemergence of classical swine fever in Cuba. In: Morilla, A., Hernandez, P., Yoon, J.K., Zimmerman, J. (Eds.), Trends in Emerging Viral Infections of Swine. Iowa State Press, Ames Iowa, pp. 143–147. Frias Sosa, A. 1997. Control y erradicación del cólera porcino en Republica Dominicana. Proceedings of a Regional workshop on the Control of classical swine fever and emergency strategies in the Caribbean. Port-au-Prince, December 2-4, 1997.

Gould, L. H., and E. Fikrig. 2004. West Nile virus: a growing concern? J Clin Invest 113: 1102-

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Jeannot, H. 1997. L’épizootie de peste porcine classique en Haïti. Proceedings of a Regional workshop on the Control of classical swine fever and emergency strategies in the Caribbean. Port-au-Prince, December 2-4, 1997. Klotz, S., and Martinez, D. 1999. Phase I Progress report. Building a Caribbean epidemiological surveillance network. Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic, May 27 and 28, 1999. Komar, O., M. B. Robbins, K. Klenk, B. J. Blitvich, N. L. Marlenee, K. L. Burkhalter, D. J. Gubler, G. Gonzalvez, C. J. Pena, A. T. Peterson, and N. Komar. 2003. West Nile virus transmission in resident birds, Dominican Republic. Emerg Infect Dis 9: 1299-302. Kouri, G., and M. Guzman. 2005. West Nile virus, humans, equines – Cuba. ProMed mail archive no. 20050202.0355. Available from: URL: http://www.promedmail.org

Lanciotti, R. S., J. T. Roehrig, V. Deubel, J. Smith, M. Parker, K. Steele, B. Crise, K. E. Volpe, M. B. Crabtree, J. H. Scherret, R. A. Hall, J. S. MacKenzie, C. B. Cropp, B. Panigrahy,

E. Ostlund, B. Schmitt, M. Malkinson, C. Banet, J. Weissman, N. Komar, H. M. Savage,

W. Stone, T. McNamara, and D. J. Gubler. 1999. Origin of the West Nile virus responsible for an outbreak of encephalitis in the northeastern United States. Science 286:

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Lefrançois, T., B. Blitvich, J. Pradel, S. Molia, N. Vachiéry, G. Pallavicini, N. Marlenee, S. Zientara M. Petitclerc, and D. Martinez. 2005. West Nile virus surveillance in Guadeloupe: circulation level and spatial repartition, 2002 - 2004. Emerg Infect Dis

11:1100-3.

Otte, M.J. 1997. An economic appraisal of national vaccination programmes for the control of

classical swine fever in Haiti. Proceedings of a Regional workshop on the Control of classical swine fever and emergency strategies in the Caribbean. Port-au-Prince, December 2nd-4 ^t^h 1997.

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Paton, D.J., Greiser-Wilke, I., 2003. Classical swine fever: an update. Res. Vet. Sci. 75, 169–

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Pegram, R. G., J. J. De Castro, and D. D. Wilson. 1998. The CARICOM/FAO/IICA Caribbean Amblyomma Program. Ann N Y Acad Sci 849: 343-8. Quirin, R., Klotz, S., and Martinez, D. (editors) 2000. Proceedings of the final meeting Implementation of a network of veterinary diagnostic laboratories and animal disease surveillance, Gosier Guadeloupe, November 27 ^t^h and 28 ^t^h 2000. Quirin, R., M. Salas, S. Zientara, H. Zeller, J. Labie, S. Murri, T. Lefrancois, M. Petitclerc, and D. Martinez. 2004. West Nile virus, Guadeloupe. Emerg Infect Dis 10: 706-8. Rappole, J. H., S.R. Derrickson, and Z. Hubalek. 2000. Migratory birds and spread of West Nile virus in the western hemisphere. Emerg Infect Dis 6: 319-28. Vargas Teran, M., N. Calcagno Ferrat, and J. Lubroth. 2004. Situation of classical swine fever and the epidemiologic and ecologic aspects affecting its distribution in the American continent. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1026: 54-64.

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Figure 1. Country status for Amblyomma variegatum presence in the Lesser Antilles in 2005

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Table 1. Non exhaustive list of CaribVET members

Name

Affiliation

Country

Patrick Vanterpool

Ministry of Agriculture

Anguilla

Helena Jeffery


Antigua & Barbuda

Rupert Pegram

Caribbean Amblyomma Programme

Antigua & Barbuda

Kanyuira Gikonyo


Antigua & Barbuda

Maurice Isaacs

Department of Agriculture

Bahamas

Bryan Sanford


Barbados

James Paul

Caribbean Poultry Association

Barbados

Trevor King


Barbados

David Elcock


Barbados

Miguel Depaz

Belize Agricultural Health Authority

Belize

Lydia Tablada Romero

CENSA

Cuba

Maria Frias Lepoureau

CENSA

Cuba

Emerio

Serrano

IMV

Cuba

Ramírez

Reginald Thomas


Dominica

John McIntyre


Dominica

Angel Ventura

SEA-DIGEGA

Dominican Republic

Jocelyn Quirico

LAVECEN

Dominican Republic

Ramon Marte

PROMESA

Dominican Republic

Richard Pacer

USDA APHIS

Dominican Republic

Pascal Hendrikx

SCAC - Ambassade de France

Dominican Republic

Antoine Maillard

MAAPAR DGAl SD SSA

France

Emmanuel Albina

CIRAD-EMVT

France

Dominique Martinez

CIRAD-EMVT

France

Arnaud Martrenchar

DDSV Guyane

French Guyana

Irene Greiser-Wilke

Institute of Virology

Germany

Volker Moennig

Institute of Virology

Germany

Bowen Louison


Grenada

Sophie Molia

CIRAD-EMVT

Guadeloupe

Thierry Lefrançois

CIRAD-EMVT

Guadeloupe

Eric Bajazet

GDS

Guadeloupe

Tony Samuth

GDS

Guadeloupe

Firmin Lodin

GDS

Guadeloupe

Nathalie Vachiéry

CIRAD-EMVT

Guadeloupe

Martial Petitclerc

DDSV Guadeloupe

Guadeloupe

Maxine Parris Aaron

IICA

Guyana

Margaret Kalloo

CARICOM

Guyana

Kenrick Elias


Guyana

Michel Louis

Laboratoire

de

diagnostic

vétérinaire

de

Haiti

Tamarinier

Siméon Phanord

MARNDR

Haiti

Max Millien

MARNDR

Haiti

Michel Chancy

Veterimed

Haiti

106

Osbil Watson


Jamaica

Wintorph Marsden


Jamaica

Nigel Elliott

Jamaica Broilers Group

Jamaica

Benoît Bourbon

DDSV Martinique

Martinique

Loic Gouyet

DDSV Martinique

Martinique

Jean-Michel Mac

GDSM

Martinique

Luis Romero Gonzales


Spain

Patricia

Bartlette-


St Kitts & Nevis

Powell

Henry Lesroy


St Kitts & Nevis

Tracy Challenger


St Kitts & Nevis

Eden Compton


St Lucia

Charles Isaac


St Lucia

Peter Gabriel


St Lucia

Kathian

Herbert


St

Vincent

&

the

Hackshaw

Grenadines

Mervyn Butcher

Sector Health Care Affairs

St Maarten

Jorien Lucas


St Maarten

Benjamin Lieveld


Surinam

Lisa Indar

CAREC

Trinidad & Tobago

David Kangaloo


Trinidad & Tobago

Joseph Ryan


Trinidad & Tobago

Angela James

USDA APHIS

USA

Kenneth Geter

USDA APHIS

USA

Barry Beaty

Colorado State University

USA

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Table 2. Members of the Amblyomma Programme Council

Name

Affiliation

Country

Rupert Pegram

Caribbean Amblyomma Programme

Antigua

Helena Jeffery


Antigua

Barbara Graham

FAO

Barbados

Rosina Maitland


Barbados

Bernhard Reufels

FAO

Chile

Reginald Thomas


Dominica

Richard Pacer

USDA APHIS

Dominican Republic

Angel Cielo

USDA APHIS

Dominican Republic

Loison Bowen


Grenada

Thierry Lefrançois

CIRAD-EMVT

Guadeloupe

Margaret Kalloo

CARICOM Secretariat

Guyana

Carlos Eddi

FAO

Italy

Rudi Ziesler

FAO

Italy

Patricia Bartlette-Powell


Nevis

Lesroy Henry

Department of Agriculture

St Kitts

Eden Compton


St Lucia

Mervyn Butcher


St Maarten

Jorien Lucas


St Maarten

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Table 3: Non exhaustive list of CaribVET members participating to the West Nile virus regional workshop held in Guadeloupe in October 2005.

Name

Affiliation

Country

David Elcock

Veterinary Services Laboratory

Barbados

Kirk Douglas

University of the West Indies

Barbados

Paulino Santos

IMV

Cuba

Maritza Pupo

IPK

Cuba

Reginald Thomas


Dominica

Elena Angeles

LAVECEN

Dominican republic

Jocelyn Quirico

LAVECEN

Dominican republic

Thierry Lefrançois

CIRAD-EMVT

Guadeloupe

Sophie Molia

CIRAD-EMVT

Guadeloupe

Siméon Phanord

Direction de Protection Sanitaire

Haiti

Gabrielle Lafortune

Laboratoire Vétérinaire Central de Tamarinier

Haiti

Wintorph Marsden


Jamaica

Kozo Uda


St Lucia

Dane Coombs


Trinidad

Gabriel Brown


Trinidad

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UPDATE ON INVASIVE SPECIES INITIATIVES IN THE DOMINICAN REPUBLIC

C. A. Serra. Instituto Dominicano de Investigaciones Agropecuarias y Forestales (IDIAF), Programa Nacional de Protección Vegetal, Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic. colmar.serra@gmx.net

ABSTRACT: Serra et al. (2003) reviewed the status of invasive species (agricultural pests

including arthropods, plant diseases and plants) introduced into the Dominican Republic (DR) in recent decades and also listed species with potential to be introduced. Very recent introductions include the lime swallowtail, Papilio demoleus (Lepidoptera: Papilionidae), native to Asia, which since its detection at the eastern end of Hispaniola has spread over DR’s citrus-growing areas in the eastern and central regions and has reached those in the southwest. Recent invasive species initiatives by various scientists in the DR include: (1) establishment of the IABIN database for the DR, (2) convening of the Vth Caribbean Biodiversity Symposium, (3) a program

to detect exotic fruit flies (4) a survey on distribution of reported fruit-fly species and their host

plants, (5) evaluation of attractants and traps for fruit flies, (6) the emergence of parasitoids from

several fruits, especially of mangos and Spondias spp., (7) several research activities on quite damaging invasive arthropod pest species such as the pigeon-pea pod fly (Melanagromyza obtusa), including surveys on damage, distribution of the pest and its natural enemies, trapping, host-plant range, chemical control and varietal responses. Due to the absence of effective parasitoids in pigeon pea plantings, it is necessary to implement classical biological control. However, the first introduction of specimens of biocontrol agents from Australia for quarantine purposes and reproduction failed. The rice spinky mite (Steneotarsonemus spinki), after having been tolerable for several years, has resumed causing serious damage to rice in association with fungal diseases. An IPM proposal for rice is being submitted by the IDIAF. The tropical tent- web spider (Cyrtophora citricola), a pest of citrus and other fruit trees, has become widespread on Hispaniola. The presence of coconut lethal yellowing disease in Hispaniola was reconfirmed by PCR in 1997. Although Myndus crudus, its known vector, has not been detected, the disease has slowly moved eastward along the northern coast toward the main coconut production areas. Some of the most important invasive species threats to the DR and the countries and/or areas in the region in which they are found are listed. Also summarized are 441 pest interceptions on 24 commodities shipped (Jan., 2003-Oct., 2005) from the DR to U.S. ports of entry (incl. Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands), many being host-associated. Also included are insects detected, probably as ‘hitchhikers’ on avocado shipments in maritime ports of the U.S.A., and species of arthropods and plant diseases reported on commodities imported from the DR. A review of the relative importance of different regions of the Americas as sources of quarantine pests on various commodities transported by airplanes to the U.S.A. suggests that the probability per aircraft flight that invasive species will be transported to the USA from the DR and the West Indies is less than from Central America.

KEY WORDS: lime swallowtail, Papilio demoleus, IABIN data base, tropical fruit flies, pigeon pea pod fly, Melanagromyza obtusa, rice spinky mite, Steneotarsonemus spinki, coconut lethal yellowing, area wide mitigation, interception data

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RESUMEN: Serra et al. (2003) presentaron un recuento sobre especies invasivas que fueron reportadas como plagas agrícolas (artrópodos, patógenos y plantas) durante las pasadas décadas y una lista de especies con potencial a ser introducidos al país. Como especie de reciente introducción, la ‘Cola de golondrina de la Lima’, Papilio demoleus (Lepidoptera: Papilionidae) de origen asiático fue reportada por Guerrero et al. (2004). Un sondeo demostró que desde su detección cerca de Punta Cana, en el extremo oriental, en un lapso de pocos meses, la especie se había desiminado en las zonas citrícolas en la región Este y Central llegando hasta el Suroeste. Otras iniciativas recientes sobre especies invasivas en la R.D. fueron: (1) el establecimiento de la base de datos sobre el país para la IABIN, (2) la realización del V. Simposio del Caribbean sobre Biodiversidad, (3) un programa para la detección de moscas de las frutas exóticas, (4) un estudio sobre la distribución y plantas hospederas de moscas de las frutas reportadas, así como (5) una evaluación de atrayentes y trampas para moscas de las frutas, (6) la emergencia de parasitoides de diferentes frutas, especialmente de mangos y Spondias spp., y (7) diferentes investigaciones sobre plagas artrópodas invasivas severas como la mosca asiática del guandul (Melanagromyza obtusa), incluyendo sondeos sobre daños, distribución y enemigos naturales, trampeo, plantas hospederas, control químico y respuesta varietal. Debido a la ausencia de parasitoides natives efectivos en guandul, el control biológico clásico es considerado como necesario. Sin embargo, la primera introducción de especímenes desde Australia con propósito de cuarentena y reproducción falló. Otra plaga invasiva con impacto económico es el ácaro tarsonémido del arroz (Steneotarsonemus spinki), el cual luego de años de relative estabilidad en rendimientos, nuevamente ha causado daños severos en asociación con enfermedades causadas por hongos. Una propuesta en MIP para el arroz está siendo sometida por el IDIAF. La araña africana (Cyrtophora citricola), considerada como plaga de los cítricos y otras frutas, en pocos años se ha diseminado en toda la isla de Hispaniola. El ‘amarillamiento letal de los cocoteros’ fue reconfirmado por PCR en 1997. A pesar de que su vector Myndus crudus no ha sido detectado, la enfermedad se ha diseminado lentamente hacia el este en la costa norte, aproximándose a la zona principal de producción del coco en el Noreste. Fueron mencionados los mayores riesgos por especies invasivas (plagas y patógenos) y sus respectivos países y/o áreas de distribución en la región. También se incluyó una lista de 441 interceptaciones realizadas sobre 24 productos comerciales transportados (Enero 2003-Oct. 2005) a puertos de entrada de los E.U.A. (incl. Puerto Rico e Islas Vírgenes), la cual muestra importantes tipos de plagas asociadas a cada tipo de producto. Además se presentan ejemplos de interceptaciones de insectos, posiblemente ‘pasajeros’ sobre aguacate en puertos marítimos de los E.U.A. y de artrópodos y patógenos reportados en productos importados hacia la R.D. Una comparación entre diferentes regiones de las Américas como orígenes de plagas exóticas transportadas hacia los E.U.A. por aviones, demuestra la relativamente baja importancia de la República Dominicana y las Indias Occidentales, comparado con América Central.

INTRODUCTION

Increased international exchange of agricultural goods and travelers has augmented the risk and the frequency of introduction of exotic plant and pest species throughout the Caribbean Region. Thus the Dominican Republic (DR), which covers the eastern two thirds of the Island of Hispaniola, has suffered the introduction of dozens of harmful exotic species, as well. Several of these species present a high invasive potential and have caused significant economic losses to affected crops within intensive agro-ecosystems, displacement of native species and/or interference with the balance of nature in susceptible ecosystems. The main reasons for this trend have to do with:

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•

An insufficiently effective quarantine system, albeit one that is steadily improving,

•

A

300 km-long western DR-Haiti border, which is porous to the entry of pests, and

•

the occurrence of tropical storms and hurricanes, which can spread certain pests and plant pathogens after their introduction into the Caribbean region.

The main implications of the introduction of alien invasive species are as follows:

•

Many are major pests, which cause direct yield losses to crops, and/or reductions in quality of harvested products, and increase costs of production. Consequently production of some affected crops becomes unprofitable and unsustainable with severe socio-economic effects. Such impacts were suffered during the early 1990s when the Bemisia-Geminivirus complex destroyed the production of tomatoes and other host crops in the DR.

•

Loss of export markets: Alien pests often cause restrictions or bans on potentially infested or infected products intended for export to countries where these pests or plant pathogens have a quarantine status. This has severe economic implications to the producers, and they risk the loss of competitiveness.

•

Losses in biodiversity: In particular, invasive alien plant species tend to displace endemic and native species from protected natural areas.

A review was given by Serra et al. (2003a) on selected examples concerning their detection,

impact and measures taken to face the problems. In addition to several dozen invasive alien plant species, the 37 most important exotic pest species reported between 1975 and 2003 in the DR belong to the taxonomic groupings listed in Table 1. The number of introduced alien pest species during the last three decades could be considered even higher, as the taxonomic revision of several species has to be undertaken by a multidisciplinary team under the guidance of pertinent authorities. In most cases involving arthropods, the lack of effective indigenous natural enemies has allowed quick dispersal of the introduced pests. This has occurred with aphids and whiteflies that vector viruses, as well as mealybugs, thrips, fruit flies, the coffee-berry borer (Hypothenemus hampei Ferr.) and, recently, with the pigeon pea pod fly (Melanagromyza obtusa [Malloch]). Experience has shown that many introduced alien species become firmly established and in a relatively short period, those with strong invasive potential, spread into agrarian or wild

_e_n_v_i_r_o_n_m_e_n_t_s ₍_A_b_u_d_-_A_n_t_ú_n 1995b; IABIN 2002; Serra et al. 2003a, b; Serra et al. 2004). Reports on

introduced arthropods, plant pathogens and invasive plant species seldom explain why they arrived, the country of origin, the port of entry, and their distribution. Sometimes such information may be obtained ex post facto after these species have caused economic damage to crops or other serious problems. In many cases, the absence of specific antagonists of highly damaging introduced alien species has permitted them to spread rapidly throughout the country. To date, no successful eradication of any invasive alien species in the DR has been reported. However, in some cases, the planned or accidental introductions of exotic antagonists and/or

adaptation of native enemies have resulted in dramatic population suppression of alien species, often below economic-damage levels, as in the cases of the citrus blackfly (Aleurocanthus woglumi Ashby), citrus leafminer (Phyllocnistis citrella Stainton), brown rice bug (Tibraca limbativentris [Stål.]), coffee-berry borer and the papaya mealybug (Paracoccus marginatus Williams & Granara de Willink).

In the case of the pink hibiscus mealybug, Maconellicoccus hirsutus [Green], the presence of

parasitoid species, especially Gyranosoidea indica Shaffee, Alam & Agarwal (probably introduced together with the pest), and the predacious mealybug destroyer, Cryptolaemus montrouzieri Mulsant, established since the 1930s, and the implementation of classical

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biocontrol by the introduction of G. indica and Anagyrus kamali de Moursi have prevented damage levels comparable to those suffered in the Lesser Antilles during the last decade (Abud- Antún 1992; Meyerdirk & De Chi 2002; Serra 2005; Serra et al. 2004; Taveras 2000).

INVASIVE SPECIES INITIATIVES IN THE DR. (2002-2005)

A. Exchange of information:

Electronic Workshop on Invasive Species Threats in the Caribbean: As part of an initiative of Nature Conservancy and the CAB International, Caribbean & Latin American Regional Centre, this electronic workshop was conducted in April 2003 with >250 specialists from different countries and areas of expertise. The exchange among participants lasted for many additional month. As a result, the workshop came up with a list of alien species introduced to the Caribbean including 552 exotic spp., from which 446 species were considered as naturalized and/or invasive species; among those, 186 and 147 species were listed for the DR., respectively (see Kairo et al.(2003). Inter-American Biodiversity Information Network (IABIN 2002): A database on invasive biological species in the DR has resulted in the participation of 54 experts from different areas of expertise and 23 national institutions related to the agricultural sector or environmental issues (11 governmental, 6 NGOs, 4 academic and 2 private). Several goals were attained: (1) the establishment of a catalog on invasive species, (2) the assembly of a list of national experts and institutions involved in management of invasive species, and (3) the inclusion of the information in the IABIN-WEB in 2003. Specifically, a total of 154 invasive species were proposed, and their taxonomic groupings are listed in Table 2. Among the 61 proposed invasive plant species, most were introduced as crops, ornamentals, and/or for reforestation or other purposes. The participating experts identified the need of inclusion of new invasive plant species and the revision of some established invasive species to establish the true status and impact the latter on agrarian and wild ecosystems. During the IVth Caribbean Biodiversity Symposium, held in Santo Domingo in January 2005, a national workshop to evaluate and confirm the proposed invasive species was suggested. Among 27 listed insect species, over 50% belong to the orders Homoptera (8 spp.), Coleoptera (4) and Lepidoptera (3), while the remaining were Diptera (2), Heteroptera (2), Thysanoptera (2) and Hymenoptera (1). There is also an urgent need to compile a pest list (arthropods and pathogens), and it should include species listed by Serra et al. (2003) and recent detections of the Plant Protection Department (DSV) of the Ministry of Agriculture (S.E.A.). The presence, distribution, host range as well as the actual status of these and other still unreported pest species must be verified or confirmed by the pertinent national authorities. The need for a current official pest list is illustrated by the case of the still officially unreported Passionvine or Pacific mealybug, Planococcus minor (Maskell) (Hemiptera: Sternorrhyncha: Pseudococcidae), a pest that has been intercepted 75 times since 1986 by USDA/APHIS on shipments from the DR on more than 23 hosts at 7 U.S. ports of entry (USDA/APHIS, unpubl. interception data). The Plant Protection Department (S.E.A.) has been involved in several activities concerning invasive species and has received the support of the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA/APHIS) for the following programs or activities:

• Program for detection and identification of exotic fruit flies;

• Participation in a survey on the distribution of the recently introduced lime swallowtail, Papilio demoleus L. (Lepidoptera: Papilionidae) (Guerrero et al. 2004);

• Pre-inspection and pre-clearence program;

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• First certified hot-water treatment plant near Moca, Province Espaillat, against larvae of fruit flies in order to certify mangoes for the export to the U.S.;

• Recently initiated biological control program for fruit flies (Anastrepha spp.) with Dorybracton areolatus (Szépligeti) (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) in two pilot zones (Hato Damas, south-central Province of San Cristóbal, and Mata Larga, north-eastern Province Duarte) with the participation of IDIAF and UASD. Preliminary results indicate that specimens of the introduced species are being recovered from sampled Spondias spp. fruits (Serra, unpubl.).

B. Research:

• A research team of the School of Agronomy of the Universidad Autónoma de Santo Domingo (UASD) is carrying out a nationwide survey on the distribution and host plants of Anastrepha fruit flies in the DR. No preliminary data are available, yet.

• In collaboration with the University of Guadalajara, Mexico, researchers of UASD and IDIAF have assisted studies on the host preference, distribution, natural enemies and control of cactus moth (Cactoblastis cactorum (Bergroth), Lepidoptera: Pyralidae);

• The Instituto Dominicano de Investigaciones Agropecuarias y Forestales (IDIAF) has carried out through its National Plant Protection Program (PNPV) the following research projects on invasive pests or diseases:

1. Pigeon pea pod fly (Melanagromyza obtusa (Malloch), Diptera: Agromyzidae): Surveys on damage, distribution and natural enemies, chemical control, varietal responses,

trapping, host-plant range (USDA/APHIS) for the pigeon pea pod fly;

2. Fruit fly trapping: Anastrepha spp. (Diptera: Tephritididae): Trapping of fruit flies Anastrepha spp. with different attractants and traps;

3. Fruit Fly parasitoids. Survey of native parasitoids of fruit flies Anastrepha spp. on mangoes, guava, hog plums (Spondias mombin and S. purpurea) and other fruits. Parasitoids, Utetes anastrephae (Viereck) (Hymenoptera: Braconidae), were only recorded on Spondias spp. and a classical biological control project (DSV- USDA/APHIS-IDIAF-UASD) with Dorybracton areolatus (Szépl.) initiated in June

2005.

4. Coconut Lethal Yellowing Disease (CLYD): CLYD was reported in the DR by Walter Carter in 1962 and later confirmed. In thrusts beginning in 1969, 1995 and 1998 the authorities (S.E.A.) implemented preventive measures (cutting and burning symptomatic palms) in order to prevent dissemination of the disease within the areas of production, even though these measures did not give good results in other countries. Again in 1997, CLYD was confirmed by PCR by the Mexican Centro de Investigación Científica de Yucatán (CICY). Surveys (2003-2004) carried out in different localities of the provinces of Santiago, Puerto Plata (Sosua, Cabarrete and Cofresí) and Dajabón, showed a high CLYD incidence in the latter and in the touristic zone of Cabarrete. In 2004 for the first time, symptomatic plants were seen in Río San Juan, which indicates a slow but steady movement eastwards towards Nagua, edge of the main coconut-producing region of the DR. Yet, no known vector, e.g., Myndus crudus (van Duzee) (Hemiptera:

Auchenorrhyncha: Cixiidae), has been detected in the DR. In July 2004 during aerial and terrestrial survey activities in close cooperation with Dr. Carlos Oropeza (CICY), researchers of IDIAF did not find any infected plants in the South but 30 plants in Puerto Plata. During the Latin American meeting of REDBIO in 2004, a network on CLYD was established for Latin America and the Caribbean (REDCAL).

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5. Spotted and unfilled grains in rice: An IPM proposal for rice has been submitted by the National Program for Cereals together with the PNPV, both of IDIAF. It includes studies on the biotic and abiotic factors involved in the symptoms, e.g. on the invasive rice spinky mite (Steneotarsonemus spinki Smiley), detected in 1998 and probably introduced from Cuba, one if not the main causal agent of abnormal symptoms in rice, certainly also associated to fungal diseases like Sarocladium oryzae (Sawada). Research on tolerant varieties and chemical control has been carried out at IDIAF and private firms. As a consequence a tolerant variety (Prosequisa-4) was planted in more than 80% of the wetland-rice areas. New, more tolerant materials are being tested or have been introduced (IDIAF-1), but still the mite problem persists.

C. Status of some invasive pest species recently reported established in the DR:

• Lime, lemon or chequered swallowtail. Papilio demoleus L. (Lepidoptera: Papilionidae) was reported in a student’s collection (Tilden 1968) in California but its presence there has not been confirmed. This is the first New World documentation of this Old World citrus pest (Guerrero et al. 2004). The species was reported as very devastating to young citrus groves and to be very invasive in Southeast Asia. Since the 1970s, P. demoleus ‘jumped’ from island to island in Indonesia and the Philippines and is now widespread in Southern Asia. It is a major threat to the citrus industries of the wider Caribbean including Florida because of the Region’s favorable climatic conditions (heat and humidity), which allow the pest to complete up to 6 generations per year, the lack of population–controlling natural enemies, a wide host range among Citrus spp. and the widespread distribution of citrus trees on Hispaniola and in the Caribbean. The Old World island system resembles that of the West Indies, where citrus groves have been established on formerly deforested areas. Damage levels, host range, bio-ecological data and natural enemies of P. demoleus in Asia have been studied by Guerrero et al. (2004). Wehling (pers.comm.), found P. demoleus to be more abundant than the native citrus-feeding Papilio spp., in any site where it had been found by Guerrero et al. (2004). The specimens collected in the DR resemble populations of P. demoleus malayanus from Southeast Asia. After the first detection of P. demoleus in March 2003 in Veron, Punta Cana, Province Altagracia, at the eastern edge of the country, an international team found it in citrus groves of Villa Altagracia, about 200 km west from the sites where the pest had been found originally: Cotui (Prov. Sánchez Ramírez) and Bayaguana (Prov. Monte Plata), but not in Jarabacoa (Prov. La Vega) nor Hato Mayor. Since then, P. demoleus has been confirmed in Santo Domingo Norte (Serra, unpubl.) and in Baní, Azua and Jarabacoa (Virgil, pers. comm.). There is a need to more accurately determine the distribution and status of this invasive pest in the DR.

• Pest species introduced to the DR at unknown dates before 1995, and not been listed in Serra et al. (2003), are found in Table 3 (Abud-Antún 1995; Schmutterer 1990; Wagner and Colon

2002):

• Tropical tent-web spider, Cyrtophora citricola (Forsköl) (Aranae: Araneidae), is actually wide spread in the lowlands of the DR where it is causing some damage, mainly in citrus orchards;

• Passionvine or Pacific mealybug, Planococcus minor (Maskell) (Hemiptera: Sternorrhyncha:

Pseudococcidae). Between 1986 and 2005, 75 interceptions from the DR were reported at 7 U.S. airports; but no report of the current status of P. minor in the DR available, and its presence has yet to be confirmed by local authorities;

• Oriental cocoa mealybug, Planococcus lilacinus (Cockerell), Hemiptera: Sternorrhyncha:

Pseudococcidae, has been reported to be present in the DR (Miller et al. 2001), and has the

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potential to cause economic losses to cocoa, citrus, guava and mango. Nevertheless, no reports on damage are available and its presence has yet to be confirmed by local authorities.

D. Major external threats to the DR from exotic invasive arthropod pests and invasive

pathogens. Arthropod pest species which are major external threats to agriculture in the DR are listed in Table 4 (Serra et al. 2003). These pests are already well established elsewhere in the Caribbean region. Some major plant pathogens that threaten cocoa and citrus production of the DR (reported in Serra et al. (2003) have continued to spread in the Caribbean and have come closer to the DR. These include the following:

• ‘witches broom’ (Crinipellis perniciosa [Stahel]) originating from northwestern South America is present in the Caribbean (Grenada, St. Vincent, Trinidad & Tobago) and has recently been detected in Chiapas, Mexico;

• ‘frosty pod rot’ (Moniliophthora roreri (Cicero & Parodi), damaging cocoa production with up to 60% infection in South and Central America. Introduction into the DR of frosty pod rot would have severe consequences for the production of certified organic cocoa, in which the DR is the world leader due to the absence of fungicide spraying;

• ‘citrus greening’, a bacterial disease (Liberobacter asiaticus) transmitted by the Asiatic citrus psyllid, Diaphorina citri Kuwayama, is now present in Florida (prob. Asian race) (Sainz, 2005). The vector is already present in the DR (Serra et al. 2003);

• ‘citrus canker’ (Xanthomonas axonopodis (Hasse) pv citri), present in Brazil and Florida.

The arthropod pest and disease species listed above pose serious challenges to DR’s national surveillance system. In spite of its steady improvement, the entry into the DR of new exotic invasive species on several occasions has not been avoided. Rejected or treated containers with imported agricultural commodities containing quarantine pests or diseases have been found in the DR; and these included Tilletia sp. on rice from the U.S.A., Dacus sp. on a non-specified fruit from Spain and unidentified beetle species of the families Bostrichidae (grain borers) and Cerambycidae (longhorn beetles) in packing material from Spain (Bueno, SEA/DSV, personal communication).

E. The relative importance of the DR as a source of invasive species.

In spite of pre-inspection measures, quarantine pests in commodities exported from the DR have been detected in foreign ports. An extract of 954 pest interception records in the national database of APHIS-PPQ pertaining to all Dominican Republic commodities commercially shipped to U.S. ports of entry from January, 2003 through October, 2005 is summarized in Table 5. The ports of entry include Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands. The listed interceptions were recorded on commodities shipped by airplane, ship or reported from inspection stations which inspected plant and/or seeds for propagation. For each exported commodity the list presents significant, host-associated types of pests from the 23 represented crop species or genera. Although the pest list gives important information on the status of DR commodities entering the U.S.A., some of the listed species or genera have not been reported by Dominican authorities and their presence in the DR must be considered to be uncertain until their existence in the country is officially recognized. Some commodities exported to the USA were not mentioned in Table 5, e.g. avocado, Persea americana, and some genera of cut flowers, and this suggests that no quarantine pests were found on them. However recent ‘Miami Maritime Interception Reports’ (USDA/APHIS, unpubl.),

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stated that several pests were detected on shipments of fresh avocado fruits originating from the DR (Table 6). None of these species is considered to be a pest of economic importance for avocado and could have been intercepted as opportunistic ‘hitchhikers’. Nevertheless, the exact pathway of entry of these pests should be determined. Information on the relative importance of the DR as a country of origin for infested commodities transported by airplane in an international and regional context was obtained through a study by Dobbs & Brodel (2004) conducted between September 1998 and August 1999 (Table 7). These authors demonstrated the importance of cargo aircraft as a pathway for the entry of nonindigenous insects to the U.S.A. The detected insects belonged to 33 families in 5 orders, but mostly to the Lepidoptera and Coleoptera, and multiple insect taxa were represented in >40% of infested airplanes. The results suggested the relative importance of various regions and countries as potential origins for the introduced pests by this pathway. However, statisticians consulted considered that while reliable conclusions could be drawn from such data collected for Central and South America, similar comparisons among countries within the West Indies were not statistically valid because the number of sampled aircraft for the region was too small. Nevertheless, these inconclusive data concerning the DR published by Dobbs and Brodel (2004) - being the only relevant data available – are presented in Table 7, since they do suggest a correlation between the number of introductions of exotic pests with the relative strength of inspection and quarantine systems. The approach rate of quarantine pests from the West Indies of 3.3% was slightly lower than that from South America, but significantly lower than the rate from Central America including Mexico. It must be pointed out that the authors found marked differences among the countries. Seasonal factors played a role in the approach rates for Central America (wet 28.9% vs. dry 15.7%). Approach rates for the West Indies – based on very limited data - varied: 0 (12 countries), 2.9% (DR), 8.3% (Jamaica) and 18.2% (Haiti). Among these, sampled cargo airplanes from the DR represented 5% of the total number of aircraft inspected from all origins. The single infested airplane from the DR represented 25% of the total infested airplanes from the West Indies region. Relatively weak institutions with respect to quarantine and plant health inspections and/or unstable political conditions may have influenced the results pertaining to countries with relatively high approach rates.

CONCLUSIONS

International trade agreements require effective mechanisms to prevent the export or entrance of invasive alien species, their quick localization and isolation and in some cases their eradication or management in order to avoid penalties and loss of markets because exportable agricultural goods do not meet the phytosanitary requirements of the importing country. During recent years, establishment of invasive alien species in the Dominican Republic has been reported with increased frequency, especially arthropods and plant pathogens. The introduction of many species certainly occurred long before their populations reached outbreak levels. Several dangerous exotic invasive pests, diseases and plants already present elsewhere in the Caribbean seriously threaten the economy of the Dominican Republic. Severe economic consequences would attend the establishment of such species, e.g. the mangoseed weevil could lead to serious restrictions for export of mangos to the U.S.A. and torpedo efforts of the national mango sector to increase its participation on the world market. Numerous suggestions for area-wide pest management programs as phytosanitary measures have been made during the present and former symposia on invasive species. An improved ´forecast´ system for the Caribbean through capacity building to assure the quick detection and surveillance of recently introduced exotic species in the Caribbean region and a broad

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international and inter-institutional network for data exchange are part of the determined goals. The respect of the confidentiality of the information until the national authorities (Plant Protection Departments, Ministries, etc.) report the existence of a pest is a concern, not only in the DR, due to the threat of economic implications as a consequence of a ban or restriction on the exportation of an affected commodity. The support of biological control programs in the region and foreign exploration of natural enemies of potential pests to come before the latter have entered has to play a special role in the mitigation of the impacts of invasive species throughout the region. The lack of resources both for research and the conduct of management programs for invasive pest species in some countries of the region make necessary the inclusion of national structures of those countries into a participative international network. Nevertheless, it is necessary to revise existing protocols for strengthening possibly deficient aspects of the in-country safeguarding strategy (e.g. the quarantine system), and to find ways to support regional efforts. These and other more specific topics should be debated on a national level in the Dominican Republic by competent authorities, and by affected sectors of the society in order to develop a national agenda, which should include the following topics (Serra et al. 2003):

• Characterization of the threats and impacts of invasive species.

• Prioritization of invasive species on a national and regional level concerning food production, biodiversity, tourism and marine health.

• Examination and assessment of existing legislation on the management of invasive species, identification of gaps and opportunities for improvement.

• Development of recommendations for improvements and opportunities for partnerships to reduce the threat of invasive species, especially those with multiple-site impact.

• Determination of gaps and opportunities concerning the phytosanitary deficiencies on the level of the shared island of Hispaniola (Haiti and DR).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I thank the organizers of the T-STAR Symposium and the CFCS 2005 Annual Meeting in Guadeloupe and IDIAF/CEDAF for making possible my participation. Also I am deeply grateful to an anonymous reviewer for many significant suggestions and for providing the data in Table 5. My collaborators, Ing. Abrahám Abud-Antún, Ing. Reina Teresa Martínez, M.Sc., Dr. Pedro Jorge, Kelvin A. Guerrero, M.Sc., and Dr. Carolyn T. Cohen, Caribbean Area Director, USDA/APHIS, Santo Domingo, DR, provided important information and their generous cooperation is acknowledged.

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Sainz, A. 2005. U.S. confirms Citrus Greening in Florida. Associated Press, Sep 2, 2005. Schmutterer, H. (1990): Crop pests in the Caribbean - Plagas de las plantas cultivadas en el Caribe. Deutsche Gesellschaft f. Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) (eds.), Eschborn, Germany, pp. 640. Segura, Y., C. Serra & J. Arias. 2003. El efecto de Melanagromyza obtusa (Malloch) (Diptera:

Agromyzidae) en la producción y calidad del grano de guandul y el manejo con insecticidas convencionales y selectivos. Resúmenes Coloquio de Protección Vegetal, Programa Nacional de Protección Vegetal, Centro de Biotecnología y Biodiversidad (CIBIO), Inst. Dominicano de Investigaciones Agropecuarias y Forestales (IDIAF), 26- 27/11/02, Sto. Domingo, Rep. Dominicana, p. 6 (in press).

Serra, C.A. 2005. Manejo Integrado de Plagas de Cultivos - Estado Actual y Perspectivas para la República Dominicana. Proyecto ‘Entendimiento Consensual sobre Sostenibilidad y Pobreza Rural, Fundacion Kellogg/Centro de Desarrollo Agropecuario y Forestal (CEDAF), Sto. Domingo, Rep. Dominicana, pp. 130 (in press). Serra, C. A., P. E. Jorge, A. J. Abud-Antún, P. Alvarez & B. Peguero. 2003a. Invasive Alien Species in the Dominican Republic: Their impacts, and strategies to manage introduced pests. T-STAR sponsored Symposium: Challenges and Opportunities in Protecting the Caribbean, Latin America, and the United States from Invasive Species, 39 ^t^h Annual Meeting 2003, Grenada, Proc. Caribbean Food Crops Society (CFCS), Vol. 39(1): 102-

118.

Serra, C.A., S. García, Y. Segura & J. Arias. 2003b. Dramatic impact of the recently introduced

Asian pigeon pea pod fly, Melanagromyza obtusa (Malloch) (Diptera: Agromyzidae), in

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the Dominican Republic. Poster abstract. 39 ^t^h Annual Meeting 2003, Grenada, Proc. Caribbean Food Crops Society (CFCS), Vol. 39(1): 40. Serra, C. A., C. A. Nuñez & S. García. 2004. El Control Natural y Biológico Clásico de una Plaga Invasiva en la República Dominicana: la Cochinilla Rosada de los Hibiscus, Maconellicoccus hirsutus (Green) (Hemiptera: Sternorrhyncha: Pseudococcidae). Proc. REDBIO 2004, V Encuentro Latinoamericano y del Caribe sobre Biotecnología Agrícola, 21-25/6/04, Boca Chica, Dominican Republic (see: http//:www.redbio.org) Serra, C. A., S. García & M. Ferreira. 2005. Evaluación de Mangifera indica, Spondias spp. (Anacardiaceae) y Psidium guajava (Myrtaceae), hospederos de Moscas de las frutas, Anastrepha spp. (Diptera: Tephritidae), en cuanto a la presencia de parasitoides en diferentes zonas de la República Dominicana. 51st Annual Meeting, Inter-American Society for Tropical Horticulture (ISTH), Sto. Domingo, Dominican Republic (in press). Taveras M., R. 2000. Fluctuación del minador de la oja de los cítricos (Phyllocnistis citrella Stainton) y la identificación de sus parasitoides. 36 ^t^h Annual Meeting 2000, Sto. Domingo, Dominican Republic. Abstract Proc. Caribbean Food Crops Society (CFCS), Vol. 36: 111. Tilden, J.W. 1968. Records of 2 species of exotic Lepidoptera captured in California. J. Lepidopt. Soc. 22: 187. Ventura T., L, H. Mercedes Rivas & T. Rojas. 1990. La mosca de las frutas del género Anastrepha (Diptera: Tephritiidae) en la República Dominicana. Tesis de Ingeniería Agronómica, Universidad Autónoma de Santo Domingo (UASD), Santo Domingo, República Dominicana, pp.53.

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Table 1. Taxonomic groupings of invasive alien species in the Dominican Republic (Serra et al. 2003).

Arthropods:

23

Molluscs:

1

- 16 Insect species:

Hemiptera: 7 Sternorrhyncha, 1 Auchenorrhyncha;

Plant pathogens:

13

2

Heteroptera; 2 Thysanoptera,

- 5 fungi,

2

Diptera, 1 Coleoptera, 1 Lepidoptera sp.

- 2 bacteria,

-

7 Arachnid Species: 6 Mites & 1 Spider

- 1 phytoplasma,

-

5 viruses

Table 2.

Classification of 154 invasive species proposed for the Dominican Republic (IABIN database).

Plants:

61

Fungal pathogens:

3

Vertebrates:

52

- Graminae

13

Invertebrates:

38

- Fishes

16

- Asteraceae

8

- Molluscs

5

- Amphibians

5

- Ornamentals

10

- Crustaceae

1

- Reptiles

3

- Forestry species

12

- Acari

5

- Birds

15

- Fruit species

3

- Insects

27

- Mammals

13

Table 3. Pests introduced to the Dominican Republic in addition to those listed by Serra et al. 2003a.

Latin Name

Common Name

Order: Family

Aceria tulipae (Keifer) Aulacaspis tubercularis Newst. Orthezia praelonga Dougl. Araecerus fasciculatus de Geer Conotrachelus sapotae Barber Cactoblastis cactorum (Bergroth) Lehmannia valentiana (Fer.)

Tulip bulb mite White mango scale Citrus coccid Coffee bean weevil Sapotilla weevil Cactus moth Spanish slug

Acari: Eriophyidae Hemiptera: Diaspididae Hemiptera: Ortheziidae Coleoptera: Anthribidae Coleoptera: Curculionidae Lepidoptera: Pyralidae Stylommatophora: Limacidae

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Table 4.

Invasive species in the wider Caribbean region that immediately threaten the DR.

Exotic Species:

Presence in the Region:

Exotic fruit flies:

Anastrepha ludens (Loew), Anastrepha spp., Bactrocera carambolae Drew & Hancock, Ceratitis capitata (Wied.)

Northern South America and/or Central America

Mango seed weevil, Sternochetus mangiferae (F.) Lesser Antilles, Cuba

South American palm weevil, Rhynchophorus palmarum (L.) Sweet Potato Whitefly, Bemisia tabaci (Genn.) ‘Q biotype’

Northern South America

Europe, Southwestern U.S.A, Florida

Cycad scale, Aulacaspis yatsumatsui Takagi Puerto Rico, Florida,

Guadeloupe Florida, The Bahamas

Lobate lac scale, Paratachardina

(Chamb.) Pepper weevil, Anthonomus eugenii Cano Florida, Mexico Avocado seed moth, Stenoma catenifer Walsh. Mexico, Panama, South America

Chili thrips, Scirtothrips dorsalis Hood Barbados, Florida, St. Lucia, St.

Grenadines,

Suriname, Trinidad & Tobago Red fire ant, Solenopsis invicta Buren Puerto Rico, Florida, Brazil Tropical bont tick, Amblyomma variegatum (Fabr.) Lesser Antilles African giant snail, Achatina fulica (Bowd.) Lesser Antilles Tropical soda apple, Solanum viarum Dunal Puerto Rico, Florida, South America

lobata

lobata

Vincent

&

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Table 5. Pest interceptions on commodities commercially shipped from the Dominican Republic to U.S. ports of entry (incl. Puerto Rico and U.S. Virgin Islands) (APHIS-PPQ, unpubl. data)

Host

Air

Sea

I/S*

Pest Species

Freq-

quency

Adenium sp. Ananas comosus Artocarpus altilis

X

Calcisuccinea dominicensis

1

X

Veronicellidae sp.

3

X

Dysmicoccus neobrevipes Dysmicoccus sp. Planococcus minor Pseudococcidae (immatures) Thrips palmi

2

3

3

8

1

A. heterophyllus

X

Melanagromyza sp.

12

Cajanus cajan

X

Cecidomyiidae sp.

2

Capsicum sp.

X

X

Noctuidae sp. Pentatomidae (immatures) Thrips palmi Veronicellidae sp. Dysmicoccus sp.

13

11

5

1

3

Citrus sp.

X

Pseudococcidae (immatures) Diaphania sp. indica complex

8

2

Cucumis sativus

X

Thrips palmi Pterophoridae sp.

1

33

Cucurbita sp. (incl. C. pepo) Eryngium foetidum

X

Cercospora sp.

11

X

X

Veronicella sp. Calcisuccinea dominicensis

1

1

X

Tetranychidae sp. (eggs) Pterophoridae sp.

8

Evolvulus sp.

9

X

X

Aleyrodidae sp.

5

Lagenaria siceraria Lantana sp. Luffa sp.

X

Diaphania sp. indica complex

22

X

Pterophoridae sp. Thrips palmi Veronicella sp. Anastrepha sp.

2

10

1

1

X

Chaetanaphothrips leeuweni

2

Mangifera indica Melicoccus bijugatus

X

Margarodidae sp. Pseudococcidae (immatures) Diaphania sp. indica complex

2

8

43

X

Metamasius hemipterus Thrips palmi Veronicella sp.

1

Momordica sp. (incl. M. balsamina & M. charantia)

107

1

123

Table 5 continued.

Host

Air

Sea

I/S*

Pest

Freq-

quency

Musa sp.

X

X

Dysmicoccus neobrevipes Planococcus minor Pseudococcus elisae Metamasius hemipterus

4

2

1

1

Phaseolus sp. Solanum melongena

X

Maruca vitrata

4

X

Planococcus minor Pseudococcidae (immatures) Thrips palmi

1

7

24

Solidago sp.

X

Miridae (immatures) Nysius sp.

23

2

Vigna sp.

X

Chalcodermus sp. Maruca vitrata Thrips palmi

2

15

5

Wood

X

Nasutitermes costalis

2

I/S = Inspection Station; designates that plants and/or seeds for propagation are being shipped.

Table 6.

Some recent U.S. interceptions of quarantine pests on avocado, Persea americana, originating in the DR (USDA/APHIS, unpubl. data).

December 2004:

January 2005:

Eulepidotis juncida (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae), Scudderia sp. (Orthoptera: Tettigoniidae)

Aeolus sp. (Coleoptera: Elateridae), Utetheisa sp. (Lepidoptera: Arctiidae), Gryllidae sp. (Orthoptera: Gryllidae)

Table 7. Importance of different regions and the DR as origins of pests transported in cargo aircraft to the U.S.A. (modified from Dobbs & Brodel 2004).

Origin:

Airplanes sampled

Airplanes

Approach rate (%)*

infested

Overall:

703 (100%)

73

10.4 (0 – 50) 23.2 (12.1 – 50) 5.8 (0 – 15.9) 3.3 (0 – 18.2)

- Central America:

207 (29.4%)

48

- South America:

346 (49.2%)

20

- West Indies:

122 (17.3%)

4

- Haiti

11(1.6%)

2

18.2

- DR

35 (5%)

1

2.9

* Mean per region; range in brackets being the lowest and highest values among the countries. Differences between the means for Haiti and the DR are not significant statistically.

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RESEARCH EFFORTS TO DEAL WITH INVASIVE SPECIES IN THE CARICOM REGION

Dionne O Clarke-Harris ¹ and F. Bruce Lauckner ² . ¹ Caribbean Agricultural Research and Development Institute PO Box 113, University P.O. Mona Kingston7 Jamaica W. I., ² Headquarters, Caribbean Agricultural Research and Development Institute, University of the West Indies, St Augustine Campus, Trinidad and Tobago W. I.

ABSTRACT: The issue of invasive species has long been a challenge to the Caribbean but has been amplified in recent times as the movement of goods and people increases. These species have threatened the region, with potentially devastating effects on agriculture and other economic activities and also biodiversity. The strategy to meet this challenge must be multifaceted, as the issue is complex, involving not only completely differing species/taxonomic groups but also different ecosystems and locations which are influenced by varying human actions. In a report prepared by CAB International, a total of 552 exotic and 446 naturalised and/or native species belonging to 24 groupings (trees and insects, 399 and 135 species respectively, being the largest groups) have been reported in the region. A shortlist of 23 major invasive species threats was presented as those occurring in five or more (up to 16 countries for some species) Caribbean countries. Research is a pivotal component of any developed strategy to tackle any type of invasive. Although the majority of reported invasive species in the region are not agricultural pests, for the purposes of this paper, only species relevant to agriculture were considered. The two case studies selected; Hibiscus mealybug, a notable success story, and whitefly and whitefly-transmitted geminiviruses, an ongoing challenge, highlight the role, value and limitations of agricultural research interventions in the Caribbean context.

Key Words: exotic species, Bemisia tabaci, whitefly-transmitted geminiviruses, Hibiscus mealybug, mongoose

RESUME: Le problème d'espèce invasive a longtemps a été un défi aux Antilles mais a été amplifié dans les temps récents comme le mouvement d'augmentations d'articles et gens. Ces espèce a menacé la région, avec dévastant potentiellement des effets sur l'agriculture et les autres activités économiques et aussi la diversité biologique. La stratégie pour rencontrer ce défi doit être à multiples facettes, comme le problème est complexe, impliquant non seulement différant complètement des groupes espèce/taxinomiques mais des écosystèmes et les emplacements aussi différents qui sont influencés en variant des actions humaines. Dans un rapport préparé par le CAB International, un total de 552 exotique et 446 et/ou naturalisé appartenir d'espèce natal à 24 groupements (les arbres et les insectes, 399 et 135 espèce respectivement, être les plus grands groupes) a été rapporté dans la région. Une liste des candidats de 23 menaces d'espèce invasives majeures a été présentée comme ces arriver dans cinq ou plus (augmente à 16 pays pour quelque espèce) les pays des antilles. La recherche est un composant crucial de stratégie développée pour empoigner n'importe quel type d'invasif. Bien que la majorité d'espèce invasive rapportée dans la région est pestes pas d'agricoles, dans le but de ce papier, cette seulement espèce pertinente à l'agriculture a été considérée. Les deux études de cas ont choisi; mealybug d'Hibiscus, une réussite notables et whitefly et whitefly-transmis geminiviruses, un défi continu, soulignent le rôle, la valeur et les limitations d'interventions de recherche agricoles dans le contexte des antilles.

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INTRODUCTION

Invasive species are those whose establishment and spread pose a threat to their ecosystems habitat or other species. These species may be alien or indigenous and invasiveness is usually influenced by environmental differences/changes. Invasions by non native species of varying taxonomic groups are potential threats to the natural ecosystems and biodiversity of the invaded territory. The adverse effects may range from mild to severe while some non native species may be very beneficial. The routes of entry and spread of non natives are also wide ranging being either deliberate e.g. the well known case of the introduction of the small Indian mongoose, Herpestes auropunctatus, first in Jamaica in 1872 for the control of rats in sugarcane fields (Cock 1985) or unintentional (the numerous examples of exotic pests entering on imports). This spectrum of possibilities, in tandem with increasing levels of regional and international trade and travel, is the basis of the tremendous challenge posed by the problem of invasive species (Wittenberg and Cock [eds.] 2001, Kairo et al 2003a). As a first step, each species has to be assessed to determine not only the potential risk to a given ecosystem but consequent economic impacts/costs in order to decide on the type of action warranted i.e. prevention, eradication or management. A proactive approach which effectively minimizes the entry of alien species or allows for early detection of new entrants before successful establishment and spread will considerably minimize the overall cost of elimination or management. This approach must ideally involve cooperation among different sectors as well as collaboration among countries which are major trading partners and/or inter travel destinations.

THE ROLE OF RESEARCH

At every stage of the overall strategy to address invasive species, is a need for research. Baseline information gathering is probably among the most important research components in dealing with invasives. An inventory of native species is the basis for determining species already present and potential threats. Within each country this activity has to be an ongoing process. Within the Caribbean in recent years, a number of invasive species have threatened the region, with potentially devastating effects on agriculture and other economic activities and also biodiversity. In a project report to the Nature Conservancy, which was prepared by CAB International (Kairo et al 2003a), a total of 552 exotic and 446 naturalised and/or native species belonging to 24 groupings (trees and insects, 399 and 135 species respectively, being the largest groups) have been reported in the region. A shortlist of 23 major invasive species threats was presented as those occurring in five or more (up to 16 countries for some species) Caribbean countries. This list comprised vertebrates (mammals)-10 species, vertebrates (birds)-2, vertebrates (amphibians), trees- 5, aquatic- 1 and insects- 4. The project reported on was a first attempt at collating and synthesizing information on threats posed by invasive species in the insular Caribbean (Kairo et al 2003b). Research is also critical to the development of appropriate management strategies to deal with identified threats. The five main strategies for dealing with important invasive species are prevention, eradication, containment, control and mitigation and there are basic guidelines for deciding which of these approaches to pursue. Prevention is the most desirable (Wittenberg and Cock [eds.] 2001, Kairo et al 2003 a and b). In the event that prevention measures fail, eradication is the next step if considered feasible. Containment seeks to confine an organism to a designated geographical area and its introduction to other areas is prevented by managing the borders of the designated area. The very familiar option of management can be very costly but is

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undertaken if the alien species has become established and has gained ground. Available technology is evaluated and suitable options selected to reduce the density and abundance of the pest population below an economic threshold. To determine the success of any programme it is necessary to constantly monitor the system to assess whether targets are met or to detect any unforeseen adverse effects and implement measures to correct for these. In the Caribbean, there are many examples where the various approaches described above have been used to varying levels of success against invasive species. Although Kairo 2003b expounded that the problem of invasive alien species is broader than the obvious examples and issues associated with species with adverse effects on agriculture and the authors remain mindful of the other insidious examples which exist and must be addressed, for the purpose of this paper, case studies have been selected to highlight the role played by research in two scenarios which have affected/continue to affect the agricultural sector in the CARICOM region. These examples depict the capabilities and limitations within the region for dealing with challenges posed by invasive species and the need for gap analyses and increased regional cooperation to share costs associated with tackling common problems and threats. Some examples of invasive species that have entered/reemerged and become an established menace to the region’s agriculture include the Hibiscus mealybug, Maconellicoccus hirsutus (Green); Thrips palmi Karny; Bemisia tabaci (Gennadius) (B biotype); Citrus leafminer, Phyllocnistis citrella Stainton; Citrus blackfly, Aleurocanthus woglumi Ashby; imported red fire ant Solenopsis invicta Buren; Paracoccus marginatus Williams and Granara de Willink, coconut whitefly, Aleurodicus pulvinatus, and the tropical bont tick, Amblyomma variegatum (Kairo et al

2003a).

The Hibiscus Mealybug. The Hibiscus (Pink) mealybug (HMB), M hirsutus, which originated in Asia was found in Grenada in 1994. The pest was later reported in Trinidad, St Kitts and St Lucia (Parasram 1996). Kairo et al 2003b presented a list of 12 CARICOM territories (a total of 28 Caribbean territories) reportedly having the pest, as at 2003. The consequent damage caused by the invasion of this pest was unprecedented, and its wide host range virtually made it a threat to the entire agricultural industry of affected countries. The hosts included ornamentals (hibiscus being primary), agricultural crops (e.g. cacao, okra, mango, plums, sorrel, soursop, Annona muricata), trees such as samaan, teak and blue mahoe. Gautam et al (2000) reported that crop losses in Grenada ranged from US$1.77 million- US$ 1.83 million per annum between 1995and 1997. In Trinidad, which was affected later (August 1995) potential losses estimated by the Planning Division of the Ministry of Agriculture were US $125 million with over 200 plant species affected (Parasram 1996 and Gautam et al 2000). The initial approach to combating Hibiscus mealybug consisted of control (chemical and cultural), containment and public awareness campaigns. The countries in the Caribbean which were not yet affected heightened quarantine measures and developed emergency action plans in the event that this pest gained entry. However despite efforts at prevention the pest continued to spread.

The control measures initially recommended, failed to provide long-term results (Gautam 1996 and McComie 1996) therefore, in 1995 the Regional Action Programme was developed which had a biologically-based management focus (Parasram 1996 and Gautam, 1996). Other components were chemical control measures in infested areas and development of information products for public awareness. The Caribbean Agricultural Research and Development Institute (CARDI) identified an expert from the Indian Agricultural Research Institute (IARI), New Delhi, India (Gautam 1996 and Blades in Guatam et al 2000). In India and Egypt, Hibiscus mealybug had been controlled using biological control agents, namely, ladybird beetles, Cryptolaemus montrouzieri Mulsant, Scymnus coccivora Aiyar and parasitic wasps Anagyrus kamali Moursi.

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and A. dactylopi (How.) and some 40 parasitoids and predators including another ladybird, Nephus regularis were known to reduce Hibiscus mealybug numbers in the field. A programme was developed for the introduction, multiplication and release of three lady bird beetles, C. montrouzieri , S. coccivora and N. regularis. These ladybirds were imported into the region in 1996. Supporting research components included study of local natural enemies, monitoring for establishment and subsequent impact on the pest, development of rearing protocols and determination of costs of production (Gautam 1996, Gautam et al 1996a and

1996b).

The parasitoid A kamali was also imported into Trinidad, first arriving in February 1996. Studies on this biological control agent and mass rearing were conducted by the International Institute of Biological Control- Caribbean and Latin American Station (IIBC-CLAS) named CAB International (CABI) and the Ministry of Agriculture, Land and Marine Resources Division (MALMR). The studies included evaluation of host plants for laboratory rearing Hibiscus mealybug, field releases and monitoring and evaluation of efficacy (Lopez 1996, Morias 1996, Peterkin et al 1996 and Ram et al 1996). Under a Memorandum of Understanding signed by CARDI and CABI, these parasitoids were reared by CABI and CARDI implemented field activities using these agents in CARDI member countries (Parasram 1996). Although the use of biological control has been a success in all countries in which it has been used against the Hibiscus mealybug, research is still required to ensure that the biologically-based management system can be integrated into all situations especially where other major pests have to be managed concurrently (Kairo 1996). Despite the resounding success of the biological control initiative in managing the population of Hibiscus mealybug in affected countries, intra regional trade remained constrained as unaffected countries fearful of the entry of the pest on produce and even countries which already had the pest, restricted entry of produce from affected countries in an effort to prevent/contain the problem. CARDI was again mandated to provide the leadership to address this problem. Through adaptive research activities on various post harvest technologies (hot water treatment, fumigation with methyl bromide/magnesium phosphide), post harvest treatment protocols were developed for flowers, fruit and vegetables, the main commodities in intra regional trade (Gautam et al 2000).

Whitefly and Whitefly-transmitted Geminiviruses. There are more than 1200 species of whitefly identified and although feeding damage caused by the insects can be significant it is the ability of some species to vector economically important plant viruses that has resulted in the notoriety of this group of insects. Only three vector species, namely, Trialeurodes abutilonea (Haldeman), T. vaporariorum (Westwood) and Bemisia tabaci (Gennadius) are known to occur in the Caribbean and Central America. Some of the associated diseases recorded in the Caribbean basin include Abutilo mosaic, bean golden mosaic, Euphorbia mosaic, Jacquimontia mosaic, Macroptilium mosaic, Rhyncosia yellow mosaic, Sida mosaic, tobacco leaf curl, tomato yellow mosaic (Brown and Bird 1992) tomato yellow leaf curl, tomato dwarf leaf curl and potato yellow mosaic (CARDI 2003). B. tabaci is probably the most challenging and has invaded territories throughout the Americas and the Caribbean. In addition to its wide distribution it can colonise a wide range of hosts which compounds the challenge to effectively manage it. B. tabaci can colonise as many as 500 species of plants. In Latin America and the Caribbean, B. tabaci is a pest of at least 17 crops both as a vector of geminiviruses and/or as a direct pest (Brown 1992). In a priority setting exercise, whitefly and whitefly-transmitted geminiviruses was identified as a priority, common to 13 of 16 member countries of PROCICARIBE Caribbean Integrated Pest Management Network (CIPMNET).

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Various aspects of this pest complex and its management have been actively researched by countries throughout the region. In 2002, CARDI was contracted under the EU- CARIFORUM Integrated Pest Management Project to conduct an information gathering exercise which would compile the pockets of information on past and current research activities within the region on whitefly and whitefly-transmitted geminiviruses. This was in response to the identification that information sharing amongst researchers within the region was a shortcoming which forfeits the benefits of collaborative research on common issues. An analysis of the inventory of activities also facilitated gap analysis which could guide the planning of future research to address existing needs. The areas in which research efforts have been most sustained throughout the region are vector/virus characterization and distribution, inventory of host range, screening for host plant resistance and biological control. In Jamaica there has been some work done on transgenics (tomato). The use of molecular biological techniques to keep abreast of the very dynamic and complex vector/virus relationship has probably been the area where the most significant strides have been made. However, the inventory indicated that much of the required component research has at least been initiated by some country in the Caribbean. The matrix in Appendix 1 indicates the research areas undertaken in 19 (CARICOM countries and other selected countries) in the Caribbean (CARDI 2003).

LIMITATIONS IN THE STRATEGY FOR INVASIVE SPECIES IN THE CARIBBEAN

Kairo et al (2003 b) evaluated the infrastructure used in invasive species management in the Caribbean and listed deficiencies in the following as key limitations

o

Early detection systems

o

Control and management to coordinate the ongoing efforts with local, regional and international authorities to minimize the adverse effects of existing invasives and restrict their spread.

o

Research and monitoring – which require investment in the development of effective and environmentally sound control technologies, human resources (biologists) and other tools needed to ensure long-term success

As demonstrated in the foregoing case studies, there are programmes that contain varying combinations of the above elements however there are gaps which reduce their potential impact. The model used for addressing the emergent Hibiscus Mealybug, demonstrated the benefits of multi-agency involvement and regional coordination. The regional coordinating mechanism facilitated the implementation of the regional programme while providing support to national efforts in technical and financial areas. The threat to newly invaded countries declined drastically as the region now had a readily available technology and an efficient emergency response mechanism. This regional system has in turn been beneficial to the US Virgin Islands, Puerto Rico, Bahamas, California, Florida, Haiti and the Dominican Republic (Meyerdirk and De Chi 2003). The scattered pieces of work conducted on whitefly and whitefly-transmitted geminiviruses in the region (CARIFORUM countries) is comprised of much of the required component research. Identified gaps include: the need to evaluate an integrated approach to management of whiteflies and whitefly-transmitted viruses; the continuation of investigations in specialized areas of research for virus and vector characterization and diversity given the dynamic nature of the complex; further evaluation of the potential of biological control agents; and development of protocols for the correct use of suitable selective chemicals which are compatible with biological control agents within an IPM system (CARDI 2003).

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In addition, there is a need for the goals and objectives of the various national/regional initiatives to be rationalized to form a fully coordinated Regional Whitefly and Whitefly- transmitted Geminiviruses Management Programme with established centres of excellence, this regional approach has been initiated by the countries of Latin America in a plan of action for effecting a strategy for the management of whitefly and whitefly-transmitted geminiviruses. Collaboration on whitefly diagnosis and information flow through information products and an annual regional workshop were also main areas of focus in the Latin American initiative (CARDI 2003). Adopting a model of strong regional collaboration in the English-speaking Caribbean and where possible forging links with other initiatives in the Caribbean Basin (and internationally) would help optimize the benefits from the limited human and financial resources available to the region.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors would like to thank the TSTAR program for the invitation and funding to participate in this very worthwhile forum.

REFERENCES

Brown J. K. 1992. A Critical Assessment of Biotypes of the sweet potato whitefly in the Americas and adjacent locales: from 1989-1992. In Taller Centroamericano y del Caribe sobre Moscas Blancas, Turrialba, Costa Rica. Bird, J. and Brown, J. K. 1992. Whitefly-transmitted geminiviruses and Associated Disorders in the Americas and the Caribbean Basin. The American Phytopathological Society Plant Diseases. p 220-225. CARDI, 2003. Final Project Report. Whitefly and Whitefly-transmitted Geminiviruses- Intervention in Selected CARIFORUM Countries. Caribbean Agriculture and Fisheries Programme CAFP funded by the European Union (EU). Cock, M. J. W. 1985. A Review of Biological Control of Pests in the Commonwealth Caribbean and Bermuda up to 1982. Commonwealth Agricultural Bureau, Slough. Gautam, R. D. 1996. The use of Coccinellids for the management of Hibiscus Mealybug Maconellicoccus hirsutus (Green) in the Caribbean. In Management Strategies for the Control of the Hibiscus Mealybug Proceedings of the First Seminar on the Hibiscus Mealybug, April 12, 1996, Ministry of Agriculture, Land Marine Resources, Trinidad and Tobago. P. 1-11. Gautam R. D., De Chi, W., Lessey, M., Ali, R. and Phago, P. 1996a. A Note on the Economics of Chemical Control Versus Biological Control of the Hibiscus Mealybug, Maconellicoccus hirsutus (Green) In Management Strategies for the Control of the Hibiscus Mealybug Proceedings of the Second Seminar on the Hibiscus Mealybug, November 14, 1996, Ministry of Agriculture, Land Marine Resources, Trinidad and Tobago. p 37-43. Gautam, R. D., De Chi, W. and Maraj, C. 1996 b. Impact of Cryptolaemus montrouzieri Mulsant and Scymnus coccivora Aiyar in controlling the Hibiscus Mealybug Maconellicoccus hirsutus (Green) in Trinidad In Management Strategies for the Control of the Hibiscus Mealybug Proceedings of the Second Seminar on the Hibiscus Mealybug November 14, 1996, Ministry of Agriculture, Land Marine Resources, Trinidad and Tobago p 70-82.

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Gautam, R. D, Pilgrim, R. N. and Stewart, V. E. 2000. The Pink Mealybug Protocols for the Protection of Agricultural Production and Trade. The Systems Approach (SA). The Caribbean Agricultural Research and Development Institute. Kairo, M. T. K. 1996. Management of the Hibiscus Mealybug Maconellicoccus hirsutus (Green) (Homoptera: Pseudococcidae) in Trinidad and Tobago: Future Research. In Management Strategies for the Control of the Hibiscus Mealybug Proceedings of the Second Seminar on the Hibiscus Mealybug November 14, 1996, Ministry of Agriculture, Land Marine Resources, Trinidad and Tobago, p. 84-91. Kairo, M. T. K., Cheeseman, O. D., Ali, B. S., Haysom, K., and Murphy, S. T. 2003a. Dangerous Invasive Species Threatening or with a Foothold in the Caribbean In Proceedings of the Caribbean Food Crops Society. 39 (I): 12-22. Kairo, M. T.K., B.S. Ali, O. Cheesman, K. Haysom, and S.T. Murphy. 2003b. Invasive species threats in the Caribbean Region. CAB International. Kairo, M. T. K., Morais, M. and Cooper, B. 1996. Field Release and Establishment of Anagyrus kamali (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae), a Parasitoid of the Hibiscus Mealybug Maconellicoccus hirsutus (Green) (Homoptera: Pseudococcidae) in Trinidad In Management Strategies for the Control of the Hibiscus Mealybug Proceedings of the Second Seminar on the Hibiscus Mealybug November 14, 1996, Ministry of Agriculture, Land Marine Resources, Trinidad and Tobago, p. 44-53. Lopez, V. F. 1996. Laboratory rearing and mass production of Hibiscus Mealybug Maconellicoccus hirsutus and the parasitic wasp Anagyrus kamali at the Caribbean and Latin American Station of IIBC in Trinidad. In Management Strategies for the Control of the Hibiscus Mealybug Proceedings of the First Seminar on the Hibiscus Mealybug, April 12, 1996, Ministry of Agriculture, Land Marine Resources, Trinidad and Tobago. p

30-43.

Marais, M. 1996. Releases of the parasitic wasp Anagyrus kamali (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae) in the field to control the Pink Mealybug Maconellicoccus hirsutus (Green) (Hemiptera:

Pseudococcidae) and preliminary results on efficacy. In Management Strategies for the Control of the Hibiscus Mealybug Proceedings of the First Seminar on the Hibiscus Mealybug, April 12, 1996, Ministry of Agriculture, Land Marine Resources, Trinidad and Tobago. P. 44-49. McComie, L. D. 2003. Status of the Hibiscus (Pink) Mealybug Maconellicoccus hirsutus (Green) Programme in Trinidad. In Management Strategies for the Control of the Hibiscus Mealybug Proceedings of the Second Seminar on the Hibiscus Mealybug November 14, 1996, Ministry of Agriculture, Land Marine Resources, Trinidad and Tobago p 12-18. Meyerdirk, D. E. and De Chi, L. W. 2003. Models for minimizing risks of dangerous pests: The pink Hibiscus Mealybug and Papaya Mealybug. In Proceedings of the Caribbean Food Crops Society p 47-55. Parasram, S. 1996. The Hibiscus Mealybug in the Caribbean – A Regional Update In Management Strategies for the Control of the Hibiscus Mealybug Proceedings of the Second Seminar on the Hibiscus Mealybug November 14, 1996, Ministry of Agriculture, Land Marine Resources, Trinidad and Tobago p 1-11. Peterkin, D., Lopez, V. F. and Kairo, M. 1996. Laboratory Production of Anagyrus kamali (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae) for Biological Control of the Hibiscus Mealybug, Maconellicoccus hirsutus (Homoptera: Pseudococcidae) In Management Strategies for the Control of the Hibiscus Mealybug Proceedings of the Second Seminar on the Hibiscus Mealybug November 14, 1996, Ministry of Agriculture, Land Marine Resources, Trinidad and Tobago p 24-36.

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Ram, P., Cooper, B., Lopez, V. F., Morais, M. and Peterkin, D. 1996. A perspective on the release of Anagyrus kamali (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae) for the biological control of the Hibiscus of Pink Mealybug Maconellicoccus hirsutus (Homoptera: Pseudococcidae) by the Ministry of Agriculture Land and Marine Resources. In Management Strategies for the Control of the Hibiscus Mealybug Proceedings of the First Seminar on the Hibiscus Mealybug, April 12, 1996, Ministry of Agriculture, Land Marine Resources, Trinidad and Tobago. p 50-55. Wittenberg, R. and Cock, M. W. [eds.]. 2001. Invasive Alien Species: A Toolkit of Best Prevention and Management Practices. CABI Publishing, Wallingford (on behalf of Global Invasive Species Programme -GISP). pp 228.

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Appendix 1. Analysis of research needs regarding whitefly and whitefly-transmitted geminiviruses in the Caribbean

Area of research

Country

Characterisation

Characterisation

Host

range

Host

Host

plant

Cultural

Biological

Chemical

/distribution

of

/distribution

of

of whitefly

range of

resistance

practices

control

control

whitefly

geminiviruses

viruses

Antigua and

Barbuda

-

+

-

+

-

-

-

-

Bahamas

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

Barbados

+

++

+

+

-

+

-

+

Belize

-

+

-

+

+

+

-

+

Cuba

-

+

-

+

-

++

++

-

Dominican

Republic

+++

+++

+++

+++

++

+++

++

+

Grenada

-

-

-

-

-

-

+

-

Guadeloupe

++

+

+

+

++

-

+

-

Guyana

-

-

-

+

-

-

-

+

Haiti

-

+

-

+

+

+

+

+

Jamaica

+++

+++

+++

+++

+++

+

+

+

KEY

-

No indication that any work was done in this area

++

Significant level of work done in research area High level of work done in research area

+

Minimal level of work done in research area

+++

133

Matrix 1 (Continued). Analysis of research needs regarding whitefly and whitefly-transmitted geminiviruses in the Caribbean

Area of research

Country

Characterisation /distribution of whitefly

Characterisation

Host

range

Host

Host

plant

Cultural

Biological

Chemical

/distribution

of

of whitefly

range of

resistance

practices

control

control

geminiviruses

viruses

St Kitts and Nevis

-

+

-

+

+

-

+

-

St Lucia

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

Martinique

+

+

+

++

-

+

+

+

Puerto Rico

++

++

++

+

+

-

+

-

St

Vincent

and

the

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

Grenadines

Suriname

-

-

-

-

-

-

+

-

Trinidad

and Tobago

++

++

++

++

-

-

++

-

KEY

-

No indication that any work was done in this area

++

Significant level of work done in research area High level of work done in research area

+

Minimal level of work done in research area

+++

134

Proceedings of the Caribbean Food Crops Society. 41(1):135. 2005

A DEMONSTRATION OF THE DDIS (DISTANCE DIAGNOSTICS AND IDENTIFICATION SYSTEM) IN PUERTO RICO.

Consuelo Estevez de Jensen ¹ , Ruben Quinonez ¹ and Timur M. Momol ² . ^l University of Puerto Rico, Agricultural Experiment Station. Crop Protection, HC- 04, Box 7115 Juana Diaz, PR. 00795-9998; Phone 787-837-3905. cestevez@uprm.edu , ² University of Florida. Plant Pathology Department, Momol@ifas.ufl.edu .

ABSTRACT: In Puerto Rico the DDIS (Distance Diagnostic and Identification System) was implemented in 2005. DDIS in Puerto Rico increased the diagnostic capabilities for plant diseases and developed links with growers, and private agricultural companies, and opened opportunities for inter-institutional collaboration. The process of DDIS in Puerto Rico links the grower, researcher and extension educators. The Disease Clinic at Juana Diaz Experiment Station is serving the growers in the southwest area of Puerto Rico. A total of 56 diseased samples were processed at the Clinic in three months consisting of vegetables (36%), ornamentals (24%), fruits (22%), grains (9%), banana (5%) and tubers (4%). Samples were selected to go through the DDIS based on either their economic importance or the possibility of a new disease. The symptoms of the diseased samples were described and the information and images were forwarded through the DDIS. Suspected pathogen(s) were confirmed by DDIS specialists. Then, extension educators in Puerto Rico provided disease management recommendations. Growers then can address specific control measures based on accurate and fast diagnosis. DDIS is preventing crop losses and use of unnecessary pesticides in Puerto Rico.

135


REFLECTIONS ON THE SYMPOSIUM

H.

Arlington D. Chesney, Director, Caribbean Regional Office, IICA, IICA Headquarters, 600

m.

noreste del Cruce Ipís-Coronado, San Isidro de Coronado, Apartado 6742-1000, San Jose,

Costa Rica. Phone: (506) 2160222; FAX: (506) 2160258; Arlington.Chesney@iica.int

Mr. Chairman, we have had a very educational and informative three sessions, starting with the Opening Ceremony, followed by a Session on Institutional Issues and finally, one on Technical Issues. At this stage, we certainly do know more of Invasive Species in the wider Caribbean. Also, we do have a sense of a deep commitment by all to work together to effectively address this matter in a manner that will facilitate trade, especially intra Caribbean trade whilst at the same time protecting the rich biodiversity and natural resources of the sub- region. I would like to say something on the geographic scope of the Caribbean based on participation at a symposium. It primarily encompasses the Caribbean islands, Guyana, Suriname and Southern United States. Perhaps, in the context of the political initiatives to forge greater South-South linkages, it could be appropriate for us to increase our geographic coverage of this Initiative to include all of the countries washed by the Caribbean Sea. The interpretation infrastructure that is always provided by the CFCS would address any language barriers.

Returning to the programme, the Session on Institutional Issues placed the Invasive Species Strategy (ISS) within the Context of the CARICOM Single Market and the Economy and the Jagdeo Initiative which is the mechanism being used by CARICOM (with technical involvement of the Dominican Republic) to catalyse the repositioning and invigoration of a new and holistic agriculture. The potential (albeit limited) of the University of the West Indies (UWI) to support the ISS was also identified. It is significant that these presentations addressed the CARIFORUM countries. However, it must be recognised that, in this grouping, UWI is only one of at least 13 Universities that could assist in the academic support to the development and implementation of the ISS. A larger and more representative sample of these institutions must be included in the future.

Of particular importance in a wider geographic scope is the institutional link to Metropolitan France and the impact of the guidelines, standards, etc. being pursued there on the rest of the Caribbean. This could play itself out most specifically in the Trade Arena.

The need to give the potential impact of Invasive Species on the environment and biodiversity as much importance as that on trade and the economy was also highlighted. Finally, the progress and some issues relative to the Operationalisation of the Caribbean Regional Invasive Species Intervention Strategy (CRISIS) were highlighted. I would return to this aspect of operationalisation.

The Session on Technical Issues highlighted programmes and work being done in Florida, Dominican Republic and by French Institutions in the Caribbean and the Pacific Oceans. It also detailed efforts to initiate work in the English speaking Caribbean. Information Systems and data bases that have been designed for monitoring Invasive Species and facilitating their identification were also presented. I am relatively short on detail for the Session on Technical Issues. This is due primarily to time constraint and my own bias. With respect to the later, I wish to make it clear, especially since I spent the first 15 years of my career either doing or

136

directing research activities, that I recognise and appreciate the importance of technical issues. However, I am also very certain that technical issues can only bear appropriate fruit if it is done with a specific goal foremost in mind. In the case of the Invasive Species Strategy (ISS), this goal must be to enhance trade and protect the natural resources and thus contribute to sustainable national development. To achieve this goal, there must be an all embracing and responsive enabling environment in the entire Caribbean that will facilitate and nurture the conduct of the required technical actions.

It is within the above context, I revert to the question of the operationalisation of CRISIS. The successful operationalisation of CRISIS depends on involvement of all countries within the Region. I note an inequity between the sub-regions to effectively contribute to this operationalisation. Based on the presentations, it will appear that the scope and capacity of the enabling environment and thus the institutional capacity varies. The CARICOM countries and, to a lesser extent, the Dominican Republic, are now at the stage of putting in place the enabling environment to allow work to begin on the technical issues. They are all in the planning stage. Whereas the French Countries and Southern United States are already in the doing stage and have the institutional capacity to accelerate this work in keeping with the operationalisation plan for CRISIS that was presented.

Accordingly, for the Invasive Species Strategy (ISS) to be successful and for all countries to be confident with respect to the presentation and/or management of Invasive Species, there would be need for differential/preferential treatment provided to the CARIFORUM (CARICOM plus Dominican Republic) countries. I am positive that the details of such a programme could be developed by the experts.

Finally, Mr. Chairman, this Invasive Species Initiative has continued its progress during this Workshop. However, there is still much work to be done so that the “finishing line” could be reached in the shortest possible time. I am confident that the Working Group would ensure that this progress is not only maintained but exceeded.

137


SESSION III: TECHNICAL REPORTS

STEPS TOWARD MANAGING THE EXOTIC ARMORED SCALE ANDASPIS PUNICAE IN LITCHI IN FLORIDA AND PUERTO RICO

Jorge E. Peña ¹ , R. Goenaga ² , J. Castillo ¹ , G. Hodges ³ and G. Evans ⁴ ¹ University of Florida, Tropical REC, Homestead, FL, Phone 305-246-7001; FAX: 305-246- 7003, email: jepe@ifas.ufl.edu; ² USDA, Mayaguez, Puerto Rico, Phone: 787 831-3435; email:

mayrg@ars-grin.gov; ³ FDACS, Gainesville, FL and ⁴ USDA, Beltsville, MD, USA.

ABSTRACT: The exotic scale, Andaspis punicae (Homoptera: Diaspididae), was detected in

1993 in Florida invading litchi groves. It caused dieback of branches, reduced tree vigor and

eventually killed the trees. During 2004 this scale was detected in Puerto Rico affecting litchis. The scale has also been associated with symptoms known as ‘corky bark’ in Florida. Here we present preliminary results of studies on scale biology, chemical control, efforts toward biological control with parasitoids and preliminary results of the possible association between the scale and the causal agent of ‘corky bark’. On-going studies on scale biology demonstrated that the life cycle of the scales is longer than 40 days. Surveys in Florida and Guam showed that the scale was found in Litchi chinensis, Euphoria longan, Mangifera indica, Annona cherimola x A. squamosa and Rambutan, Nephelium lappaceum. In Florida, levels of parasitism by the native parasitoid Encarsia lounsburyi (Hymenoptera: Aphelinidae) ranged between 2.9 and 26.1 percent. E. lounsburyi was also found parasitizing the scale species in Puerto Rico. Parasitism in Guam was caused by Encarsia inquirenda. The chemicals, Knack ^R (Pyriproxyfen), Applaud ^R (buprofezin), imidacloprid and Novaluron ^R (benzoylurea) provided significant scale control 50 days after their application, but their use is restricted by application costs. Effect of a fungicide and an insecticide on scale development and symptoms of corky bark were studied during 2004.

KEY WORDS: Litchi, Diaspididae, corky bark, Encarsia, Andaspis

RESUMEN: La escama exótica Andaspis punicae (Homoptera: Diaspididae) fué encontrada en

1993 en Florida invadiendo huertos de litchi y causando muerte de las ramas, dismimuyendo el

vigor de los árboles y causando la muerte de árboles. La escama ha sido asociada con síntomas de ‘la corteza del corcho’ en Florida. En este artículo presentamos los resultados preliminares de la biología de la escama, control químico y esfuerzos para encontrar agentes de control biológico. Estos estudios han demostrado hasta el presente que el ciclo de vida de la escama

sobrepasa los 40 días. La escama se encontró en litchi, mango, longan, atemoya y rambutan en muestreos realizados en Florida y Guam. En Florida los niveles de parasitismo producidos por el parasitoide nativo Encarsia lounsburyi (Hymenoptera: Aphelinidae) fluctuaron de 2.9 a 26.1 % de escamas parasitadas mientras que en Puerto Rico los niveles de parasitismo fueron alrededor del 40%. En Guam la escama es parasitada por Encarsia inquirenda. Los insecticidas, pyriproxyfen, buprofezin, imidacloprid y benzoylurea fueron eficaces 50 dias despues de su aplicación, pero su uso esta restringido dado su alto costo. El efecto de un fungicida y un insecticida en el desarrollo de la escama y los síntomas de la corteza del corcho fueron estudiados en el 2004.

138

INTRODUCTION

After the devastating effects of hurricane Andrew in 1992, NAFTA and citrus canker, south Florida tropical fruit production, especially mango and lime, was virtually reduced to a minimum. Among the remaining fruit crops that survived these events, litchi, Litchi chinensis Sonn. (Sapindaceae), referred to as lychee, leechee, or litchi, gained popularity resulting in a litchi production currently valued at US $3.07 million. Florida litchi growers maintained this crop insecticide-free until the arrival of 2 exotic invasive pests: the litchi moth, Crocidosema litchivora Baixeras n. sp. and the scale Andaspis punicae (Laing). Litchi is grown in Puerto Rico on a minor scale, mostly for experimental research. The scale Andaspis punicae (Homoptera:

Diaspididae) was detected in 1993 in Miami-Dade County invading litchi groves. The scale caused dieback of branches, reduced tree vigor and eventually killed the trees. The presence of the scale in Puerto Rico was verified after a survey conducted in October 2004. There are many unresolved questions regarding this scale. For instance, it is believed that the scale is injecting a toxin into the tree. Thus through scale feeding a swelling appears on the bark and an opportunistic fungus might establish at these weakened areas and “corky bark” symptoms. The objectives of the present study were to: 1) Provide preliminary results of studies of the life cycle of Andaspis punicae, 2) Determine host plants and parasitoid species affecting parasitism levels in Florida, Puerto Rico and Guam, 3) Determine effectiveness of pesticides on Andaspis punicae and 4) Conduct preliminary tests to establish a relationship between Andaspis punicae and corky bark symptoms. Background on Andaspis punicae. The Andaspis genus belongs in the Lepidosaphidine section, which conforms with the tribe Lepidosaphidini sensu Borchsenius (1966) and sensu Takagi (1969). Andapis have the male and the female coverings being of similar texture. The body shape is generally narrow, gradually attenuated at its anterior part (Ben Dov, 1990b). Andaspis punicae was originally described from specimens collected in Tanzania, East Africa attacking pomegranate, but it is suspected that its origins are in the South Pacific or South East Asia (Rao and Ferris, 1952). It has been cited from breadfruit, Artocarpus altilis, eggplant, Solanum melongena in the Mariana Islands (i.e., Guam) (Nafus and Schreiner, 1999). It has been also collected from rose and litchi in Honduras, from Spondias and citrus in the Dominican Republic, from Lansium and Erythrina in Thailand, from vanilla and eggplant in Guam, from plumeria in the Philippines, from Mammea americana in Barbados and from litchi and ficus in Hawaii and Florida (D. Miller, Pers. Comm). A. punicae has been intercepted several times in ports of entry of the continental USA (Rose, 1990) and because of infestation with this scale; litchi plants produced in Florida have been destroyed in Texas and California with the consequential losses to producers. Andaspis punicae belongs to a group of armored scales which prefer to feed on bark of branches and the main trunk, and are considered the most damaging because they cause dieback of twig terminals and sometimes the eventual death of the host and consequential yield reduction. A. punicae settles on branches and buds, feeding mostly close to lenticels, interrupting nutrient transport, opening avenues for fungal infections and weakening the plant (J. E. Peña, unpubl. obs.). The fungi, Phomopsis and Leptosphaeria, have been isolated from litchi bark infested with A. punicae (A. J. Palmateer, pers. comm.). However, the destructive effect produced by the litchi scale in woody tissue has not been investigated thoroughly. Tissue in areas affected by the scale hypertrophies, the bark often cracks and finally a gradual desiccation of the cortical tissue follows (J. E. Peña, pers. observ.). ‘Dark ‘cork’ type structures appear on the bark. Growers refer to these symptoms as ‘corky bark’.

139

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Life Cycle and Development of A. punicae. Litchi, cv. ‘Brewster’ trees planted in 2 gallon pots were kept in a non-air conditioned greenhouse. Eight to 10 cm portions of the apical parts of each tree (n = 12) were placed in 10-ml glass tubes with water and sealed on the top with parafilm. Twenty to 30 crawlers captured under the armor of the female parent, were placed on each ex-plant and placed in an incubator at 25°C; L:D 10:14, R.H., 80 ± 5 %. Each day subsamples of 8-10 individuals of each stage were removed from the litchi plants and placed in 10 ml of alcohol (95%) and kept there for 24 hours. After this, they were transferred from the alcohol to 6 ml of a solution of Essig® (McKenzie 1967) and then heated to 140 °F for 40 min. on a hot plate. Next, 1 drop of acid fuchsin was added and heated for 20 min. The insects were transferred one-by-one with a dissection needle to 10 ml of alcohol (70%). Finally, 1 or 2 individuals per slide were mounted completely extended in a drop of PVA (Polyvinyl alcohol- semitemporal mounting medium) on microscope slides under a cover slip. Length and width of specimens were recorded daily for approximately 50 days until male emergence. Surveys in Florida, Guam and Puerto Rico. Several plant species are listed in the literature as hosts of A. punicae. We evaluated the role of these plant species as hosts by collecting branches from trees located at the Tropical Research and Education Center in Homestead, Florida during June, 2005 and trees located in the localities of Dededo and Talofofo in Guam during March 2005. We divided the branches into 10-cm segments, selected 10 of these and determined the presence or absence of A. punicae on the potential host. A survey of litchi trees was conducted on September 28, 2004 in the locations of Isabela and Adjuntas, Puerto Rico. Branches were collected from different cultivars and transferred to the USDA laboratory at Mayaguez where scale density was determined. Vouchers of scales were placed in alcohol and sent to be identified by G. Hodges, Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services (FDACS), Gainesville, FL. Evaluation of Field Parasitism of Andaspis punicae. Florida. The on going study was conducted from February, 2005 through June, 2005 in 3 litchi groves located in Homestead, Florida. Three to five trees from each site were sampled at 2-3 m above ground. Two branches each were removed from the canopy. The number of Andaspis punicae occurring in ten 15- cm branch segments was determined using a binocular microscope in the laboratory. Firstly, parasitism in the sample was initially determined by observing any exit holes on the scale covering, which would be indicative of parasite emergence. Secondly, branch segments were placed into individual test tubes (12 x 75 mm) and sealed with Kimwipes® tissue covering one end. These were held for 2 weeks at 22°C and 75% RH and 12:12 L:D. Emerged parasitoids were collected and identified. Puerto Rico and Guam. A procedure similar to that used in Florida was employed both in Puerto Rico and Guam during the respective surveys conducted in 2004 and 2005. Emerged parasitoids were placed in 75% OH and identified by G. Evans, ARS, USDA, Beltsville, MD. Chemical Control . A 10 year-old litchi ‘Brewster’ grove located at the University of Florida, Tropical Research Center, Homestead grove was used for this study. Plots consisted of a four groups of 6 trees, with 3 plants serving as sample trees. All trees were moderately infested with the litchi scale Andaspis punicae. Treatments consisted of one application of Knack® (pyriproxyfen) plus Petroleum oil 95%, FC 435-66 (5 oz + 1 gallon/100 gallons water), Applaud® (buprofezin) plus petroleum oil 95%, FC 435-66 (1.12 oz + 1 gallon/100 gallons water), Applaud® plus petroleum oil 95%, FC 435-66 (2.28 oz + 1 gallon/100 gallons water)and, Novaluron® 0.83 EC (14 oz/100 gallons) and Admire® (imidacloprid) at 16oz/acre, and a non- sprayed control. All applications of the test materials with the exception of Admire were made with a hand-gun sprayer. Admire was applied as a drench to the soil in a circular fashion around

140

the canopy drip line. The sprayer was calibrated to deliver 100 gpa at 2.2 mph. Because of the ‘clustering’ of A. punicae populations, both adults and crawlers were monitored 1 day before the treatment and 30, 50 and 80 days after treatment by collecting 2 branches per tree. Each branch was subdivided into 5 cm segments and the number of live scales, and crawlers within the segment was counted under a microscope by lifting the armor of each scale (A. punicae ). All data were subjected to two-way ANOVA and the means were separated by LSD (P =0.05). Effect of a fungicide and an insecticide on scale development and symptoms of corky bark. A preliminary experiment was initiated to determine if the insecticide imidacloprid and the fungicide, Folicur®, would reduce symptoms of corky bark. Thirty trees, cv. ‘Brewster’, were planted in 1 gallon pots and placed inside a greenhouse during September, 2003. Each plant was

infested with 15-20 crawlers or immature scales per plant. A set of 10 plants was left untreated,

10

plants were treated with the insecticide imidacloprid, applied monthly as a drench at a rate of

10

oz/100 gallons. The fungicide, Folicur®, was also applied monthly to the last set of plants as

a spray to leaves and stem at a rate of 40.5 oz/100 gallons of water. Twice a month, a 2 inch

section of a twig was inspected with the aid of a hand lens and the number of scales and scale

immatures (crawlers) were recorded. One year and a half after the experiment was initiated we evaluated scale infestation, plant growth and symptoms associated with corky bark.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Preliminary Results Life Cycle and Development of A. punicae. The crawlers remain inside of the female cover for a few hours and then crawl under the body of the female parent and become

settled within a few hours to 1 day. First intar males and females required 12.04 d to reach the next stage. The width of the first instars was 0.2-0.24 mm and their body length was 0.32 to 0.52 mm. Second instar females required 20.8 d and males required 21.56 d to reach the next stage (Table 1). The width of the second instar males was 0.24-0.32 mm and their body length 0.48-

0.80 mm. The width of second instar females ranged from 0.24-0.44 mm and their body length

from 0.48-0.84 mm. The width of adult females was approx. 0.4-0.44 mm and their length

ranged from 0.76 to 1.28 mm. Male pre-pupal width was 0.32 mm and their body length was

0.76 mm. The total development for male from crawler to adult required 46.16 d. Further work

is needed to determine the number of days for females to develop from crawler to adult, as well

as their total life span. Host Plants in Florida and Guam. Besides litchi, A. punicae was collected in Florida from longan, Euphoria longan, mango, Mangifera indica, and atemoya, Annona squamosa x A. cherimola (Table 2). Andaspis hawaiiensis was found on Spondias spp. In Guam, A. punicae was only found on litchi and rambutan (Table 3). In Puerto Rico, our survey showed that A. punicae was found in litchi, cvs., ‘Brewster’, ‘Mauritius’, ‘B3’, ‘Kariman’, ‘Sacathia’ and ‘Nanriig’. Evaluation of Field Parasitism of Andaspis punicae. In Florida and Puerto Rico, the only parasitoid collected from A. punicae is Encarsia lounsburyi (Berlese & Paoli), (Hymenoptera:

Aphelinidae). In Florida, the levels of parasitism fluctuated between a minimum of 6.98 to a maximum of 11.43 percent of scales parasitized (Figure 1). The parasitoid, Encarsia inquirenda (Silvestri) (Hymenoptera: Aphelinidae) was collected as a parasitoid of A. punicae in Guam (Table 3). In Guam, the percent of scales with signs of parasitism or predation, possibly by

unidentified stigmaeid mites, ranged from 16 to 52% (Table 3). E. inquirenda has been collected from armored scales in China, Algeria, Italy. This is the first report of E. inquirenda for Guam (G. Evans, pers. comm.). Chemical Control. Clusters of Andaspis punicae were removed from each 5 cm segment of the

collected branches. Only live scales were counted.

between treatments and the unsprayed control 30 days after treatment. However, 50 days after

No significant differences were observed

141

treatment, Knack®, Applaud®, imidacloprid and Novaluron® had significantly fewer live scales/ 5 cm than the untreated control. Eighty days after treatment, scale densities were lower on those branches treated with the insecticides than on the untreated control (Tables 4 and 5). Effect of a fungicide and an insecticide on scale development and symptoms of corky bark. One month after the initial infestation, an average of 12.86 ± 0.93 and 12.53 ± 1.20 A. punicae/10 cm branch-segment was detected in the untreated plants and fungicide treated plants, respectively. A lower infestation (0.39 ± 0.08 A. punicae/10 cm branch-segment) was observed in the insecticide treatment plants (Fig 2). Four months after the initial scale infestation , symptoms of ‘cracks’ on the stem cortex were observed followed by the formation of a 4-5 mm dark cork-like tissue. One year and a half after treatment, a significant higher number of leaves per plant was observed on plants treated with imidacloprid (Table 6). There were no differences in plant height between treated and untreated plants. Both the untreated control and the fungicide treated plants had 300 to 400 times higher A. punicae density compared to the plants treated with imidacloprid. Die-back was observed mostly in those plants with heavy scale densities (Table 6). Both the untreated control and the fungicide treated plants had higher number of cracks/10 cm of branch- segment and a higher percent of branches with corky bark symptoms than the insecticide treated plants. Further research is needed to clarify the relationship between corky bark and the presence of A. punicae. However, these preliminary results appear to indicate that the scale might play a role in the development of corky bark symptoms.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We thank D. Long for his help. This research was partially supported by grants from T-STAR and South Florida Tropical Fruit Growers to J. E. Peña. Florida Agricultural Experiment Station Journal Series N-

REFERENCES

Borchsenius, N. S. 1966. A catalog of the armored scale insects (Diaspidoidea) of the the world. [In Russian]. Akademia Nauk SSR Zoologucheskii Institut, Moscow Leningrad, 449 pp. McKenzie, H. L. 1967. Mealybugs of California. University of California Press, 32-35. Nafus, D., and Screiner, I. 1999. Insect Pests of Micronesia. http://www.crees.org/plantprotection/AubWeb/bugweb/bugroot.htm . Rao, P. V., and Ferris, G. F. 1952. The genus Andaspis MacGillivrax (Insecta:

Homoptera: Coccoidea). Microentomology 17: 17-32. Rose, M. 1990. Diaspidid pest problems and control in crops. In: Armored scale insects,

their biology, natural enemies and control. Vol. 4B, ed. D. Rosen, Elsevier, NY, pp 535-

541.

Tagaki, S. 1969. Diaspididae of Taiwan based on material collected in connection with The Japan-US cooperative science program, 1965. Insecta Matsumurana, 32 (part

1):1-10.

142

Table 1. Developmental time (days) of A. punicae to adult at 25 °C; L10:D14 and 80% ± 10 RH.

STAGE

N

FEMALE

std. err.

N

MALE std. err.

1 Inst.

45

12.04

(0.29)

45

12.04

(0.29)

2 Inst.

25

20.8

(0.51)

25

21.56

(0.42)

Pre-pupa

17

3.64

(0.52)

Pupa

14

3.9

(0.82)

*Adult

30

5.16

(0.54)

143

Table 2. Survey for host plants of A. punicae in Florida, June 2005

Host Plant

Mean A. punicae/10 cm stem ± SE

Mean A. punicae with emergence holes and/or signs of predation ± SE***

%

Scales

with

natural control

Litchi 1 Longan Spondias Eugenia sp. Plumeria Satin Leaf Wampi Spanish lime Citrus** Tamarind Jackfruit Annona squamosa X A. cherimola Mamey Zapote Satin Leaf Mango Carambola

85.30 ± 8.06 68.00 ±15.68

5.96 ± 0.51

6.98

0.80±0.35

1.17

*84.72±12.56

0.72±0.27

0.00±0.00

0.00±0.00

0.00±0.00

0.00±0.00

0.00±0.00

0.00±0.00

0.00±0.00

0.00±0.00

0.00±0.00

0.00±0.00

0.00±0.00

0.00±0.00

0.00±0.00

0.00±0.00

0.00±0.00

0.00±0.00

11.9±1.58

0.35±0.10

2.91

0.00±0.00

0.00±0.00

0.00±0.00

0.00±0.00

56.2±27.94

0.80±0.21

1.53

0.00±0.00

0.00±0.00

144

Table 3. Survey for host plants of A. punicae in Guam, May, 2005.

Host Plant

Mean A. punicae/10 cm stem ± SE

Mean A. punicae with emergence holes and/or signs of predation ± SE

%

Scales

with

natural control

Litchi 1

5.6±1.60

2.1±0.84

43

2

3.62±1.26

1.85±0.81

52

Rambutan 1

4.64±1.30

0.76±0.37

16.45

2

0.00±0.00

0.00±0.00

Eugenia sp.

0.00±0.00

0.00±0.00

Plumeria

0.00±0.00

0.00±0.00

Hibiscus sp*

0.00±0.00

0.00±0.00

Neem

0.00±0.00

0.00±0.00

Eggplant

0.00±0.00

0.00±0.00

Citrus**

0.00±0.00

0.00±0.00

Tamarind

0.00±0.00

0.00±0.00

Breadfruit

0.00±0.00

0.00±0.00

Soursop 1

0.00±0.00

0.00±0.00

2

0.00±0.00

0.00±0.00

White Zapote

0.00±0.00

0.00±0.00

Satin Leaf

0.00±0.00

0.00±0.00

145

Table 4. Number of Andaspis punicae live scales per 5 cm of branch before and after treatment with insecticides.

Treatment

1DBS

30DAS

50DAS

80DAS

1. Untreated

8.10a

1.90a

5.80a

10.80a

2. Knack+Citrus oil

4.60bc

2.50a

2.70b

2.11b

3. Applaud 1x +Citrus oil

4.00bc

2.80a

3.75ab

1.40b

4. Applaud 2x + citrus oil

2.40c

2.70a

0.90b

1.50b

5. Admire

3.90bc

2.21a

2.60b

2.80b

6. Novaluron

8.80a

2.40a

0.40b

0.30b

DBS = Days before spray DAS = Days after spray

Numbers within a column followed by the same letter were not statistically different (LSD =

0.05).

1 DBS = June 2, 2003 Date when spray was done: June 3, 2003

30

DAS = July 12

50

DAS = July 22

80

DAS = August 22

Table 5. Number of Andaspis punicae crawlers per 5 cm of branch before and after treatment with insecticides.

Treatment

1DBS

30DAS

50DAS

80DAS

1. Untreated

0.70a

0.20b

0.00b

0.20a

2. Knack+Citrus oil

1.00a

0.50a

0.00b

0.00b

3. Applaud +Citrus oil

1.00a

0.00b

0.00b

0.10a

4. Applaud 2x + citrus oil

0.20a

0.10b

0.00b

0.00a

5. Admire

0.40a

0.00b

0.30a

0.00a

6. Novaluron

0.40a

0.00b

0.00b

0.00a

DBS = Days before spray DAS = Days after spray Numbers within a column followed by the same letter were not statistically different (LSD =

0.05).

146

Table 6.

Results of 1 year-infestation of A. punicae and symptoms of ‘corky bark’ on litchi plants treated with an insecticide, a fungicide or left untreated.

Treatment

Leaves/plant

Plant

Percent

No. Scales/

No.

Bark

Percent

height

Branches

Lensfield

Cracks/10

Branches

(cm)

with

die-

cm Branch

With

back

Corky

Bark

Untreated

23.1±2.67a

93.3±2.78a

8.5±4.09b

47.5±14.36a

23±5.38a

14±4.98a

Control

Folicur

8.3±1.94b

83.2±4.56a

43.5±12.1a

39.0±11.39a

25.5±5.98a

13.0±5.73a

Imidacloprid

23.4±2.33a

97.5±6.27a

1.0±1.0c

0.1±0.1b

1.0±0.67b

1.0±0.67b

Numbers within a column followed by the same letter were not statistically different (LSD =

0.05).

180

30

160

Number of Scales

Percent Parasitism

25

140

120

20

100

15

80

60

10

40

5

20

0

0

February

March

April

May

No. of Scales/ 10 cm Branch

Percent Parasitism

Sampling Dates

Figure 1. The time-course of parasitism of A. punicae in Florida

147

35

Untreated

30

Fungicide

Insecticide

25

20

15

10

5

0

2

4

8

12

16

20

24

28

32

36

40

44

48

52

56

60

Mean A. punicae/10 cm Branch

Weeks After Treatment

Figure 2. The effect of fungicide and insecticide treatments on the A. punicae population growth

on litchi.

fungicide treatment.

Scale populations increased on litchi plants with and without insecticidal and

148


BIODIVERSITÉ TROPICALE ET SUBTROPICALE DANS LES ESPACES INSULAIRES : POUR UNE GESTION DURABLE DE LA BIODIVERSITÉ DANS L'OUTRE-MER EUROPÉEN.

Philippe Feldmann ¹ , and N. Barré ² , ¹ CIRAD, Délégué aux ressources biologiques, Direction Scientifique TA 179/04 34398 Montpellier Cedex; ² Institut Agronomique néo- Calédonien/CIRAD, BP 73, 98890 Païta

RÉSUMÉ: Les îles tropicales sont des milieux hébergeant une forte biodiversité, mais qui sont particulièrement fragiles. L’atelier consacré à ces milieux lors de la Conférence de Paris a rappelé ces constats et mis l’accent sur la nécessité d’un développement durable, associant les populations locales. Une meilleure compréhension des interrelations entre fonctionnement des écosystèmes et activités humaines et le développement de réseaux de collaborations à différentes échelles entre des îles confrontées à des enjeux équivalents permettraient de réorienter un développement compatible avec la préservation de la riche biodiversité insulaire.

MOTS ESSENTIEL: collaborative inter-island networks, skills of local communities

ABSTRACT: Tropical islands are characterized by an abundant but fragile biodiversity. It is considered that sustainable development on tropical islands including the preservation of biodiversity can be accomplished only taking advantage of the skills of local communities. A better knowledge of interactions between ecosystems’ dynamics and human activities, as well as the establishment of collaborative inter-island networks at different geographic, institutional and thematic scales is essential to generate development, which concomitantly preserves the rich insular biodiversity.

INTRODUCTION

Lors de la Conférence Biodiversité, Science et Gouvernance qui s’est tenue à l’Unesco à Paris du 24 au 28 janvier 2005, un atelier était consacré à la gestion durable de la biodiversité dans les îles tropicales et subtropicales, dont nous présentons ici les principales conclusions et recommandations. Au niveau mondial, ces entités représentent 100 000 îles et 500 millions habitants. Sur les 34 points chauds de la biodiversité de la planète, 10 d’entre eux sont des îles. Cette biodiversité est particulièrement vulnérable puisque la moitié des espèces considérées comme menacées par l’UICN se trouvent dans les îles. De plus, la moitié de la biodiversité marine tropicale se trouve à proximité d’îles ayant une forte proportion de récifs coralliens et de mangroves. Les régions insulaires tropicales et subtropicales subissent de fortes pressions liées essentiellement aux activités humaines. Elles se caractérisent en effet par:

• des taux élevés de croissance démographique et de migration humaine

• des contraintes importantes imposées par le tourisme

• une urbanisation croissante et une emprise mal contrôlée sur les terres agricoles et les

• formations naturelles

• des mutations dans l'utilisation des terres

149

• une gestion inadaptée ou déficiente des produits phytosanitaires et des déchets et effluents,

• générateurs de pollutions durables et de problématiques spécifiques de santé

• une surexploitation des ressources marines et terrestres : eau, sol, faune, flore

• des perturbations sévères des écosystèmes et des espèces natives par les espèces animales et végétales introduites Enfin, ces îles sont concernées en priorité par les changements climatiques auxquels la planète est confrontée. La remise en l’état des habitats, des ressources et des espèces, une fois leur dégradation amorcée est -quand elle est possible- d’un coût considérable. L’anticipation et la prévention des dégâts par le respect des protocoles internationaux, une exploitation rationnelle des ressources et le contrôle strict des espèces exotiques sont économiquement et écologiquement bien préférables.

CONCLUSION

Face à ces défis, la préservation de la biodiversité conjointement à la satisfaction des besoins vitaux et légitimes des populations impose la mise en oeuvre d’une politique de développement durable. Celle-ci requiert la compréhension des interactions entre le fonctionnement des écosystèmes insulaires et les activités humaines et peut s’appuyer sur la diversité des situations biogéographiques et sociologiques rencontrées dans ces îles. Ainsi la recherche est amenée à apporter des réponses pour :

• évaluer et anticiper les conséquences de changements planétaires majeurs liés à l’activité humaine sur la biodiversité insulaire,

• développer des méthodes et des outils afin de gérer durablement la biodiversité en relation étroite avec les sociétés locales et dans le respect de leurs traditions et de leurs savoirs ,

• agir collectivement en développant des réseaux inter-îles à différentes échelles (Caraïbe, océans Indien et Pacifique, insulaire européen, recherche/développement/outils de sensibilisation),

• afin de répondre de la manière la plus efficace aux besoins multiples de connaissance et de gouvernance.

150


DEVELOPMENT OF THRIPS TRAPS FOR FRANKLINIELLA OCCIDENTALIS AND SCIRTOTHRIPS DORSALIS

C.C. Chu ¹ , M.A. Ciomperlik ² , Niann-Tai Chang ³ , Marcus Richards ⁴ , Tian-Ye Chen ¹ , Glenn Fitzgerald ⁵ , Barbara Hefne ¹ , P. A. Alexander ¹ , and T. J. Henneberry ¹ . ¹ USDA ARS WCRL and WCL ⁵ , 4135 E. Broadway Road, Phoenix, AZ 85040-8803; USDA APHIS PPQ CPHST ² , Moore Air Base, Bldg. S-6414, Route 3 Box 1014, Edinburg, TX 78541-9398; ³ NPTUST, Neipu, Pingtung, Taiwan; and ⁴ Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, Richmond Hill, Kingstown, St. Vincent and The Grenadines ⁴ .

ABSTRACT: Studies were conducted to develop thrips traps for detecting and identifying Scirtothrips dorsalis (Hood). Traps were developed in Arizona where Frankliniella occidentalis (Pergande) are established in the field, and they were tested in southern Taiwan where S. dorsalis thrips are found. Addition of a one square centimeter of dichlorvos (Vapona®) pest strip as a killing agent in CC traps increased the catches of western flower thrips 5-fold as compared to standard CC traps. The increased thrips catches are attributed to increased mortality and retention of thrips that entered the traps as opposed to increased attractiveness of the trap. Average CC trap catches in Taiwan were 0.07 S. dorsalis per CC trap per week.

KEY WORDS: chilli thrips, western flower thrips, CC trap sticky traps, dichlorvos.

RÉSUMÉ: Des études furent conduites afin de développer un piège qui permet de détecter et d’identifier le thrips Scirtothrips dorsalis (Hood). Le piège fut développé en Arizona où le thrips Frankliniella occidentalis (Pergande) est établi et testé dans le sud de Taiwan où S. dorsalis se trouve. L’ajout d’un centimètre carré de l’agent insecticide dichlorvos (Vapona®) au piège CC a permis d’attraper un plus grand nombre de thrips 5X comparé au piège standard. Cette augmentation est attribuée à un plus haut taux de mortalité et rétention des individus qui entrent dans le piège plutôt qu’à une attirance accrue. Le nombre hebdomadaire moyen de S. dorsalis attrappé par le piège CC à Taiwan était de 0.07.

INTRODUCTION

The objective of the study was to develop thrips traps that would be utilized by USDA- APHIS and Ministries of Agriculture in the Caribbean for detection and monitoring efforts for Scirtothrips dorsalis Hood (Thysanoptera: Thripidae). S. dorsalis is a new invasive thrips species to the Western Hemisphere, recently detected in the Caribbean region (Skarlinsky 2003, Ciomperlik and Seal 2004). During the course of developing whitefly traps in 1996-97 we found that the trap, named the CC trap, also caught S. dorsalis when the trap base color was white, yellow or green (Chu et al. 2000). We report here six of 14 experiments in which we tested the efficacy of traps in Arizona where Frankliniella occidentalis (Pergande) thrips were established in the field and tests in southern Taiwan where S. dorsalis thrips were found.


The experiments were conducted using a randomized complete block design with 4-10 replicates in F. occidentalis infested field crops in Arizona in 2004. The experiments were: 1) blue and yellow sticky card traps in broccoli, 2) blue sticky card traps in cotton, 3) three different

151

trap base colors of CC trap in alfalfa, 4) thrips capture sites on individual CC trap parts using a blue trap base (Figure 1), 5) CC traps with dichlorvos (Vapona®) modification in alfalfa, and 6) Vapona® dispensers with a blue stripe modification in alfalfa. Subsequently the developed traps were tested in a factorial randomized complete block experiment with 15 replicates for their trapping efficacy for S. dorsalis in a lemon grove in Taiwan in 2004-05 (Figure 2). Data were analyzed by season by ANOVA (Anonymous 1989) using Tukey’s HSD for mean separations for the comparison of three trap base color CC traps and orthogonal comparison for the Blue-D vs. CC traps comparison.

3

5 4

1

2

1 External

2 Entrance

3 Internal

4 Plate

5 Cup inside

Fig. 1. CC trap with blue trap base. Numbers indicate different trap base surfaces.


Blue sticky card traps caught more F. occidentalis as compared to yellow (Table 1). More F. occidentalis were caught on the 458 nm blue color cards than the 444 nm and 446 nm blue colors (Table 2). White and blue trap base CC traps caught more F. occidentalis than the yellow (Table 3). Over 80% of the F. occidentalis attracted by the blue colored CC trap base stayed on the external base surface (Table 4). Inclusion of the one square centimeter Vapona® strip in the CC traps increased the catches of F. occidentalis by 5 fold (Table 5). The Vapona® dispenser modified with blue stripes caught more F. occidentalis than CC traps with the Vapona® cube and the non-modified Vapona® disperser (Table 6).

152

Fig. 2. Vapona® dispenser modification with blue stripe and sample collecting bag placed in the upper canopy of a lemon tree in Neipu, Pingtung County, Taiwan.

Table 1.

Seasonal mean numbers of Frankliniella occidentalis (Pergrande) caught on blue and yellow sticky card traps in a broccoli field, Maricopa, AZ 2004.

Sticky trap color

Spectrum reflectance

No. of thrips/193 cm ² /wk

Blue

458 nm

167.5 a

Yellow

560 nm

69.0 b

â Means not followed by the same letter are significantly different by t – test, P = 0.05.

Table 2.

Mean numbers of Frankliniella occidentalis (Pergrande) caught on blue sticky card traps with different peak wavelengths in a cotton field, Maricopa, AZ 2004.

Peak

No. thrips/200 cm ² blue sticky card trap/wk

wavelength

1 ^s^t

2 ⁿ^d

3 ^r^d

4 ^t^h

Mean

444

nm

53 b â

63 b

31 c

15 b

40 c

446

nm

616 a

190 b

157 b

126 b

272 b

458

nm

369 b

499 a

286 a

533 a

422 a

â Means not followed by the same letter are significantly different by Tukey’s HSD, P = 0.05.

Table 3.

Mean numbers of Frankliniella occidentalis (Pergrande) caught in white, blue and yellow trap base CC traps in an alfalfa field, Maricopa, AZ, 2004.

153

No./CC trap/3-day

Trap base color

Peak wavelength

8/9

8/12

8/15

White 430-700 nm154 a â

108ab

209 a

Blue

448 nm

129 a

157 a

170 b

Yellow610 –700 nm16 b

31 b

59 c

â Means in a column not followed by the same letter are significantly different by Tukey’s HSD,

P

= 0.05.

Table 4.

Mean numbers of Frankliniella occidentalis (Pergrande) caught in an alfalfa field on

CC

traps coated with Tanglefoot® on different trap parts, Maricopa, AZ, 2004.

Tanglefoot

Cumulative no. /trap

coating at

1 day

4 days

6 days

8 days

None

1.5 b â

0.5b

0.8 b

0.5 b

External base Entrance of base Internal base Deflector plate Cup inside

14.4 a

85.8 a

97.3 a

113.8 a

1.3 b

1.3 b

6.5 b

11.3 b

1.5 b

0.3 b

1.0 b

3.0 b

2.8 b

4.0 b

2.5 b

2.0 b

0.5 b

1.0 b

4.8 b

8.5 b

Total 22.0

92.9

112.9

139.1

% for external base

65.5

92.4

86.2

81.8


P = 0.05.

Table 5. Mean numbers of Frankliniella occidentalis (Pergrande) caught in CC traps contained

one cm ² Vapona® cube in an alfalfa field, Maricopa, AZ, 2004.

Vapona®

No./CC trap/3-day

7/15

7/16

7/19

7/20

7/21

Mean

No

2.1 b

1.2 b

15.8 b

9.4 b

16.2 b

8.9 b

Yes

15.8 a

19.6 a

70.1 a

46.1 a

56.2 a

41.6 a


P = 0.05.

Studies in Taiwan confirmed the efficacy of the Vapona® dispenser modified with blue stripes in catching S. dorsalis. The average CC trap catches was 0.07 S. dorsalis per trap per week, which was nearly 20% of the average catches using the modified Vapona® dispenser. Both the white and yellow base color CC traps caught more S. dorsalis than the blue, but the differences are not statistically significant. Both type of traps caught more Frankliniella intonsa, Thrips hawaiiensis, and Megalurothrips usitatus than the catches of S. dorsalis. Table 6. Mean numbers of Frankliniella occidentalis (Pergrande) caught in three different trap types in an alfalfa field, Maricopa, AZ, 2004.

154

No./trap/day

Trap type

8/24

8/25

8/26

8/27

Mean

CC trap + one cmPP ²^P^P Vapona® strip Vapona® dispenser Vapona® dispenser + blue strips

11.2 a ^b

6.0 b

7.5 ab

53.4 b

41.8 b

23.9 a

32.6 b

60.3 b

75.2 a

8.4 a

37.5 b

113.5 a

80.6 a

12.0 a

53.4 a

â Means in column not followed by the same letter are significantly Tukey’s HDS, Df = 2, 18, P =

0.05.

USDA, APHIS guidelines suggested survey in one square mile areas with 2,280 CC traps when one or more adults were found at original infestation sites at the first delimiting survey (USDA 2004). Thus, a total of 160 S. dorsalis would be caught in CC trap per week in the area under conditions similar to those in southern Taiwan. It appears that the CC trap can be used for detection, but not for monitoring S. dorsalis. Future research for detecting and monitoring S. dorsalis should consider investigating alternative traps, improvement of CC traps, S. dorsalis behavior, female sex pheromones and other attractants.

REFERENCES CITED

Anonymous. 1989. MSTATC. A microcomputer program for the design, management, and analysis of agronomic research experiments. Michigan State University. Chu, C. C., P. J. Pinter, Jr., T. J. Henneberry, K. Umeda, and E. T. Natwick. Y.-A. Wei, V. R. Reddy, and M. Shrepatis. 2000. Use of CC traps with different trap base colors for silverleaf whiteflies (Homoptera: Aleyrodidae), thrips (Thysanoptera: Thripidae), and Leafhoppers (Homoptera: Cicadellidae). J. Econ. Entomol. 93:1329-1337. Ciomperlik, M. A., and D. Seal. 2004. Surveys of St. Lucia and St. Vincent for Scirtothrips dorsalis (Hood), Jan. 14-23, 2004. USDA APHIS PPQ, Technical Report. 19 pp. Skarlinsky, T. L. 2003. Survey of St. Vincent pepper fields for Scirtothrips dorsalis Hood. USDA, APHIS, PPQ. 5 pp. USDA. 2004. New Pest Response Guidelines. Chilli Thrips Scirtothrips dorsalis. June 15, 2004.

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FIELD TRIALS TESTING THE EFFICACY OF ‘CC TRAPS’ FOR DETECTING AND MONITORING SCIRTOTHRIPS DORSALIS (HOOD) IN HOT PEPPERS IN ST. VINCENT.

M.A. Ciomperlik ¹ , M. Richards ² , C.C. Chu ³ , and C. Cohen ⁴ . ¹ USDA APHIS PPQ CPHST, Moore Air Base, Bldg. S-6414, Route 3 Box 1014, Edinburg, TX 78541-9398, Matt.A.Ciomperlik@aphis.usda.gov ; ² Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries,- St. Vincent and the Grenadines, ³ USDA ARS WCRL, 4135 E. Broadway Road, Phoenix, AZ 85040-8803; and ⁴ Caribbean Area Director, USDA-APHIS, International Services, Central America & Caribbean Region, American Embassy, Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic Unit 5527, APO AA 34041.

ABSTRACT. Scirtothrips dorsalis Hood (Thysanoptera: Thripidae) is a newly identified invasive pest in the Caribbean, and poses a significant threat to agriculture and trade in the region. Methods are needed to detect the presence and to monitor populations of this pest so that they can be effectively managed. Studies were initiated during the wet season in 2004 and continued in the dry season of 2005 to test ‘CC’ traps designed for detecting and monitoring the pest in hot peppers (Capsicum chinensis L.) under field conditions in St. Vincent. The experiments test three different base color traps (blue, yellow and white), the addition of dichlorvos (Vapona) as a killing agent, and the addition of ethylene glycol as an insect preservative. Average weekly catches were low at 0.01 to 0.18 S. dorsalis per CC trap per week. A sticky card trap (blue, yellow and white) experiment was also conducted in the dry season. Average weekly catches on the yellow sticky card traps were 19.8 S. dorsalis per card per week. The potential benefits and shortcomings of using either or both of these detection methods are discussed.

KEY WORDS: Scirtothrips dorsalis, CC trap, sticky traps, thrips, trade, invasive species

RÉSUMÉ. Le thrips Scirtothrips dorsalis Hood (Thysanoptera: Thripidae) est un ravageur qui a récemment envahi les Caraïbes et pose une menace importante sur l’agriculture et le commerce de la région. Des méthodes doivent être développées afin de détecter sa présence et suivre sa population de près pour ensuite le contrôler efficacement. Une étude fut initiée à St-Vincent pour tester le piège « CC » dans la culture de poivron fort (Capsicum chinensis L.). Cette étude a débuté durant la saison humide de 2004 et s’est poursuivie jusqu’à la saison sèche de 2005. L’expérience incluait des pièges de trois couleurs différentes (bleu, jaune et blanc), l’ajout de dicholovos (Vapona) comme agent insecticide, et l’ajout de propylène glycol pour préserver les insectes. Le nombre moyen de S. dorsalis attrappé par semaine était relativement bas, soit 0.01 à 0.18 individu par piège « CC ». Une autre expérience fut aussi réalisée en saison sèche pour tester des cartes collantes de différentes couleurs (bleu, jaune et blanc). Le nombre moyen de thrips retrouvés sur les cartes collantes jaunes était de 19.8 individus/carte/semaine. Les avantages et inconvénients d’utilisation des deux méthodes de détection sont discutés.

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INTRODUCTION

Scirtothrips dorsalis Hood (Thysanoptera: Thripidae) is a newly identified invasive pest to the Caribbean (Skarlinsky 2003, Ciomperlik, M. A. and D. Seal 2004). It poses a significant threat to agriculture and trade in the region (FNGA 2003). S. dorsalis is an economically important pest of chili peppers and other crops, causing physical damage that can range from leaf distortion, stunting and wilting of young leaves and shoots to total defoliation, with potentially heavy crop loss (Ananthakrishnan 1993, CABI/EPPO 1997). The impacts of S. dorsalis vary widely from season to season depending on weather factors, hosts, and population density (Ananthakrishnan 1984). Plant damage symptoms are not readily detectable when pest population densities are low. Therefore, methods are needed to detect the presence and to monitor populations of the pest so that they can be effectively managed. Objectives were to test the efficacy of traps developed by Chu et al. (2005) for detecting and monitoring the pest thrips in commercial hot peppers under field conditions, during both the wet and dry seasons in St. Vincent.


The experiment was conducted in four commercial hot pepper fields that were infested with S. dorsalis as well as Thrips palmi (Karny), Aeolothrips spp., and Phlaeothrip spp. The experimental design was a randomized complete block design with five replicates. Treatments were a complete randomization of CC trap base color (white, blue and yellow), with or without a dichlorvos (Vapona ^® ) cube, and with or without ethylene glycol (12 treatments). A blue stripe modified Vapona dispenser (B-Vapona) was the 13th treatment. Traps were hung approximately 22 cm below the plant terminals. Tests were conducted for six weeks during the wet season from October to November in 2004 and four weeks during the dry season from March to April in 2005. CC traps were collected and replaced weekly during the experimental periods. Sticky traps (yellow, white, and blue) were tested in the same two field locations as CC traps during the dry season in 2005. Sticky traps were placed within the plant row at a height of 0.5 m, approximately 22 cm with the trap bottom below the plant terminals. The experimental design was a randomized complete block design with 10 replicates. Sticky traps were collected and replaced during the four week experimental period. Sticky traps were wrapped in clear cellophane wrap, labeled, and returned to the laboratory for counting. All data was analyzed by season by ANOVA (Anonymous 1989) using Tukey’s HSD for mean separations for the comparison of three trap base color CC traps and orthogonal comparison for the Blue-D vs. CC traps comparison.


The numbers of S. dorsalis adults caught in CC traps were low, averaged 0.01 - 0.04 and 0.15 – 0.18/trap/wk for both the wet and dry seasons, respectively (Tables 1 and 2). Efficacy of Vapona dispensers and Vapona cubes in catching S. dorsalis and other thrips species were similar to results found in Taiwan (Chu et al. 2005). The addition of ethylene glycol to the CC traps did help by preserving the catches, making identifications of the adult thrips much easier. The CC traps are effective at detecting S. dorsalis and other thrips species. The yellow sticky card traps caught an average of 19.80 S. dorsalis/trap/wk as compared to 5.45 and 2.16 S. dorsalis/trap/wk for blue and white sticky card traps, respectively (Table 3). Both the sticky card traps and the CC traps effectively captured S. dorsalis on pepper plants. However, each type of trap has benefits that may require its use over the other trap type.

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The CC trap readily captures adults that are well preserved and easily removed and stored in ethanol for later taxonomic and genetic analysis. The sticky trap can capture more adult thrips than the CC trap; however, they can also capture a large number of unwanted insects. In addition, thrips that are captured on the sticky trap are not easily removed and stored for later analyses. Sticky traps seem to be less labor intensive, require less component assembly and therefore less expertise in trap placement than the CC traps. Surveys to detect the presence of S. dorsalis may need to incorporate both trap types. A scenario that uses sticky traps first to detect the pest, followed by the use of the appropriate colored CC trap or direct plant sampling, would ultimately yield specimens that could be submitted to taxonomic specialists for species verification.

REFERENCES CITED

Ananthakrishnan, T. N. 1993. Bionomics of thrips. Annual Review of Entomology 38: 71-92. Anonymous. 1989. MSTATC. A microcomputer program for the design, management, and analysis of agronomic research experiments. Michigan State Univ. CABI/EPPO. 1997. Quarantine Pests for Europe, 2nd Ed. CAB International, Wallingford, UK. Chu, C. C., M. A. Ciomperlik, N. T. Chang, M. Richards, T.-Y. Chen, G. Fitzgerald, B. Hefner, P. A. Alexander, and T. J. Henneberry. 2005. Developing thrips traps for detecting Scirtothrips dorsalis (Hood). Proc. 41 ^s^t Annual Meeting of the Caribbean Food Crops Society, Gosier, Guadeloupe (French West Indies), July 10 – 16, 2005, Ciomperlik, M. A., and D. Seal. 2004. Surveys of St. Lucia and St. Vincent for Scirtothrips dorsalis (Hood), Jan. 14-23, 2004. USDA APHIS PPQ, Technical Report. 19 pp. FNGA. (Florida Nurserymen & Growers Association) 2003. Report of the Florida Nurserymen & Growers Association Pest and Disease Task Force. May 15, 2003. 4 pp. Skarlinsky, T. L. 2003. Survey of St. Vincent pepper fields for Scirtothrips dorsalis Hood. USDA, APHIS, PPQ. 5 pp.

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Table 1. Seasonal mean numbers of thrips caught in various candidate thrips traps in two commercial chili pepper fields, Georgetown, St. Vincent – wet season from 14 October to 29 November 2004.

No./trap/wk

Variable

Dichlorvos

S. dorsalis

T. palmi

Aeolothrips

Phaleothrips

Blue-D vs. CC traps B-Vapona â CC traps

0.00 a ^c 0.02 a

0.47 a

0.71 a

0.82 a

0.08 b

0.11 b

0.15 b

CC traps ^b White Blue Yellow

0.02 a

0.09 ab

0.10 ab

0.11 b

0.03 a

0.10 a

0.20 a

0.24 a

0.02 a

0.03 b

0.03 b

0.09 b

Yes

0.02 a

0.12 a

0.17 a

0.22 a

No

0.03 a

0.03 b

0.06 b

0.07 b

White

Yes

0.02 a

0.17 a

0.13 a

0.15 a

White

No

0.02 a

0.02 b

0.08 a

0.07 a

Blue

Yes

0.02 a

0.18 a

0.32 a

0.36 a

Blue

No

0.03 a

0.03 b

0.09 a

0.11 a

Yellow

Yes

0.02 a

0.02 b

0.06 a

0.16 a

Yellow

No

0.03 a

0.04 a

0.00 a

0.03 a

â Dichlorvos dispenser + blue stripes.

^b CC-trap base color.

^c Means not followed by the same letter are significantly different by orthogonal comparison for B-Vapona vs. CC traps and by Tukey’s HSD for CC trap treatment, P = 0.05. Means of ethylene glycol treatment was higher than control sometimes. Means of three way interactions were not significantly different.

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Table 2. Seasonal mean numbers of thrips caught in various candidate thrips traps in two commercial chili pepper fields, Georgetown, St. Vincent – dry season from 23 March to 13 April 2005.

No./trap/wk

Variable

Dichlorvos

S. dorsalis

T. palmi

Aeolothrips

Phaleothrips

Blue-D vs. CC traps B-Vapona ^b CC traps

0.08 a ^c 0.11 a

1.44 a

0.25 a

0.40 a

0.44 b

0.10 a

0.13 b

CC traps

White

0.07 a

0.59 a

0.09 ab

0.13 ab

Blue

0.16 a

0.56 a

0.18 a

0.20 a

Yellow

0.11 a

0.16 b

0.03 b

0.05 b

Yes

0.16 a

0.70 a

0.18 a

0.23 a

No

0.07 b

0.18 b

0.02 b

0.03 b

White

Yes

0.09 b

0.98 a

0.16 b

0.24 ab

White

No

0.05 b

0.21 b

0.03 b

0.03 c

Blue

Yes

0.28 a

0.94 a

0.34 a

0.38 a

Blue

No

0.04 b

0.18 b

0.03 b

0.03 c

Yellow

Yes

0.12 ab

0.18 b

0.05 b

0.00 c

Yellow

No

0.11 ab

0.00 b

0.00 b

0.00 b

â Dichlorvos dispenser + blue stripes.

^b CC-trap base color.

^c Means not followed by the same letter are significantly different by orthogonal comparison for B-Vapona vs. CC traps and by Tukey’s HSD for CC trap treatment, P = 0.05. Means of ethylene glycol treatment was higher than control sometimes. Means of three way interactions were not significantly different.

Table 3. Seasonal mean numbers of thrips caught in white, blue, and yellow sticky card traps in two commercial chili pepper fields, Georgetown, St. Vincent – dry season from 23 March to 13 April 2005.

Sticky trap

No./trap/wk

color

S. dorsalis

T. palmi

Aeolothrips

Phaleothrips

White

2.16 c â 5.45 b 19.80 a

10.84 b

1.87 b

1.80 b

Blue

34.85 a

11.18 a

18.97 a

Yellow

9.54 b

2.03 b

3.29 b

â Means not followed by the same letter are significantly different by Tukey’s HSD, P = 0.05 and df = 2 or 182, 44. Means of three way interactions were not significantly different.

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EVALUATION OF VARIOUS INSECTICIDES IN CONTROLLING CHILLI THRIPS, Scirtothrips dorsalis HOOD (THYSANOPTERA: THRIPIDAE), ON PEPPER

D. R. Seal ¹ , M. Ciomperlik ² , M. L. Richards ³ , and W. Klassen ¹ . ¹ University of Florida-IFAS, Tropical Research and Education Center, Homestead, FL 33033 USA, DRSeal@ifas.ufl.edu ; ² USDA APHIS PPQ CPHST, Pest Detection Diagnostics and Management Laboratory, 22675 N. Moorefield Rd., Bldg. 6414, Edinburg, TX 78541-9398; Matt.A.Ciomperlik@aphis.usda.gov , ³ Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, St. Vincent, Richmond Hill, Kingstown, St. Vincent and the Grenadines.

ABSTRACT: The chilli thrips, Scirtothrips dorsalis Hood, reproduces on 112 taxa of plants and is an important pest of various vegetable tropical fruit and ornamental crops. It originated in Asia, and in recent years has become widely distributed in tropical, subtropical and temperate areas in Eastern Hemisphere. In 2003 S. dorsalis for the first time was found in the Western Hemisphere established on St. Lucia and St. Vincent in the insular Caribbean. Since there is a paucity of information on the effectiveness of modern insecticides in managing S. dorsalis populations, we evaluated the efficacy of the following materials applied to ‘Scotch Bonnet’ pepper on St. Vincent: spinosad, imidacloprid, chlorfenapyr, novaluron, abamectin, spiromesifen, cyfluthrin, methiocarb, and azadirachtin. Chlorfenapyr provided significant reduction of S. dorsalis adults and larvae with or without addition of a surfactant. Spinosad and imidacloprid also reduced S. dorsalis populations, but not as effectively as chlorofenapyr. Other insecticides applied just once for the control of S. dorsalis populations performed inconsistently; but these materials may be effective when applied multiple times.

KEYWORDS. Scirtothrips dorsalis, pepper, insecticides, chlorfenapyr, spinosad,

RÉSUMÉ:Les thrips, Scirtothrips dorsalis Hood, est un parasite important de 112 taxa des usines comportant du divers fruit tropical végétal et des récoltes ornementales. Il a provenu de l'Asie, et de devenir plus tard largement distribué dans des secteurs tropicaux, subtropicaux et tempérés dans l'hémisphère oriental. En 2003 le S. dorsalis ont été trouvés pour la première fois dans l'hémisphère occidental établi sur la St. Lucia et la St. Vincent dans les Caraïbes insulaires. Puisqu'il y a un manque d'information sur l'efficacité des insecticides modernes en contrôlant des populations de S. dorsalis, nous avons évalué l'efficacité des insecticides suivants pour leur commande de ce parasite poivre sur de ` capot écossais 'sur la St. Vincent : le spinosad, imidacloprid, chlorfenapyr, novaluron, abamectin, spiromesifen, cyfluthrin, methiocarb, et azadirachtin. Réduction significative fournie par chlorfenapyr d'adultes et de larves de S. dorsalis avec ou sans toute addition de surfactantan. Spinosad et imidacloprid ont également réduit la population de S. dorsalis, mais pas aussi efficace que le chlorofenapyr. L'exécution d'autres insecticides en commandant des populations de S. dorsalis était contradictoire; mais peut être efficace en commandant des S. dorsalis après application multiple.

INTRODUCTION

Scirtothrips dorsalis Hood is a pest of various vegetable, ornamental and fruit crops in southern and eastern Asia, Africa, and Oceania (Ananthakrishnan 1993, CABI/EPPO 1997, CAB 2003). Plants in 112 taxa are reported to be the hosts of S. dorsalis. It is a major pest of chillies (Ramakrishna Ayyar 1932; Ramakrishna Ayyar and Subbiah 1935) and Arachis (Amin 1979,

161

1980) in India, and of sacred lotus in Thailand (Mound and Palmer 1981). In Japan S. dorsalis is a pest of tea and citrus (Kodomari 1978). Among the economically important hosts of this pest listed by Venette and Davis (2004) are banana, bean, cashew, castor, corn, citrus, cotton, cocoa, cotton, eggplant, grapes, kiwi, litchi, longan, mango, melon, onion, passion fruit, peach, peanut, pepper, poplar, rose, sacara, soybean, strawberry, sweet potato, tea, tobacco, tomato, and wild yams (Dioscorea spp.). One or more S. dorsalis life stages occurs on all above-the-ground plant parts of its hosts, and causes scarring damage due to its feeding (Chang et al. 1995). The Florida Nurserymen and Growers Association considers S. dorsalis as one of the thirteen most dangerous exotic pest threats to the industry (FNGA 2003). Venette and Davis (2004) projected the potential geographic distribution of S. dorsalis in North America to extend from southern Florida to north of the Canadian boundary, as well as to Puerto Rico and the entire Caribbean region. This suggests that this pest could also become widely established in South America and Central America. S. dorsalis is a vector of various viral and bacterial diseases. It transmits bud necrosis disease and chlorotic fan spot virus of peanuts, and is a weak vector of tomato spotted wilt virus (TSWV) (Amin et al. 1981; Mound and Palmer 1981; Ananthakrishnan

1993).

An efficient detection method would be an important tool in developing successful management practices of S. dorsalis. Various methods have been employed by entomologists to determine the presence of S. dorsalis (Bagle 1993, Gowda et al.1979, Suwanbutr et al. 1992, Takagi 1978, Okada and Kudo 1982a, Saxena et al. 1996, and Tsuchiya et al. 1995). Recently, Chu et al. (2005) evaluated the effectiveness of a non-sticky trap illuminated with a light- emitting diode in capturing S. dorsalis and other thrips. The current study is as an aspect of a cooperative program with the ultimate goal of developing an effective management program against S. dorsalis. Specifically we studied effectiveness of various insecticides against S. dorsalis and their effects on a predator of this pest.


Four studies were conducted to determine effectiveness of various insecticides in controlling S. dorsalis on `Scotch Bonnet’ pepper on St. Vincent. Two studies (Studies 1 & 2) were conducted on Williams Farms, Georgetown, St. Vincent in October, 2004 (rainy season). Subsequently in March 2005 Study 3 was conducted on Williams Farms and Study 4 on Baptiste Farms. To conduct these studies, `Scotch Bonnet’ pepper was planted using standard cultural practices recommended for Saint Vincent. In Studies 1 & 2, insecticides were applied singly. In each study treatment plots consisted of a segment of a pepper row 456 cm long and 122 cm wide. Treatments in these studies were: 1) spinosad (511 ml ha ^-¹ ; Spintor ™ 2 SC, Dow AgroSciences, Indianapolis, IN 46268-1054; 2) imidacloprid (274 ml ha ^-¹ ; Provado ^® 1.6F; Bayer CropScience, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709); 3) chlorfenapyr (731 ml ha ^-¹ ; Alert 2F, BASF Corporation, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709); 4) novaluron (731 ml ha ^-¹ ; Diamond™ 0.83 SC; Crompton Crop Protection, Middlebury, CT 06749); 5) abamectin (731 ml ha ^-¹ ; Agrimek® 0.15EC; Syngenta Crop Production, Inc., Greensboro, NC 27419); 6) azadirachtin (511 ml ha ^-¹ ; Neemix® 4.5, Certis USA LLC, Columbia, MD 21046-1952); and 7) a nontreated control. In each study, treatments were arranged in a randomized complete block design with four replications. Treatments were applied using a backpack sprayer delivering 935 l ha ^-¹ at 206.8 kPa. Treatments were evaluated 24 h after each application by collecting at random 5 growing tips per plot, one tip per plant, each consisting of three young leaves. The samples were placed individually in a ziplock bag and taken to the laboratory for further study. Leaves were washed with 70% ethanol to separate thrips from leaves. Identifications of adult and larval thrips were

162

based on the morphology of adult and larval forms and their identities were confirmed with recent taxonomic keys (Mound and Kibby 1998). In 2005 on both farms pepper plants were grown in soil covered with plastic mulch and irrigated using drip tubes on as needed basis. All other cultural practices were as in previous studies. Treatments evaluated on Williams Farms were: 1) three rates of chlorfenapyr (438, 585, 731 ml ha ^-¹ , Pylon ^® 2F; BASF Corporation, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709); 2) spinosad

(511 ml ha ^-¹ ; Spintor ^T^M 2SC); 3) imidacloprid (274 ml ha ^-¹ ; Provado ^® 1.6F); 4) abamectin (731

ml ha ^-¹ ; Agrimek ^® 0.15EC); 5) spiromesifen (621 ml ha ^-¹ ; Oberon ^® 2 SC; Bayer CropScience,

Research Triangle Park, NC 27709); 6) cyfluthrin (274 ml ha ^-¹ ; Baythroid ^® 2, Bayer CropScience, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709); 8) methiocarb (1169 ml ha ^-¹ ; Mesurol ^® 75-W;

Gowan Company, Yuma, AZ 85366) and 9) a nontreated check. All other materials and procedures were as in the 2004 studies. In Baptiste Farms, in addition to all treatments used in Williams Farms, chlorfenapyr (731 ml ha ^-¹ ; Alert); and methiocarb (1169 ml ha ^-¹ ; Mesurol ^® 75-

W; Gowan Company) were evaluated.

Statistical Analysis. Data on the effectiveness of various insecticides were analyzed using software provided by Statistical Analysis System (release 6.03, SAS Institute Inc. Cary, NC; SAS Institute, 1988).General linear model procedures were used to perform the analysis of variance. Means were separated with Duncan Multiple Range Test (DMRT).


In the first study in 2004 all insecticides significantly reduced S. dorsalis adults (P > 0.05) 24 h after the first application when compared with the nontreated control (Table 1). First and second instar larvae were also significantly reduced by the various insecticide treatments (P < 0.05)). At 96 h after the first application, the mean numbers of adults were lower on chlorfenapyr (Alert) and imidacloprid (Provado ^® ) treated plants than on nontreated plants (P < 0.05) (Table 2). However the level of suppression by chlorfenapyr and imidacloprid did not differ significantly from that of novaluron and of abamectin. Chlorfenapyr significantly reduced first and second instars when compared with the nontreated control (P < 0.05). Mean numbers of second instar in other treatments were significantly fewer than in the nontreated control. Azadirachtin did not reduce S. dorsalis population in this study. In the second study in 2004 (Field 2), chlorofenapyr significantly reduced all development stages of S. dorsalis when compared with the nontreated control (Table 3). Significant fewer numbers of S. dorsalis development stages were recorded on plants treated with imidacloprid , spinosad and abamectin than on the nontreated control plants. The performance of novaluron and azadirachtin in controlling various development stages of S. dorsalis did not differ from nontreated control. In the third study conducted in March 2005 (rainy season), imidacloprid consistently reduced S. dorsalis adults and larvae when compared with the nontreated control (Table 4). Although inconsistent, chlorfenapyr (585 and 731 ml ha ^-¹ ), spinosad, and abamectin reduced S. dorsalis population after the second application. Spiromesifen and azadirachtin did not reduce S. dorsalis populations. In the fourth study (Table 5) conducted in March 2005 (rainy season), all formulations and rates of chlorofenapyr, spinosad and abamectin significantly reduced S. dorsalis adults and larvae in the two sampling dates (March 26 and 30). However spiromesifen, cyfluthrin and methiocarb did not reduce S. dorsalis adults and larvae. In conclusion chlorfenapyr was the most effective in reducing the densities of S. dorsalis adults and larvae followed by spinosad and imidacloprid. The performance of other insecticides

163

in controlling S. dorsalis populations was somewhat inconsistent. Nevertheless all of the above insecticides when applied repeatedly were effective in suppressing of S. dorsalis populations.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We are very grateful to the Plant Quarantine Division, Ministry of Agriculture, Industry and Labour, Kingstown, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines for the use of laboratory facilities, local transportation and arrangements with growers. This study could not have been accomplished without the facilitation and encouragement of Mr. Philmore Isaacs, Chief Agricultural Officer. Also we are grateful to Mr. Emil Williams and Mr. Lauron Baptiste for allowing us to conduct the studies on their farms. Financial resources and guidance were provided by the Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, USDA through the leadership of Dr. Daniel A. Fieselmann, National Science Program Leader and Ms. Carolyn T Cohen, Caribbean Area Director. In addition financial support was provided by the Florida Agricultural Experiment Station and the University of Florida’s Center for Tropical Agriculture.

REFERENCES

Amin, B. W. 1979. Leaf fall disease of chilly and pepper in Maharashtra, India. Pans, 25: 131-

134.

Amin, B. W. 1980. Techniques for handling thrips as vectors of Tomato Spotted Wilt Virus and Yellow Spot Virus of groundnut, Arachis hypogea L. Occasional Paper. Groundnut Entomology ICRISAT, 80(2): 1-20. Amin, P. W., Reddy, D. V. R., Ghanekar, A. M. 1981. Transmission of tomato spotted wilt virus, the causal agent of bud necrosis of peanut, by Scirtothrips dorsalis and Frankliniella schultzei. Plant Disease 65: 663-665. Ananthakrishnan, T. N. 1993. Bionomics of thrips. Annual Review of Entomology 38: 71-92. Bagle, B. G. 1993. Seasonal incidence and control of Scirtothrips dorsalis Hood in pomegranate. Indian Journal of Entomology 55: 148-153. CAB. 2003. Crop protection compendium: global module. CABI Publishing, Wallingford, UK. CABI/EPPO. 1997. Quarantine Pests for Europe, 2 ⁿ^d Ed. CABI Publishing, Wallingford, UK. Chang, N. T., Parkeker, B. L., Skinner, M., Lewis, T. 1995. Major pest thrips in Taiwan, pp. 105 – 108, Thrips biology and management: Proceedings of the 1993 International Conference on Thysanoptera. Plenum Press, New York. Chu, C.C., M. A. Ciomperlik, N.N Chang, M. Richards, and T. J. Henneberry. 2005. Developing and evaluating traps for monitoring Scirtothrips dorsalis (Hood). Florida Entomologist. (Submitted.) FNGA. (Florida Nurserymen &Growers Association). 2003. The unlucky 13. Report of the Major Nursery Pest & Disease Identification Task Force. Florida Nursery Growers, and Landscape Association, Orlando, Florida, USA. 1 p. Gowda, G., Ramada, E., Reddy, C. V. K. 1979. Scirtothrips dorsalis (Hood) (Thysanoptera; Terebrantia: Thripidae) a new pest on cashew (Anacardium occidentale L). Current Research 8: 116-117. Kodomari, S. 1978. Control of yellow tea thrips, Scirtothrips dorsalis Hood, in tea field at east region in Shizuoka Prefecture. Tea Research Journal, No. 48: 46-51.

Mound, L. A., Palmer, J. M. 1981. Identification, distribution and host plants of the pest species of Scirtothrips (Thysanoptera: Thripidae). Bulletin of Entomological Research 71: 467-

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Okada, T., and I. Kudo. 1982a. Relative abundance and phenology of Thysanoptera in a tea field. Japanese Journal of Applied Entomology and Zoology 26: 96- Ramakrishna Ayyar, TV. 1932. Bionomics of some thrips injurious to cultivated plants in South India, Agriculture and Livestock, India, Delhi, 391-403. Ramakrishna Ayyar, TV and Subbiah, MS. 1935. The leaf curl disease of chillies caused by thrips in the Guntur and Madura tracks. The Madras Agricultural Journal, 23: 403-410. Saxena, P., Vijayaraghavan, M. R., Sarbhoy, R. K., Raizada, U. 1996. Pollination and gene flow in chillies with Scirtothrips dorsalis as pollen vectors. Phytomorphology 46: 317-327. Seal, D. R. 2001. Seasonal abundance and distribution of Thrips palmi Karny (Thysanoptera:

Thripidae) in southern Florida. Proc. Fla. Hort. Soc. 114: 337-342. Seal, D. R., Stansly, P. A. 2000. Seasonal abundance and within plant distribution of melon thrips (Thysanoptera: Thripidae) on beans in southern Florida. Proc. Fla. Hort. Soc. 113:

201-205.

Seal, D. R., M. Ciomperlik, M. L. Richards and W. Klassen. 2005. Distribution of the Chilli thrips, Scirtothrips dorsalis Hood (Thysanoptera: Thripidae), within pepper plants and within pepper fields on St. Vincent. Florida Entomologist (submitted). Suwanbutr, S., Tongklad, C., Uhnchit, W., Thayamanon, P., Witthayarug, W. Khewpoompung, P. 1992. A field trial on the efficacy of some insecticides for controlling thrips attacking pummelo. Proceedings of the International Symposium on Tropical Fruit: Frontier in Tropical Fruit Research. Pattaya City, Thailand, 20-24 May 1991. Acta Horticulturae 321: 876-881. Takagi, K. 1978. Trap for monitoring adult parasites of the tea pest. Japanese Agricultural Research Quarterly 12: 99-103. Tsuchiya, M., Masui, S. Kuboyama, N. 1995. Color attraction of yellow tea thrips (Scirtothrips dorsalis Hood). Japanese Journal of Applied Entomology and Zoology 39: 299-303. Venette, R.C., Davis, E. E.2004. Chilli thrips/yellow thrips, Scirtothrips dorsalis Hood (Thysanoptera: Thripidae) Mini Pest Risk Assessment. Univ. of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN, USA. 31 pp.

165

Table 1. Mean numbers of S. dorsalis on pepper treated once with various insecticides in Field 1 of Williams Farms at 24 h after application in October, 2004.

Mean numbers of S. dorsalis

Treatments

Rate ml ha ^-¹

Adults

1 ^s^t Instar

2 ⁿ^d Instar

Spinosad

511

0.50bc

0.00b

0.50b

Imidacloprid

274

1.50bc

0.25b

0.25b

Chlorfenapyr (Alert)

731

0.00c

0.25b

0.50b

Novaluron

731

2.50b

0.00b

1.00b

Abamectin

731

1.50bc

0.00b

0.25b

Azadirachtin

511

2.50b

0.50b

1.75b

Control

6.25a

3.75a

6.00a

Means within a column followed by the same letter do not differ significantly (P > 0.05; DMRT).

Table 2. Mean numbers of S. dorsalis on pepper treated once with various insecticides in Field 1 of Williams Farms at 96 h after application in October, 2004.


Treatments

Rate ml ha ^-¹

Adults

1 ^s^t Instar

2 ⁿ^d Instar

Spinosad

511

3.75ab

8.50b

2.00b

Imidacloprid

274

0.50c

16.00ab

1.50b


731

0.25c

0.00c

0.00b

Novaluron

731

1.50a-c

27.50ab

3.75b

Abamectin

731

1.25bc

25.50ab

2.25b

Azadirachtin

511

5.25a

43.75a

10.75b

Control

4.50a

22.75ab

21.00a


166

Table 3.

Mean numbers of S. dorsalis on pepper treated with various insecticides in Field 2 of Williams Farms at 24 h after the 1st application in October, 2004.

Mean numbers of S. dorsalis larvae

Treatments

Rate ml ha ^-¹

Adults

Small larvae

Large larvae

Total larvae

Spinosad

511

2.00ab

5.00c-e

0.50bc

5.50bc

Imidacloprid

274

4.50a

0.50de

2.50bc

3.00bc


731

0.25b

0.00e

0.00c

0.00c

Novaluron

731

1.50ab

27.50ab

3.75a-c

31.25a-c

Abamectin

731

1.25b

25.50a-c

2.25bc

27.75bc

Azadirachtin

511

5.25a

43.75a

10.75a

54.50a

Control

4.50a

7.75b-d

5.00ab

12.75ab


Table 4. Mean numbers of S. dorsalis adults and larvae on pepper treated with various insecticides on Williams Farms in March 2005 at 24 h after each of two applications separated by 4 days.


Adults

Larvae

Treatments

Rate ml ha ^-¹

March 24

March 29

March 24

March 29

Chlorfenapyr (Pylon ^® 2F)

731

1.00bc

1.33b

4.33a

0.00b


585

0.67bc

4.33ab

1.67ab

6.00ab


438

1.67ab

2.00ab

2.00ab

0.00b

Spinosad

511

0.00c

0.33b

0.67ab

0.33b

Imidacloprid

274

0.00c

1.33b

0.00b

0.00b

Abamectin

731

0.67bc

2.00ab

0.67ab

0.67b

Spiromesifen

621

1.67ab

8.33a

3.00ab

10.33a

Cyfluthrin

205

1.67ab

7.33a

1.67ab

6.00ab

Control

3.00a

7.67a

3.33ab

6.00ab


167

Table 5.

Mean numbers of S. dorsalis on pepper treated with various insecticides on Baptiste Farms in March 2005at 24 h after each of two applications separated by 4 days.


Adults

Larvae

Treatments

Rate ml ha ^-¹

March 26

March 30

March 26

March 30


731

2.00bc

0.25bc

1.00e

0.50d


585

2.75bc

0.25bc

11.25b-d

4.50cd


438

3.75b

0.75bc

7.00d

10.00bc


731

0.00d

0.00c

0.00e

0.50d

Spinosad

511

0.75cd

0.75bc

1.00e

0.50d

Imidacloprid

274

0.50cd

0.50bc

0.25e

0.75d

Abamectin

731

2.25bc

2.00b

8.00cd

0.75d

Spiromesifen

621

10.00a

10.75a

30.50a

17.25ab

Cyfluthrin

205

11.75a

11.75a

19.00b

20.00a

Methiocarb

1169

12.00a

8.75a

11.25bc

14.25ab

Control

10.50a

8.50a

17.75b

13.00ab


168

Table 6.

Mean numbers of Cryptolaimus sp. on pepper before and after treatment with various insecticides on Williams Farms in March 2005.

Mean numbers of Cryptolaimus sp.

Before spraying

After spraying

Treatments

Rate ml ha ^-¹

Live

Live

Dead


731

0.87

0.37 c-e

0.10c


585

0.77

0.50b-d

0.03c


438

0.57

0.67a-c

0.07c

Spinosad

511

0.63

0.77ab

0.07c

Imidacloprid

274

0.90

0.03e

4.73a

Abamectin

731

0.57

0.57a-c

0.20c

Spiromesifen

621

0.83

0.13de

0.33c

Cyfluthrin

205

0.73

0.10e

0.90b

Control

1.00

1.00a

0.03c


169


REPORT ON THE CURRENT STATUS OF INTRODUCED SPECIES OF ACHATINIDAE AND OTHER ECONOMICALLY SNAIL AND SLUG PESTS IN THE EASTERN CARIBBEAN.

David G. Robinson ¹ & H. Angela Fields ² . ¹ USDA APHIS PPQ / Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, PA 19103, USA, robinson@ansp.org; ² Department of Biological & Chemical Sciences, University of the West Indies, Cave Hill, Barbados;

ABSTRACT: The introduction of three species of the Achatinidae, Achatina fulica Bowdich 1822, Archachatina marginata (Swainson 1821) and Limicolaria aurora (Jay 1839) into the Eastern Caribbean is documented. The giant African snail, Achatina fulica, was deliberately introduced to Guadeloupe circa 1984. From Guadeloupe the snail was spread to Martinique by 1988 and to Saint Martin and Marie-Galante in 1995. Populations in both Guadeloupe and Martinique peaked in the 1990’s and subsequently have fallen to relatively stable levels. Prior to 2000, A. fulica was introduced into Saint Lucia and from there to Barbados in early 2000. On both these islands, populations of the species are increasing exponentially and spreading across the islands, despite the efforts of the local ministries of agriculture. Archachatina marginata was introduced from Benin to the Saint Joseph area in Martinique in 1987, but the species has not been found since; surveys in early 2005 did not detect its presence. Limicolaria aurora was introduced into Martinique in 1988, and is slowly extending its distribution through central Martinique, in some areas replacing populations of A. fulica. The current status and distribution of three pest veronicellid slugs, Veronicella sloanei (Cuvier 1817), Veronicella cubensis (Pfeiffer 1840) and Sarasinula plebeia (Fischer 1868) is also documented, together with that of three other pest snails, Zachrysia provisoria (Pfeiffer 1858), Bradybaena similaris (Rang 1831) and Amphibulima patula dominicensis Pilsbry 1899. Their potential impact on agriculture and the environment in the Eastern Caribbean is discussed.

KEY WORDS: Giant African snail, veronicellid slugs, impact on agriculture

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MITIGATING THE POTENTIAL IMPACTS AND THREATS OF THE CACTUS MOTH, CACTOBLASTIS CACTORUM (LEPIDOPTERA: PYRALIDAE), TO NATIVE AND CULTIVATED CACTUS IN THE CARIBBEAN AND MEXICO

Mayra Perez Sandi ¹ Cuen and Helmuth ² G. Zimmermann. ¹ 20 de Agosto 53/15 San Diego Churubusco, Coyoacan 04120 Mexico D.F., rayma@mx.inter.net and ² Helmuth Zimmermann and Associates. Pretoria South Africa, helmuthzim@netactive.co.za .

ABSTRACT: The cactus moth, Cactoblastis cactorum has become the textbook example of successful biological weed control of invasive Opuntia species in many countries, including some Caribbean islands. However it has now turned, and is now threatening not only the

lucrative cactus pear industry in Mexico, but also the rich diversity of all Opuntia species in most of the North America mainland. The moth is now present on most Caribbean islands as a consequence of either deliberate or accidental introductions by man or by means of natural spread. Although there is convincing evidence that Cactoblastis reached Florida through the nursery trade, there also exists the possibility of natural spread by means of cyclonic weather patterns. The different pathways that could result in the arrival of the moth in Mexico are analyzed. With few exceptions, little is known of the impacts of the cactus moth on the native Opuntia species in the Caribbean. The main target species, namely Opuntia triacantha and O. dillenii have become very scarce and may now need protection status. The long-term impact on non-target species is unknown but some species may have been drastically affected. Recently regional and international efforts have been launched to prevent the further spread of Cactoblastis to the species rich native Opuntiae flora of the southern United States and of Mexico. These include an intensive monitoring program of resident populations at the leading edge near the Florida/Alabama borders and monitoring of large cultivated plantations in Mexico, which are focal points for possible early invasions. An awareness campaign that sensitizes farmers and government officials to the insect and its damage is aimed at interception and early detection to allow eradication in the event of establishment in Mexico. Research also is underway in Florida to develop an SIT (Sterile Insect Technique) program to halt the westward spread of the moth and to create a biological barrier. The involvement and co-operation of plant health and quarantine personnel in these Caribbean islands has become crucial in the campaign

to keep Cactoblastis out of Mexico.

KEY WORDS: endangered species, awareness campaign, early detection, quarantine, eradication, trade, cyclonic weather patterns, pathways of invasion

RÉSUMÉ. Le papillon de nuit du cactus, Cactoblastis cactorum qui est devenu l'exemple du manuel scolaire de contrôle de la mauvaise herbe biologique d'espèce prospère Opuntia envahissante dans plusieurs pays, y compris dans quelques îles antillaises, a maintenant apparu,

et n’est maintenant pas seulement une menace à l'industrie de la poire du cactus lucrative au

Mexique, mais aussi à la diversité riche de toute l'espèce Opuntia dans la plupart des terres d'Amérique du nord. Le papillon de nuit est maintenant présent sur la plupart des îles antillaises par suite d'introductions soit délibérées soit accidentelles par homme ou par les moyens de distribution naturelle. Bien qu'il y ait l'évidence persuasive que Cactoblastis a atteint la Floride à

171

travers le commerce de la crèche, là aussi existe la possibilité d'étendue naturelle au moyen de modèles du temps cycloniques. Avec peu d'exceptions, on connaît très peu sur des impacts du papillon de nuit du cactus sur l'espèce Opuntia autochtone et cultivé dans les Caraïbes. Les efforts régionaux et internationaux ont été lancés récemment pour prévenir l'étendue supplémentaire de Cactoblastis aux diversités riches d'Opuntiae autochtones du Mexique et de tous les états du sud des États-Unis. Ceux-ci incluent un programme d'écoute intensif de populations résidantes à la pointe près du Florida/Alabama encadre et diriger de grandes plantations cultivées au Mexique qui est des points focaux pour les premières invasions possibles. Une campagne de la conscience qui sensibilise des fermiers et des fonctionnaires du gouvernement sur l'insecte et ses dégâts est visée sur l’interception et la découverte à temps pour autoriser l'éradication dans l'événement d'établissement au Mexique. La recherche va bientôt être en chemin en Floride pour développer un TIS (Technique d’Insecte Stérile) pour faite arrêter l'étendue vers l'ouest, et avec optimisme, pour la pointe à l'est et pour limiter des populations dans la péninsule de la Floride. Cette étendue vers d’évaluer les risques et étudier les voies d'invasion de certaines îles antillaises vers les terres mexicaines. La participation et coopération du personnel phytosanitaire dans ces îles antillaises sont devenues cruciales dans la campagne pour laisser Cactoblastis hors du Mexique.

RESUMEN. La palomilla del nopal, Cactoblastis cactorum, que en cierto momento en los libros de texto se convirtió en el exitoso ejemplo de control biológico de maleza para combatir las especies de Opuntia invasoras en muchos países, incluyendo algunas islas del Caribe, en la actualidad se ha convertido en una amenaza no sólo para la lucrativa industria del nopal de México, sino también para la rica diversidad de especies de Opuntia en la mayor parte de Norte América. Actualmente, la palomilla está presente en la mayoría de las islas caribeñas como consecuencia tanto de la introducción accidental o deliberada por parte del hombre como por medios de propagación naturales. A pesar de que existe evidencia convincente de que el Cactoblastis llegó a la Florida como consecuencia del comercio de plantas de vivero, también existe la posibilidad de la propagación natural inducida por los eventos meteorológicos como los ciclones. Salvo algunas excepciones, se desconoce el daño que la palomilla del nopal causa en las especies de Opuntia nativas y cultivadas en el Caribe. Recientemente, se han iniciado

acciones regionales e internacionales para prevenir la propagación del Cactoblastis hacia la rica diversidad de las Opuntia nativas de México y de los estados del sur de Estados Unidos. Estas acciones incluyen un programa de vigilancia intensiva y permanente de las poblaciones de Opuntia cercanas al límite que separa a los estados de Florida y Alabama donde se encuentra el Cactoblastis, así como la vigilancia de enormes plantaciones en México que son los puntos focalizados de una posible invasión. Una campaña para que los productores y las autoridades gubernamentales tomen conciencia de la gravedad del problema y sus consecuencias negativas con el objeto de interceptar y detectar tempranamente esta plaga de manera que sea posible su erradicación en caso de que llegue a México. En la Florida está en marcha una investigación para

el

desarrollo de la TIE (Técnica del Insecto Estéril) para detener la propagación del insecto hacia

el

oeste y, contenerla en la península de la Florida. Es igualmente importante evaluar los riesgos

y

estudiar las vías de invasión desde algunas islas caribeñas hacia el territorio mexicano. La

participación y cooperación del personal fitosanitario de estas islas del Caribe han sido cruciales en la campaña para mantener al Cactoblastis fuera de México.

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INTRODUCTION

The cactus moth, Cactoblastis cactorum (Berg) (Pyralidae) was effectively used as a biological control agent of invasive Opuntiae species in Australia, South Africa and other countries worldwide (Moran and Zimmermann 1984). These successes were the main reasons that lead to subsequent introductions of the cactus moth to the Caribbean in 1957 for the biological control of native invasive Opuntia species in Nevis, Antigua, Montserrat and the Cayman Islands (Simmonds and Bennett 1966). These projects were highly successful and heavily invaded areas were converted to productive pastures. Subsequently the cactus moth also was introduced to other islands, or it has spread naturally on its own (Zimmermann et al. 1999; Zimmermann et al. 2001). It is now widespread in the Caribbean and occurs also in Cuba, Haiti, Dominican Republic, Puerto Rico, Jamaica, Guadeloupe, Virgin Islands, Granada, Dominica and St. Kitts. The cactus moth is still present on all these islands that were originally targeted for biological control despite the fact that the target host weeds, Opuntia dillenii Haw and O. triacantha (Willdenow), have become scarce. C. cactorum also feeds on other non-target Opuntia species and on some related Consolea species and some of these are severely affected by the insect, e.g. Consolea (Opuntia) rubescens Lem., C. (Opuntia) spinosissima (Mill.) Lemaire, O. taylori Britton & Rose, O. tuna (Linnaeus) P. Miller, O. jamaicensis Britton and O. sanguinea Proctor. The cactus moth was first detected in Florida in 1989 (Habeck and Bennett 1990) and has since spread northward and north-westward, crossing the border to Alabama in 2005 (Bloem et al. 2005 (in press); Hight et al. 2002). All six native Opuntia spp. in Florida are attacked and the existence of at least one species has been compromised by the insect (Stiling 2002). The drastic impact of the insect on invasive and non- invasive Opuntia spp. is an indication of what can be expected should the insect reach Mexico. This is an account of the impact of C. cactorum on the Opuntia spp. in the Caribbean, its threat to Mexico and possible action needed to prevent its further spread. The taxonomy of the genus Opuntia in the Caribbean is problematic. In this account the dominant species in the Caribbean, namely, O. dillenii is recognized as an independent species following the descriptions by Anderson (2001), Howard and Touw (1982) and Hunt (1999), and supported by own observations. Also, the genera Consolea and Nopalea are recognized. The former are a unique group of tree-like opuntiae endemic to mainly the Caribbean and Florida.

THE EFFECT OF CACTOBLASTIS CACTORUM ON OPUNTIAE IN THE CARIBBEAN

Cactus pear is not commercially cultivated in the Caribbean. The only species that is utilized to some extent is Nopalea (Opuntia) cochenillifera (L.) Salm-Dyck which is an exotic species of Central American origin. This species is widely grown as an ornamental in gardens throughout the Caribbean. Young leaf pads of this species also are used in various dishes in some islands e.g. Antigua. At least two Opuntia species have become problematic as invaders in many islands, namely O. triacantha and O. dillenii. Their sudden increase could be attributed to their wide use as live fences and for the protection of fortresses during early colonial times. This went on for many years and the rapid spread was compounded further by large scale deforestation and overgrazing (Howard and Touw 1982). Simmonds and Bennett (1966) described large scale invasions by these two species, impeding access and utilization of the land for grazing. The spines, which become embedded in the flesh causing festering, caused serious injuries to livestock. Also Bennett and Habeck (1995) mention serious invasions on St. Kitts, Nevis, Antigua and Montserrat. Blanco and Vazquez (2001) mention that in Santiago de Cuba and Guantanamo 31,240 ha were invaded of which 23,060 ha had a cover of 25% and 534 ha were fully covered by O. dillenii. The remaining species (less than 30) are less common or scarce, and

173

some are even endangered. The genera, Consolea and Nopalea, previously classified in the genus Opuntia, are unique to the Caribbean and each deserves a special status. The impact of the cactus moth after 30 to 40 years in the Caribbean has never been determined. Only the initial result after its release on invasive Opuntia spp. was recorded as highly effective (Simmonds and Bennett 1966; Julien and Griffiths 1999), i.e., to the extent that the target species became scarce. This was confirmed during a survey by the authors in 2005. The outcome of the biological program on the islands targeted for control is still highly praised by all farmers and agricultural officers interviewed during this recent survey. Very few plants of the once abundant O. triacantha and O. dillenii remain on Grand Cayman, Montserrat, St. Kitts and Antigua, and despite these low numbers the cactus moth is still present. One reason is that it is able to develop on alternative as well as on less suitable hosts which include N. cochenillifera, Consolea rubescens, C. spinosissima O. tuna, O. jamaicensis, O. taylori and Cylindropuntia caribaea and probably others. The large and leathery cladodes of C. rubescens and C. spinosissima are unsuitable for the development of young neonate larva but the small seedlings and young regrowth underneath the large trees are highly susceptible to larval attack. The recruitment of C. rubescens and C. spinosissima is thus drastically curtailed which must have severe implications for the long-term survival of these species. It is not known what the impact of the cactus moth is on the other tree-like species in the rare genus Consolea. The long-term impact of C. cactorum on O. stricta (a closely related and similar species to O. dillenii) has been well documented in the Kruger National Park in South Africa (Hoffmann et al 1998). Large mature flowering and fruiting plants usually collapse and the scattered isolated cladodes root and form many small plants that need up to three or more years to flower. The cactus moth by continuous attacks usually prevents these plants from reaching the flowering stage. The same was observed in Florida and is probably also true for the Caribbean. This could have severe consequences for the long-term survival of O. dillenii and O. triacantha in the Caribbean. Observations on the impact of the cactus moth in the Caribbean also indicate clear host preferences within the genera Opuntia and Consolea species and that not all species are suitable hosts. Infected cladodes of N. cochenillifera are common and approximately 20% of the plants examined in more than 17 islands were infested. This has little impact on the mature plants as it quickly outgrows the damage caused by the feeding larvae. C. cactorum is unable to feed on the woody stems and the damage remains confined to the succulent terminal cladodes. Indeed most people are unaware of the damage caused by C. cactorum on their garden plants. The smaller Opuntia species are most severely affected, and these include O. triacantha, O. repens and O. taylori and possibly others. Further studies are needed to evaluate the risk of the cactus moth to the long-term survival of these species. Some rare species are particularly threatened by C. cactorum. Anecdotal evidence describes the drastic decline of the rare O. sanguinea in Jamaica which was caused by the heavy feeding of an unknown insect, presumably C. cactorum (Oberli, pers. com.). Some species mentioned in the cactus literature have not recently been found and the cause of this could be either linked to Cactoblastis damage, by habitat destruction or to the taxonomic confusion within the Opuntia species complex in the Caribbean countries. Much can be learned from the host-preferences and the impact of this insect on the native opuntiae in the Caribbean and this information can be extrapolated to give some idea on what to expect should it invade Mexico and the southern USA.

174

THE IMPORTANCE OF CACTUS PEAR TO MEXICO

The first awareness campaign informing the public on the risk of C. cactorum reaching Mexico was one of the subjects of a presentation “A New Insect Pest on Opuntiae Lying in Wait for Mexico” presented during the VIII National Congress and the VI International on knowledge and exploitation of prickly pear by the authors in September, 1999. The highest diversity of species in the genus Opuntia is found in Mexico. In total 55 of the 83 Opuntia species recorded for Mexico, or 66%, are endemic. Many of these species are widely utilized by rural people and prickly pear cactus is deeply entrenched in the culture of the Mexican nation. Its national emblem, the flag, depicts an eagle perching on a cactus pear with a snake in its beak, based on a legend dating from the time when the ancient city of Tenochtitlan, now Mexico City, was founded. The site of the capital city's founding, which equates to the foundation of Mexican society, was marked by the first human sacrifice performed in the Valley of Mexico. The emblematic nopal germinated from the first heart torn from an enemy's breast, not that of an outsider, but Huitzilopochtli's own nephew. The divine sacrifice was sublimated in the form of this plant. In a carving of the Teocalli de la Guerra Sagrada, the monument commemorating the founding of Tenochtitlan, the nopal is seen sprouting from Cópil's heart turned to stone, which rises out of the lake. In its claw the eagle is clutching neither snake nor bird, but nochtli (tuna), and flowing from its beak atl tlachinolli (burnt water) -the name for war in its sacrificial dimension. The emblematic prickly-pear tree bore firm red fruits which were the hearts of the sacrificed victims. Fray Diego Duran called it the "tree of human hearts" (Dufétel

2002).

Cactus pear is widely used as a source for fodder, fruit, green vegetable and many byproducts are made from this valuable resource including shampoos, soaps, lotions, preserves and medicines. There are more than 20,500 growers that cultivate cactus pear in Mexico. Areas under cultivation include more than 150,000 ha for the exclusive use of cactus pear as fodder, 60,000 ha are cultivated for fruit production and about 10,500 ha are under intensive cultivation for the production of young leaf pads (nopalitos) for human consumption as a green vegetable. The wild growing prickly pears cover more than 3,000,000 ha and these are used mainly by the indigenous people in various ways. The spineless cactus pear, O. ficus-indica (L.) Miller, is the most common species cultivated in Mexico and this species has many cultivars, each one with unique characteristics. Prickly pear and its many products is very much part of the everyday diet of the Mexican people. Of equal importance are the many native wild growing species that are crucial in maintaining ecological function in the various cactus-rich biomes of Mexico. There is no other country where cactus pear plays such an important role in the economy and in the culture of a nation. If the impact of the cactus moth on invading Opuntia species in other countries is a reliable indicator, then the effect in Mexico could be disastrous. Studies on climatic matching have indicated that C. cactorum is very likely to establish successfully in all cultivated and wild Opuntia populations in Mexico (Soberon et al. 2001).

POSSIBLE PATHWAYS OF INTRODUCTION OF CACTOBLASTIS CACTORUM INTO MEXICO

The possible pathways of invasion of C. cactorum from the Caribbean to Mexico could be the following:

Natural dispersal and climatic events including tropical storms, trade winds and

hurricanes.

Trade and commerce.

175

Tourism.

Research.

Natural Dispersal. It has been suggested that climatic events and hurricanes could have played a role in the long-distance dispersal of the cactus moth to Florida and along the Florida coast (Johnson and Stiling 1998). Zimmermann et al. 2001 are of the opinion that the behaviour of the adult moth does not support such a theory and they placed more emphasis on long-term dispersal through human activities and interventions. C. cactorum has not been able to disperse naturally to some off-shore islands in the Caribbean, e.g. to Cayman Brac from Grand Cayman, which is part of the Cayman group of islands. The closest point from the Caribbean to Yucatan in Mexico is the Pinar del Rio region in Cuba. Fortunately C. cactorum is still absent from this region (Blanco et al 2004), and the likelihood of natural dispersal over the Yucatan channel remains, for the time being, small. A detailed study of the dispersal of the cactus moth throughout the Caribbean could reveal important information on the most likely pathway for introduction to Mexico. Trade and Commerce as a Pathway. Pemberton (1995) provides evidence of 17 interceptions based on samples of cactus nursery plants infested with Cactoblastis to Miami that have originated from a nursery in the Dominican Republic between 1981 and 1993. Consignments destined for the United States for 1986 alone amounted to more than 350 000 plant specimens in 108 shipments. The chances for the moth to have reached Miami undetected during this period must have been high. A recent visit to this nursery in the Dominican Republic revealed three Opuntia species that are cultivated there for export, namely, Opuntia pilifera F.A.C.Weber, O. leucotricha DC and N. cochenillifera. O. pilifera plants were heavily infested with Cactoblastis larvae while the other two species were less affected. This nursery also exports cactus ornamentals to Europe. Specimens of O. pilifera were found in a nursery in Grand Cayman which originated from the nursery in the Dominican Republic via a wholesaler in Miami. Both the management of the nursery as well as the plant health inspectors in the Dominican Republic are now imposing strict screening procedures to prevent any further exportation of contaminated plants from this source. Except for the above case, very few or no cactus nursery plants or plant products are exported from the Caribbean to the USA or Europe, and even less so to Mexico. The chances are very small that larvae or pupae of C. cactorum could reach Cactoblastis-free countries in containers or package material unless the containers have been in the close proximity of infested cactus plants. The almost total lack of trade with Mexico minimized the risk of introduction by means of this pathway. Tourism as a Pathway. Nopalea cochenillifera is a popular garden plant with several uses and it is feasible that friends, family members and tourists could transport cladodes between countries. This is the likely pathway which contributed to the very wide distribution of this alien species in the Caribbean. There is, however, very limited tourism between Mexico and the Caribbean and the only direct flights between the Caribbean and Mexico are via Cuba. Effective inspection procedures in Cuba and in Mexico could reduce the risk of introduction of infested cladodes via this pathway to almost zero. Research as a pathway. Research on the Cactaceae of Central America and the Caribbean will necessitate the exchange of plant material between counties. Botanical gardens usually have exchange programs in place and authorities issuing permits often rely on the scientific integrity of the researchers involved to prevent the introduction of unwanted plants, plant products or contaminants. Strict control by well trained plant health officers is nevertheless required to prevent any such unwanted introductions through the exchange of botanical specimens

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earmarked for research because even scientists might be unaware of infested material and the threat of Cactoblastis. The Cactoblastis populations in the Caribbean are considerably smaller compared to thirty years ago because of drastically diminishing host plants. This reduces the overall chances for dispersal by any means.

CONTROL METHODS

Several methods are being considered for the control of C. cactorum in Florida or in the event of its naturalization in Mexico. Considerable effort is focused on developing the Insect

Sterile Technique (SIT) for the control or eradication of Cactoblastis (Carpenter et al. 2001). All requirements for the implementation of the SIT have been met and the testing of the synthetic pheromone is in its final stages (Bloem et al. 2003). An attempt will be made to establish an insect-free barrier along the leading edge of invasion at the border between Florida and Alabama.

A memorandum of understanding between Mexico and the USA has been signed that would

provide joint funding of over US $1million for a broader bi-national implementation program to

stop the spread of the insect in the USA. Testing of new generation insecticides for the chemical control of the cactus moth also is

in progress as a rapid response approach in the case of its detection in Mexico or elsewhere

(Bloem et al. 2005 (in press)). Other control methods for the cactus moth in commercial cactus pear plantations in South Africa include orchard sanitation, as well as chemical and mechanical controls (Zimmermann et al 2004).

PREVENTION

Considerable funds have been allocated for a campaign to prevent the introduction of C. cactorum into Mexico. Emphasis is being placed on permanent monitoring and sampling procedures in cultivations that are most likely to receive the cactus moth in Mexico. More than 7,500 sample points have been monitored in Mexico covering more that 18,000 ha. Early detection is of crucial importance in preventing establishment of the moth beyond the point where eradication is possible. Effective sampling of Cactoblastis populations in Florida keeps track of the westward and northward spread of the insect. New legislation and regulations in Mexico and the USA have been promulgated that prohibit certain activities, e.g. the import or movement of cactus plant material from countries or states with Cactoblastis to yet unaffected areas.

AWARENESS AND TRAINING

Several workshops and meetings have been held to discuss strategies, research, prevention and control programs (Mahr et al. 2001). Special training programs are in place to

educate plant health, quarantine and custom officials to identify Cactoblastis damage and to learn more about its biology. Mexican officials were trained in Florida and in South Africa on all aspects pertaining to the biology, identification and control of the insect. Many pamphlets, brochures, posters, and books have been published and many radio interviews and programs on the subject have been broadcast as part of the general awareness campaign, mainly in Mexico. A comprehensive review on C. cactorum was recently published

by the IAEA and FAO (Zimmermann et al. 2004). Awareness programs aimed at children have

been introduced at school level and more than 20 newspaper articles on the threat of Cactoblastis

to Mexico have been published in local newspapers since 2003. There are several websites where

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up-to-date information on the latest developments regarding the spread of Cactoblastis and

research

www.aphis.usda.gov/ppq/ep/emerging_pests/cactoblastis/whitepaper.pdf

found, e.g. in www.cactoblastis.org and

progress

can

be

RESEARCH

Building on an ongoing USDA program on SIT for lepidopterans and specifically on a SIT project on Cactoblastis initiated in 2000 by Carpenter et al. (2001), the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) instituted a research program on Cactoblastis in 2002 which involved the first studies on evaluating the SIT as a possible control method against this species, and which included mass-rearing methods, radiation levels and trapping methods (Bloem et al 2005; Bloem et al 2003; Carpenter et al 2001; Hight et al 2005). Further funding was directed at identifying new insecticides for control and research on Cactoblastis in its natural habitat in Argentina. Considerable funds have recently been released for a joint Mexico/USA initiative aimed primarily in perfecting the SIT control method. The Caribbean countries can provide valuable information on long-term impact studies of Cactoblastis on Opuntia populations, on observations regarding the dispersal of the insect, and host preferences within the more than 30 Opuntia spp. native to this region. Research on the biology and host-preferences of key natural enemies in Argentina also is underway. Several Caribbean countries with a rich and endangered Opuntia flora may wish to control C. cactorum to reduce the threat to rare and endangered species. In this context Jamaica and Puerto Rico may qualify for control programs against Cactoblastis which may include biological control. Although this option is not favored for use in the USA because of possible non-target effects of introduced parasitoids, this may not apply to Caribbean islands which have a depauperate cactophagous Lepidopteran fauna, and any potential non-target effects are unlikely to have any effect on the environment. There are promising and relatively host-specific parasitoids available from Argentina (Pemberton and Cordo 2001). Research in biological control in the Caribbean may provide important information on the feasibility of using this method on the American mainland. The risk of possible non-target effects must be weighed against the risk of Cactoblastis damage.

CONCLUSIONS

Preventing the introduction or further spread of the cactus moth, C. cactorum, into Mexico and the USA is a joint effort of all the countries affected or threatened by the insect. Caribbean countries can provide much needed information that could assist Mexico in its efforts to prevent the introduction of C. cactorum. For example, the SIT can be best evaluated in small islands with a known Cactoblastis population. Information on the dispersal within the Caribbean and host-preferences of the cactus moth may indicate the chances of natural vs. deliberate introductions and on the expected impact on the native Opuntia populations in Mexico and the USA. Also, the potential of classical biological control of Cactoblastis can best be tested on some Caribbean islands whose governments desire to have their Cactoblastis populations controlled or even eradicated. Any quantitative data on the abundance of existing natural populations of Cactoblastis near Pina del Rio in Cuba can be used to calculate the risks of natural dispersal to the Yucatan region. Information on Cactoblastis impacts obtained elsewhere can also be used to predict the survival of some Opuntia spp. in the Caribbean that are most affected by the moth. The status of these scarce and threatened species also need to be evaluated as it may even become necessary to introduce special efforts to prevent the extinction of some of these species. Recent observations from the Caribbean indicate that the impact of the cactus

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moth on cultivated and native Opuntia spp. in Mexico, and on the cactus-rich biomes of the southern USA could be severe.

REFERENCES

Anderson, E.F. 2001. The Cactus Family. Timber Press, Portland, Oregon. Bennett, F.D. and D.H. Habeck. 1995. Cactoblastis cactorum: A successful weed control agent in the Caribbean, now a pest in Florida? Proceedings of the VIIIth International Symposium on Biological Control of Weeds, Canterbury, New Zealand, 21-26. Blanco, E. and L. L. Vazquez, 2001. Analisis de los riesgos fitosanitarios asociados al uso de cactoblastis cactorum (Berg.) (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae: Phycitinae) como agente de control biologico de Opuntia dillenii (Cactaceae) en Cuba. Fotosanidad 5 (1):63-73. Blanco, E., L. L. Vazquez and E. Perez. 2004. Presencia de Cactoblastis cactorum (Berg) y riesgos para la flora de cactaceas en Cuba. VIII Congreso Internacional sobre Conocimiento y Aprovechamiento de Nopal y otras Cactaceas de Valor Economico. Universidad Autonoma de Chapingo. Mexico. 2-7 Agosto 2004. Bloem, S, R. F. Mizell, K.A. Bloem, S. D. Height and J. E. Carpenter. 2005. New insecticides for control of the invasive cactus moth, Cactoblastis cactorum (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) in Florida. Florida Entomologist (In Press).

Bloem, S., J. E. Carpenter and K. A. Bloem. 2003. Performance of sterile Cactoblastis cactorum (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) females in luring males to traps. Florida Entomologist 86: 395-

399.

Carpenter, J.E., K.A. Bloem and S. Bloem. 2001. Application of F1 sterility for research and management of Cactoblastis cactorum (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae). Florida Entomologist 84: 531-536. Dufétel, D.2002. Mística de tunas antiguas. El Nopal. Artes de México, No. 59: 52-57. Habeck, D.H. and F.D. Bennett. 1990. Cactoblastis cactorum Berg (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) a phycitine new to Florida. Entomology Circular 333, 4pp. Hoffmann, J. H., V. C. Moran and D. A. Zeller. 1998. Evaluation of Cactoblastis cactorum (Lepidoptera: Phycitidae) as a biological control agent of Opuntia stricta (Cactaceae) in the Kruger National Park, South Africa. Biological Control 12:20-24. Howard, R. A. and M. Touw. 1982. Opuntia species in the Lesser Antilles. Cactus & Succulent Journal (U.S.) 54:170-179. Hight, S. D., J. E. Carpenter. S. Bloem and K. A. Bloem. 2005. Developing a sterile insect release program for Cactoblastis cactorum Berg (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae): effective overflooding ratios and release-recapture field studies. Environmental Entomology (In Press). Hight, S. D., J. E. Carpenter, K. A. Bloem, S. Bloem, R. W. Pemberton and P. Stiling, 2002. Expanding geographical range of Cactoblastis cactorum (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) in North America. Florida Entomologist 85:527-529. Hunt, D.R. 1999. (compiler) Cactaceae Checklist. Second Edition. Kew Royal Botanical Gardens. Johnson, D.M. and P. D. Stiling. 1998. Distribution and dispersal of Cactoblastis cactorum (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae), an exotic Opuntia- feeding moth, in Florida. Florida Entomologist 81: 12-22 Julien, M. H. and M. W. Griffiths (eds.). 1998. Biological control of weeds. A world catalogue of agents and their target weeds. 4 ^t^h Edition. CABI Publishing. Wallingford. 1-233.

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Mahr, D., K. A. Bloem, J. Cuda and P. Stiling (eds.). 2001. Cactoblastis cactorum in North America. Proceedings of a workshop for assessment and planning. September 20-21. 200, Tampa, Florida.

Moran, V.C. and H.G. Zimmermann. 1984. The biological control of cactus weeds:

achievements and prospects. Biocontrol News and Information 5 (4): 297-320. Pemberton, R.W. 1995. Cactoblastis cactorum (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) in the United States: An immigrant biological control agent or an introduction of the nursery industry. American Entomologist. Winter: 230-232. Pemberton, R.W. and H. Cordo. 2001. Potential and risk of biological control of Cactoblastis cactorum (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) in North America. Florida Entomologist 84(4): 513-

526.

Simmonds, F. J. and F. D. Bennett. 1966. Biological control of Opuntia spp. by Cactoblastis cactorum in the Leeward Islands (Wets Indies). Entomophaga 11:183-189 Soberon, J., J. Golubov and J. Sarukhan. 2001. The importance of Opuntia in Mexico and routes of invasion and impact of Cactoblastis cactorum (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae). Florida Entomologist 84 (4): 486-492.

Stiling, P. 2002. Potential non-target effects of a biological control agent, prickly pear moth, Cactoblastis cactorum Berg (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae), in North America, and possible management actions. Biological Invasions 4: 273-281. Zimmermann, H.G., V. C. Moran and J. H. Hoffmann. 2001. The renowned cactus moth, Cactoblastis cactorum (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae): its natural history and threat to native Opuntia floras in Mexico and the United States of America. Florida Entomologist 84 (4):

543-551.

Zimmermann, H.G., H. Klein and S. Bloem. 2004. The biology, history, threats, surveillance and control of the cactus moth, Cactoblastis cactorum. Joint FAO/IAEA Division of Nuclear Techniques in Food and Agriculture. IAEA, Vienna, Austria. 40 pp. Zimmermann G. Helmuth and Pérez Sandi Cuen Mayra. 1999. La palomilla Cactoblastis cactorum representa un peligro para nuestros nopales. Universitarios Potosinos. Órgano informativo de la Universidad Autónoma de San Luis Potosí. Volúmen VII, Septiembre-Octubre

cuatro.

1999,

número

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POSTER SESSION

DON'T LET CACTO BLAST US! : A COOPERATIVE EFFORT TO DETECT AND TEST CONTAINMENT OF THE CACTUS MOTH, CACTOBLASTIS CACTORUM (BERG) ON THE US GULF COAST

Joel Floyd ¹ , Kenneth A. Bloem ² , Stephanie Bloem ³ , James E. Carpenter ⁴ , and Stephen Hight ⁵ ^. ¹ USDA, APHIS, PPQ, Pest Detection and Management Programs, 4700 River Rd., Unit 137, Riverdale, MD 20737. Joel.P.Floyd@aphis.usda.gov . ² USDA, APHIS, PPQ, CPHST, Florida A&M University, Tallahassee, FL 32307, ³ Center for Biological Control, Florida A&M University 6383 Mahan Dr., Tallahassee, FL 32317, ⁴ USDA, ARS, Crop Protection & Management Research Unit, 2747 Davis Road, Tifton, GA 31794, ⁵ USDA-ARS, Center for Medical, Agricultural, & Veterinary Entomology, 6383 Mahan Road, Tallahassee, FL 32317

The Cactus moth, Cactoblastis cactorum (Berg), showed its success in 1920’s Australia as a biological control agent introduced to control invasive exotic prickly pear cacti, Opuntia spp. Subsequent introductions to other areas led to the Caribbean in the 1950’s and a detection in the Florida Keys in 1989. The potential impacts of its US spread includes affects on grazing, nursery and landscape industries and significant negative ecological impacts on hosts in deserts of the Southwestern US. Potential impacts in Mexico in addition to ecological include agricultural affects because of the importance of the fruit and cladodes for human consumption and forage.

The cactus moth spread along both Florida coasts in the 1990’s and by 2004 on to Bull Island, South Carolina on the Atlantic Coast and Dauphin Island, Alabama on the Gulf Coast. The cactus moth appears to be favoring barrier islands on the Gulf Coast and is currently not moving inland in the panhandle area of Florida. Dispersal rates along the coasts are approximately 160 kilometers/year, with an estimated arrival in Texas in the year 2004 barring artificial spread.

In cooperation with Mississippi State University’s Georesources Institute, funded by the US Geological Survey, a national detection network is being assembled to gather monitoring information from managed lands complementing state Cooperative Agriculture Pest Surveys. ARS and APHIS have been cooperating since 2000 on developing techniques for detection using an attractant, trap testing, mating studies, mass rearing on an artificial diet, and irradiated moth

studies for application of the sterile insect technique (SIT). In the spring of 2005, they will begin

a large-scale SIT validation study on barrier islands in Florida and Alabama to ascertain whether

a barrier can be established there to prevent the cactus moth’s further westward movement.

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POSTER

DISTRIBUTION OF THE CHILLI THRIPS, SCIRTOTHRIPS DORSALIS HOOD (THYSANOPTERA: THRIPIDAE), IN PEPPER FIELDS ON ST. VINCENT.

D. R. Seal ¹ , M. Ciomperlik ² , M. L. Richards ³ and W. Klassen ¹

¹ University of Florida-IFAS, Tropical Research and Education Center, Homestead, FL 33033; Phone: 305-246-7001 Ext. 260; E-mail: dseal@ifas.ufl.edu . ² USDA APHIS PPQ CPHST, Pest Detection Diagnostics and Management Laboratory, 22675 N. Moorefield Rd., Bldg. 6414, Edinburg, TX 78541-9398; ³ Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, St. Vincent, Richmond Hill, Kingstown, St. Vincent and the Grenadines.

ABSTRACT: Chili thrips, Scirtothrips dorsalis Hood, is a newly introduced pest in the western hemisphere. It has the potential to cause significant damage to various vegetable, ornamental and fruit crops. Baseline information about its biology and management is very insufficient. Due to the paucity of knowledge about this pest we initiated a study on its biology and management. We conducted several studies to understand distribution pattern of S. dorsalis within the plant and within fields of `Scotch Bonnet’ pepper in St. Vincent in 2004 and 2005. S. dorsalis adults and larvae were most abundant on terminal leaves of a `Scotch Bonnet’ pepper plant followed by middle leaves, lower leaves, and reproductive parts. The distribution of both adults and larvae of S. dorsalis on the terminal leaves was aggregated irrespective of plot size (6, 12, 24 and 48 m ² ). Detailed information on distribution has been reported in a manuscript submitted to Florida Entomologist.

KEYWORDS: spatial distribution, within plant distribution, pepper, alien invasive species, Caribbean

RÉSUMÉ: Les thrips de piment, Scirtothrips dorsalis Hood, est un parasite nouvellement présenté dans l'hémisphère occidental. Il a la potentialité pour endommager significatif de diverses récoltes de légume, ornementales et de fruit. Les informations de ligne de base sur sa biologie et gestion sont très insuffisantes. En raison du manque de la connaissance appropriée que nous avons essayé d'étudier sa biologie et gestion. Dans la présente étude, nous avons entrepris plusieurs études pour comprendre le modèle de distribution des dorsalis dans-usine et dans-champ de S. poivre de ` de capot écossais 'dans la rue Vincent en 2004 et 2005. Les adultes et les larves de dorsalis de S. étaient abondants sur les feuilles terminales usine de poivre de ` de capot écossais 'suivie des feuilles moyennes, des feuilles inférieures, et des pièces reproductrices. Les distributions des adultes et des larves de dorsalis de S. sur les feuilles terminales ont été agrégées indépendamment de la taille de parcelle de terrain (6, 12, 24 et 48 m2). L'information détaillée sur la distribution a été rapportée dans un manuscrit soumis au journal Florida Entomologist. MOTS-CLÉS: istribution spatiale, dans la distribution d'usine, poivre, espèce invahissante étrangère, des Caraïbes

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INTRODUCTION. The chili thrips, Scirtothrips dorsalis Hood, is considered as a pest of various vegetable crops, cotton, citrus and other fruit and ornamental crops in eastern Asia, Africa, and Oceania (Ananthakrishnan 1993, CABI/EPPO 1997, CAB 2003). In India, S. dorsalis is a severe pest of chilli pepper and hence it is known as the chilli thrips (Thirumurthi et al. 1972). In Japan, S. dorsalis is known as the yellow tea thrips (Toda and Komazaki 2002). The Florida Nurserymen and Growers Association consider S. dorsalis as one of the thirteen most dangerous exotic pest threats to the industry (FNGA 2003). Venette and Davis (2004) indicate that the potential geographic distribution of S. dorsalis in North America would extend from southern Florida to north of the Canadian boundary, as well as to Puerto Rico and the entire Caribbean region. S. dorsalis is a key vector of tomato spotted wilt virus (TSWV). It causes bud necrosis disease (BND), an important disease of peanut in India (Amin et al. 1981, Mound and Palmer 1981, Ananthadrishnan 1993). Since 1984, USDA-APHIS inspectors at various U.S. ports-of-entry have reported S. dorsalis 89 times on imported plant materials belonging to 48 taxa (USDA 2003). Most commonly the pest was associated with cut flowers, fruits and vegetables. On July 16, 2003, T. L. Skarlinsky, a Plant Protection and Quarantine officer intercepted S. dorsalis at Miami, Florida on Capsicum spp. from St Vincent and the Grenadines, West Indies. This was the first interception at a U.S. port of this thrips on a shipment from a port of origin in the Western Hemisphere. Skarlinsky (2003 made a preliminary assessment of the distribution and abundance of the S. dorsalis population on St. Vincent the island, and he found S. dorsalis on pepper several sites in St. Vincent. St.Vincent is a volcanic island located at latitude 13 ⁰ 15’ N and longitude 61 ⁰ 12’ W within the Windward Islands chain in the eastern Caribbean. Temperatures fluctuate between 18° and 32°C, the dry season extends from December through June, and the rainy season from July through November. The island’s average annual rainfall ranges from about 1,500 mm on the southeast coast to about 3,800 mm in the interior mountains. Vegetable and fruit crops are produced year round for domestic consumption and export. There are no published reports on within-plant and spatial distribution patterns of S. dorsalis. Such information is essential in the development of tactics and strategies for managing this pest. Beginning in October 2004 we undertook studies on the spatial distribution patterns of S. dorsalis adults and larvae on St. Vincent, as part of a larger effort on the pest’s host diversity, geographical distribution, natural enemies and methods of detection, monitoring and control. Here we report on the thrips’ within plant distribution on pepper and on its spatial distribution within pepper fields.


Within plant and within field distribution of S. dorsalis was conducted in `Scotch Bonnet’ pepper fields in William’s Farms in October, 2004; and in March, 2005. All fields were located in George Town, St. Vincent, and were about 3,035 m ² each. Each field was planted to `Scotch Bonnet’ pepper into a deep soil. The plants were spaced 90 cm within a row and 1.2 m between rows. Plants were maintained by using standard cultural practices recommended for St. Vincent. The pepper plants were not treated with any insecticides, but they received the recommended fungicide and fertilizer applications. Plants were treated with Manzate and Bravo at 7-10 d intervals. Plants were drip-irrigated weekly. In both years, the studies were initiated 2 - 3 mo after planting the crop.

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For the purpose of studying distribution patterns of S. dorsalis, each field was divided into 60 equal plots, each 4.6 m long and 1.2 m wide and contained 5 plants. Within plant distribution. Five plants were randomly selected from each of five plots from different locations of each field. From each plant, a set of 3 - 4 leaves was collected from the top, middle and bottom strata. Thus, 15 - 20 leaves were collected from each pepper plant stratum in each plot. In addition, five flowers and five fruits were also collected from each plot. All samples were placed in zip-lock bags and labeled to indicate the plot and plant part. Samples were transported to the laboratory for further processing. Adults and larvae of S. dorsalis in each sample were separated by following the methods as described by Seal et al. (2005a, b). Within field distribution. The within field distribution of S. dorsalis was studied in plots of four different sizes- 6, 12, 24, and 48 m ² . Spatial distribution of S. dorsalis in ‘Scotch Bonnet’ pepper fields was studied in two years by collecting terminal leaves contained in a group of 3-4 leaves at the tip of a branch. From each of five randomly selected plants, one such group of terminal leaves was excised and placed in a zip lock bag to prevent escape of S. dorsalis. All samples were transported to the laboratory for further processing as discussed in the previous study.

The Spatial distribution patterns of S. dorsalis were determined by using Taylor’s power law (Taylor 1961) and Iwao’s patchiness regression (Iwao 1968). Taylor’s power law parameters were obtained by the regression of log10-transformed variances, s ² , on log10- transformed mean numbers of S. dorsalis adults and larvae per sample by means of the linear regression model: log s ² = log a + b log x (Taylor 1961). Similarly, Iwao’s patchiness regression (x* = + x) is the regression of mean crowding, x*, on the mean x (Lloyd 1957, Iwao 1968),

is a sampling factor depending on

the size of the sampling unit and

is the index of

aggregation in the population. In both instances, a population with an aggregated distribution has a b value > 1, while this value is significantly less than 1 for a regular distribution, and not significantly different from 1 for a random distribution. The fit of each data set to the linear regression model was evaluated by calculating the r ² value. Statistical Analysis. Data on the within plant distribution were subjected to square root (x + 0.25) transformation to stabilize error variance (Steet & Torrie 1980). Transformed data were analyzed using software provided by Statistical Analysis System (release 6.03, SAS Institute Inc. Cary, NC; SAS Institute, 1989). General linear model procedures were used to perform analysis of variance. Means were separated by using Duncan Multiple Range Test (DMRT).


Within plant distribution of S. dorsalis. We found S. dorsalis on all above-ground plant parts (Table 1). Mean numbers of S. dorsalis adults and larvae were most abundant on the terminal leaves, 2 ⁿ^d most abundant on middle leaves and least abundant on bottom leaves, flowers and fruits (adult: F = 7.77; df = 4,15; P < 0.05; larva: F = 13.93; df = 4,15; P < 0.05; total: F = 16.88; df = 4,15; P < 0.05). The mean numbers of S. dorsalis adults and larvae did not differ among those found on the bottom leaves, flowers and fruits. The least number of adults were found on fruits, and the least number of larvae were found in flowers, but these numbers were not significantly smaller than those for any other plant parts. Within-Field Distribution of S. dorsalis in 2004. The values of r ² obtained with both Taylor’s power law and Iwao’s patchiness distribution were higher for plot sizes of 24 and 48 m ² than for 6 and 12 m ² plots. This indicates a good fit of both models to the data on adults using terminal leaf as sampling unit in 24 and 48

184

m ² plots. The slope in either model was significantly higher than 1.00 (P > 0.05) indicating that the distribution of larval populations in all plots, irrespective of size, was aggregated. Within-Field Distribution of S. dorsalis in 2005. The results from both Taylor’s power law and Iwao’s patchiness were in agreement that the distribution of adults in the 6 m ² plots was random and that it was regular in the 12, 24 and 48 m ² plots (Table 3). The values of r ² from Taylor’s power law ranged from 0.22 – 0.99 indicating moderate to good fit to the data collected from the various plots, while those from Iwao’s patchiness regression were low for 6 and 12 m ² plots (indicating poor fit to the data), and 0.99 for the 24 and 48 m ² plots (indicating a very good fit to the data in larger plots (0.99). The distribution pattern of S. dorsalis adults in various plot sizes at Russ farms was fairly similar in two seasons in 2004 and 2005. Southwood (1978) observed that when a population in an area becomes sparse, the chances of an individual occurring in any sample unit are so low that the distribution is effectively random. In the present study the population abundance of S. dorsalis was low with frequent occurrence in various samples indicating aggregated pattern of distribution. Southwood (1978) also reported that the dispersion of the initial insect invaders of a crop is often random. In the instance of S. dorsalis, adult populations were localized at a certain part of the crop field. In one field under the present study, infestation starts at the edge of a field covering 6 m wide strip and proceeds south to north along that 6 m wide band with the progression of time. Seal et al. (1992) reported that the wireworms, Conoderus rudis Brown, C. scissus Schaffer and C. amplicollis Gyllenhall oviposited in a regular pattern in a field with a previous history of infestation; but the distribution changed because of the movement of the medium and large larvae. In the present study, the distribution of S. dorsalis was variable in various plot sizes which might be due to the movement of the adults from one plot to other. S. dorsalis pupates in soil, and the prepupae may have moved short distances away from the plant before entering the soil to pupate. Thus only the movement of adults might have shifted the distribution pattern in certain plots.

From our results, we draw the following conclusions: (1) S. dorsalis population tends to be most abundant on terminal leave; 2) flowers and fruits have the least numbers of S. dorsalis; 3) S. dorsalis adults were aggregated in the largest plots.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We are very grateful to the Plant Quarantine Division, Ministry of Agriculture, Industry and Labour, Kingstown, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines for the use of laboratory facilities, local transportation and arrangements with growers. This study could not have been accomplished without the facilitation and encouragement of Mr. Philmore Isaacs, Chief Agricultural Officer. Also we are grateful to Mr. Emil Williams and Mr. Lauron Baptist for allowing us to conduct the studies on their farms. Financial resources and guidance were provided by the Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, USDA through the leadership of Dr. Daniel A. Fieselmann, National Science Program Leader and Ms. Carolyn T. Cohen, Caribbean Area Director. In addition financial support was provided by the Florida Agricultural Experiment Station and the University of Florida’s Center for Tropical Agriculture.

185

REFERENCES CITED

Amin, P. W., and J. M. Palmer. 1985. Identification of groundnut Thysanoptera. Tropical Pest Management 31: 286-291, 340, 344. Ananthakrishnan, T. N. 1993. Bionomics of thrips. Annual Review of Entomology 38:71-92. CABI. 2003. Crop protection compendium: global module. CAB International, Wallingford, UK. CABI/EPPO. 1997. Quarantine Pests for Europe, 2 ⁿ^d Ed. CAB International, Wallingford, UK. FNGA. (Florida Nurserymen &Growers Association) 2003. Report of the Florida Nursery, Growers & Landscape Association (FNGLA). Orlando, Florida, USA Iwao, S. 1968. A new regression model for analyzing the aggregation pattern of animal populations. Res. Popul. Ecol. (Kyoto) 4: 35-46. Mound, L. A., and J. M. Palmer. 1981. Identification, distribution and host plants of the pest species of Scirtothrips (Thysanoptera: Thripidae). Bull. of Entomol. Res. 71: 467-479. SAS Institute. 1989. SAS User’s guide: statistics; SAS Institute. Cary, NC.1988. Seal, D. R., M. Ciomperlik, M. L. Richard and W. Klassen. 2005a. Comparative effectiveness of chemical insecticides against the chilli thrips, Scirtothrips dorsalis Hood (Thysanoptera:

Thripidae), on pepper and their compatibility with natural enemies. Crop Protection (submitted). Seal, D. R., M. Ciomperlik, M. L. Richard and W. Klassen. 2005b. Distribution of the Chilli Thrips, Scirtothrips dorsalis Hood (Thysanoptera: Thripidae), within pepper plants and within pepper fields on St. Vincent. Florida Entomologist (submitted). Seal, D. R. R. McSorley, and R. B. Chalfant. 1992. Seasonal abundance and spatial distribution of wireworms (Coleoptera Elateridae) in Georgia sweet potato fields. J. Econ. Entomol. 85: 1802-1808. Steel, R. G. D. and J. H. Torrie. 1980. Principles and procedures of statistics: a biometrical approach, 2nd ed. McGraw Hill, New York. 633 p. Southwood, T. R. E. 1978. Ecological methods with particular reference to the study of insect populations, 2 ⁿ^d ed. Wiley, New York. Taylor, L.R. 1961. Aggregation, variance and the mean. Nature (London) 189: 732-735. 1984. Assessing and interpreting the spatial distributions of insect populations. Annu. Rev. Entomol. 29:321-357. Thirumurthi, S., K. A. Ali, and T. R. Subramanian. 1972. A note on the varietal incidence of grapevine (Vitis vinifera) berry thrips (Scirtothrips dorsalis Hood). South Indian Horticulture 20: 92-93. Toda, S., and S. Komazake. 2002. Identification of thrips species (Thysanoptera: Thripidae) on Japanese fruit trees by polymerase chain reaction and restriction fragment length polymorphism of the ribosomal ITS2 region. Bulletin of Entomological Research 92:

359-363.

USDA.2003. Port Information Network (PIN-309): quarantine status database. US Department of Agriculture, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, Plant Protection and Quarantine, Riverdale, MD, USA. (Restricted access database.) Venette, R.C., Davis, E.E. 2004. Chilli thrips/yellow thrips, Scirtothrips dorsalis Hood (Thysanoptera: Thripidae) Mini Pest Risk Assessment. Univ. of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN, USA. 31 pp.

186

Table 1. Within plant distribution of S. dorsalis adults and larvae on `Scotch Bonnet’ pepper plants in three fields in St. Vincent based on samples taken during October 2004 (Field 1), March 2005 (Fields 2 and 3).

Location on

S. dorsalis

Pepper plant

Adult

Larvae

Total

Field 1

Terminal leaf

4.50a

5.50a

10.00a

Middle leaf

1.75b

2.00b

3.75b

Bottom leaf

0.50b

0.75c

1.25c

Flower

0.75b

0.25c

1.00c

Fruit

0.25b

1.00bc

1.25c

Means within a column of each field with similar DMRT).

letter do not differ significantly (P > 0.05,

Table 2. Distribution of S. dorsalis adults on terminal leaves in a scotch bonnet pepper fields on St. Vincent during October 2004.

Taylor’s power law

Iwao’s patchiness regression

Plot size (m ² )

2

2

r

a

b

r

a

b

6

0.28

0.09

0.63REG

0.17

0.70

0.56REG

12

0.37

0.08

0.38REG

0.34

0.83

0.39REG

24

0.99

0.09

0.04REG

0.99

1.28

-0.03REG

48

0.99

0.01

1.29AGG

0.99

-0.28

1.29AGG

AGG, aggregated distribution, b significantly > 1; REG, regular distribution, b significantly < 1; RAN, random distribution, b not significantly different from 1. These distributions are significant at P < 0.05 based on Student’s t-test. Numbers of plots (n) are 2, 4, 8, and 16 for the 6, 12, 24 and 48 m ² sized fields, respectively

187

Table 3. Distribution of S. dorsalis adults on terminal leaves in a scotch bonnet pepper field on Russ Farms, St. Vincent during March, 2005.



Plot size (m ² )

2

b

2

b

r

a

r

a

6

0.38

-0.05

1.02RAN

0.07

-0.13

1.04RAN

12

0.22

-0.17

0.79REG

0.01

0.44

0.43REG

24

0.

99

0.36

0.40REG

0.99

0.32

-0.48REG

48

0.99

0.36

0.40REG

0.99

0.32

-0.48REG

AGG, aggregated distribution, b significantly > 1; REG, regular distribution, b significantly < 1; RAN, random distribution, b not significantly different from 1. These distributions are significant at P < 0.05 based on Student’s t-test. Numbers of plots (n) are 2, 4, 8, and 16 for the 6, 12, 24 and 48 m ² sized fields, respectively.

Table 4. Distribution of S. dorsalis adults on terminal leaves in a scotch bonnet pepper field on Baptist Farms, St. Vincent during March 2005.



Plot size (m ² )

2

b

2

b

r

a

r

a

6

0.61

-0.25

0.12REG

0.64

-0.95

1.72AGG

12

0.69

-0.32

2.63AGG

0.58

-1.18

1.89AGG

24

0.

95

0.48

3.30AGG

0.99

-2.83

2.79AGG

48

0.99

0.59

3.93AGG

0.99

-3.47

3.20AGG

AGG, aggregated distribution, b significantly > 1; REG, regular distribution, b significantly < 1; RAN, random distribution, b not significantly different from 1. These distributions are significant at P < 0.05 based on Student’s t-test. Numbers of plots (n) are 2, 4, 8, and 16 for the 6, 12, 24 and 48 m ² sized fields, respectively

188

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(i)	Consequently, in the sharpening of this focus, with as appropriate, the support of some of our Strategic Partners, such as the CARICOM Secretariat, FAO, and PAHO, we initiated a number of actions: -
(ii)	An assessment of countries’ capabilities in animal and plant health;
(iii)	Based on these national assessments, sensitisation of the scientific and political community of the need to address the institutional and infrastructural deficiencies that were identified.
(iv)	Promotion of the concept of the Caribbean Agricultural Health and Food Safety Agency (CAHFSA) that will be supportive and add value to effective and functioning National Agricultural Health and Food Safety Agencies or Systems; and
(v)	Advocating the notion of the need for countries to shift emphasis in the prevention of

	Number of	Number
Disciplinary Area	Publications	of Researchers
Bio Technology	6	20
Genetics	7	20
Pest Control	8	15
Disease Control	18	29
Management Policy	1	4

Area of Specialty	Number of Specialists
Biotechnology and Genetics	22
Pest and Disease Control	14
Biology and Entomology	13
Biochemistry	2

	Biotechnology of Selected Crops with a view to Improving Productivity, Yams, dasheen and Coco Yams, Anthuriums.
	“Biological and Molecular Characterization of Papaya Ringspot Virus
	Exploiting Pepper Genetics Resources Towards Developing a Pepper Industry in the Caribbean
	Utilization of Cacao Genetic Resources Towards Developing Resistance to Blackpod and Witches’ Broom Diseases
	Construction of a Genome Map for Cacao
	“The Evolution of New Virus Genes
	Microbial Genetics

	Begomovirus and Whitefly in Tomatoes
	“Management of Cabbage Pest With Companion Crops and Botanical Formulations
	Biocontrol Potential of the Nematode; Management of citrus root Weevil
	The impact of Botanical Formulations on citrus root weevil
	Pesticidal Potential of various Tropical Plants
	Strategies of control of Commelina spp. in Banana Plantations
	Non Traditional methods for Nematode Control in Bananas
	IPM: Integrated Pest management

Mona Campus	St Augustine Campus
Helen N. Asemota M. Chin Paula Tennant Mohammed H. Ahmed. Roye, Marcia E., Wayne A. McLaughlin, D. P. Maxwell Dwight E. J. Robinson Wendell Snow George Grant.	D.	A. Iwaro
	S.	Surujdeo-Maharaj
	D.	Butler
	P.	Umaharan
	Marissa Moses
	Lambert Motilal,
	O.	Sounigo,
	J. M. Thevenin,
	C.	Lanaud
	A.	M. Risterucci
	I. Pieretti,
	J. L. Noyer.

Mona Campus	St Augustine Campus
Kathy M. Dalip Dwight E. Robinson Ajai Mansingh. Jacinth Myers Dave G. Hutton	P.	Umaharan
	A.	Khan
	S.	Seepersad
	J. Walker
	C.	Caruth
	A.	Hosein
	V.	Gajadharsingh
	Wendy Ann P. Isaac Richard A. I. Brathwaite
	Ayub Khan

	Cell wall biochemistry
	Food ripening
	Uses of Caribbean Plants
	Crop ecology and sustainable agriculture
	Behavioral ecology
	Marine ecology
	Fisheries Biology

	Environmental and microbiology
	Plant pathology
	Soil microbiology
	Mangrove ecology
	Microbial ecology
	Ecological entomology

Mona Campus	Cave Hill Campus
	C.	M. Sean Carrington
Karl Aiken Dr. Dwight E. Robinson Mona K. Webber Eric Garraway	Angela Fields
	Louis Chinnery
	Julia Horrocks
	Wayne Hunte
	G.	E. Mathison
	Leonard O’Garro Sarah Sutrina Lyndon Waterman

Biochemical and molecular Studies on Tuberization on selected crops:
		Sweet Potatoes
		Yam bean
		cassava
		pigeon peas
Post Harvest Technology

Broad habitat type			Exotic					Naturalised and / or invasive
Terrestrial			479					390
Freshwater			55					10
Marine			18					16
Total			552					416
Ecological	impacts	of	IAS	range	from	simple	competition		among	predators	or

			ARP	ARP		Pertinentes pour les DFA
			détaillée	simplifiées	Total	Pertinentes pour les DFA
Canne à sucre			11	9	20	16
Bananier et autres Musacées			7	8	15	15
Agrumes			9	6	15	12
Cultures	maraîchères	principales	4	13	17	16
(Solanacées, Cucurbitacées,
Brassicacées)
Cultures	florales	(Orchidées,	3	5	8	8
Aracées, etc.)		(Orchidées,	3	5	8	8
Ananas et autres Broméliacées			3	2	5	5
Alliacées (oignon, ail)			6		6	6
Manguier			3	1	4	4
Avocatier			2	3	5	5
Papayer			1	5	6	5
Passiflores				2	2	2
Productions horticoles diverses				7	7	5
Litchi				2	2	0
Fruitiers tempérés				3	3	1
Riz			1	2	3	3
Café / Cacao			2	2	4	1
Palmacées				4	4	4
Vigne				1	1	0
Polyphages			1	2	3	2
		Total	53	77	130	110

				Detailed	Simplified		Relevant for the French Departments of the Americas
				PRA	PRA	Total	Relevant for the French Departments of the Americas
Sugarcane				11	9	20	16
Banana tree and other Musaceae				7	8	15	15
Citrus				9	6	15	12
Principle	market	garden	products	4	13	17	16
(Solanaceae,		Cucurbitaceae,
Brassicaceae)		Cucurbitaceae,
Floral crops (Orchidaceae, Araceae, etc.)				3	5	8	8
Pineapple and other Bromeliaceae				3	2	5	5
Alliaceae (oignon, garlic)				6		6	6
Mango tree				3	1	4	4
Avocado tree				2	3	5	5
Papaya tree				1	5	6	5
Passionflowers					2	2	2
Diverse horticultural crops					7	7	5
Litchi					2	2	0
Temperate fruit trees					3	3	1
Rice				1	2	3	3
Coffee / Cacao				2	2	4	1
Palmaceae					4	4	4
Grapevines					1	1	0
Polyphagous				1	2	3	2
			Total	53	77	130	110

iv.	Further requested a report from the CISWG on the mobilization of resources and the strategy for implementing projects
v.	Noted the CRISIS paper
vi.	Requested CARDI to circulate CRISIS to all Member States for comments by August 31,
vii.	2005; and Urged Member States to facilitate and support the investigation on the current state of preparedness of the Region regarding invasive species

Steps	Activity
1	Terms of Reference for project proposal developed
2	Concept note development and nomination of CISWG coordinators
3	Comments obtained on concept note by members of the CISWG
4	Funders approached and proposal prepared in required format
5	Proposal submitted through the leader of the CISWG
6	Project funded and started

		Strategy	¹	CISWG	Step 1	Step 2	Step 3	Step 4	Step 5	Step 6
PROJECTS		No.	Coordin-
			ators
					Terms	Concept	Reviewed	Proposal	Proposal	Funded
					of	Note	by	Developed	submitted	and
					Refer-	Developed	CISWG			started
					ence
1a. Timely internet-based tracking of invasive pest introduction			University				√	√
		2	of Florida			² CISIS
1b. Caribbean pest and disease diagnostic system		4				³ DDIS
2.	Facilitation and Coordination of
the Florida/Caribbean Basin Inter- institutional Invasive Species Initiative			University					√	√	√
		-	of Florida
3.	Mitigating threat of IAS in the		CABI					√	√
Insular Caribbean		-
4.	Adoption of general invasive species
emergency plan		5
5. Arouse public awareness		1
6. Take advantage of opportunities for
funding from USDA		3
7.	Engage non-USA scientists in the
Caribbean in T-STAR research		6
8. Early detection of Carambola fruit fly		7a
9. Restoration of natural areas		8
10. Appoint a Caribbean Region Standing Committee as watchdog		7b

	Early Detection of Carambola Fruit fly
	Restoration of natural areas infested with non-native invasive plants
	Timely internet based tracking of invasive pest introductions and interceptions
	Develop a Caribbean pest and disease diagnostic system based on distance digital
	imaging and internet based communications Arouse public awareness of the invasive species crisis
	Engage non-USA scientists in the Caribbean in T-STAR funded research on invasive
	species Assure region wide adoption of the General Invasive Species Emergency Plan and
	develop Specific Emergency Action Plans for key threats Appoint a Caribbean Region Standing Committee to serve as a watchdog on the arrival
	of new invasive species, or on alarming developments in the spread of invasive species with footholds in the region Take advantage of opportunities to obtain funding of critical invasive species Research and Development needs from USDA-APHIS and USDA-ARS

	Impact of the introduction of new hybrid varieties of bananas and plantains on the
	dynamic balance of the populations of some pathogenic agents and pests: nematodes, fungus and virus. Support of a sugar and rum sustainable production and preservation of the agricultural
	landscape in the Caribbean by optimizing the processes of variety selection. Promotion of a sustainable citrus fruit cultivation and plant health observatory.
	Improvement of the market gardening productions: creation of diseases and pest
	resistant tomato and peppers adapted to the Caribbean environment. Towards a global research programme on integrated control of the coconut lethal yellowing disease in the Caribbean.

1.)	Supposer un rôle directive dans la coordination de la Station Agricole Expérimentale de
2.)	Floride et le Grand Bassin de la Caraibe sur les initiatives d'espèces envahissantes. Travailler proactively pour arriver à un consensus ou un presque consensus de priorité sur
3.)	les espèces exotiques envahissantes et explore des activités par networking avec les Etats- Unis et les plus larges institutions et agences du Grand Bassin de La Caraibe. Cela exigera l'organisation de collaboration d'Ateliers, de Séminaires et de Consultations, entre autres. Fournir des directives dans les efforts de recherche de financement base sur les efforts de la T-STAR (Tropical/Subtropical Agriculture Research) sur les projets d'espèces étrangers envahissants afin de recueillir des ressources supplémentaires dans le soutien de ces efforts.

Case #3:	An Economic Assessment of Island Management Strategies for Miconia in
Hawaii

is	believed to have occurred after World War II. The introduction and subsequent establishment
of	the brown tree snake (BTS) on the island of Guam is considered one of the greatest ecological

Case #5:	Economic Analysis of White Spot Syndrome Virus Eradication in Guam and
Hawaii

1	Strawberry guava
2	Brown tree snake
3	Miconia F-2
4	Apple snail
5	WSSU
6	Coffee berry borer
7	Mango seed weevil
8	Black Sigatoka
9	Aquatic weeds
10	Upland plants
11	Medfly
12	Pink hibiscus , papaya Mealybug
13	Soybean rust
14	Cogon grass

	Espèces natives	Espèces		introduites	Pestes majeures
	Espèces natives	et (pourcentage)			Pestes majeures
PLANTES
Réunion	915	1014 (52 %)			100
Nouvelle Calédonie	3261	772 (19 %)			50
OISEAUX
Réunion	24	20	(45 %)		3
Nouvelle Calédonie	112	13	(10 %)		3
MAMMIFERES
Réunion	2	7 (78 %)			5
Nouvelle Calédonie	9	12	(57 %)		6

Name		Affiliation					Country
Patrick Vanterpool		Ministry of Agriculture					Anguilla
Helena Jeffery		Ministry of Agriculture					Antigua & Barbuda
Rupert Pegram		Caribbean Amblyomma Programme					Antigua & Barbuda
Kanyuira Gikonyo		Ministry of Agriculture					Antigua & Barbuda
Maurice Isaacs		Department of Agriculture					Bahamas
Bryan Sanford		Ministry of Agriculture					Barbados
James Paul		Caribbean Poultry Association					Barbados
Trevor King		Ministry of Agriculture					Barbados
David Elcock		Ministry of Agriculture					Barbados
Miguel Depaz		Belize Agricultural Health Authority					Belize
Lydia Tablada Romero		CENSA					Cuba
Maria Frias Lepoureau		CENSA					Cuba
Emerio	Serrano	IMV					Cuba
Ramírez
Reginald Thomas		Ministry of Agriculture					Dominica
John McIntyre		Ministry of Agriculture					Dominica
Angel Ventura		SEA-DIGEGA					Dominican Republic
Jocelyn Quirico		LAVECEN					Dominican Republic
Ramon Marte		PROMESA					Dominican Republic
Richard Pacer		USDA APHIS					Dominican Republic
Pascal Hendrikx		SCAC - Ambassade de France					Dominican Republic
Antoine Maillard		MAAPAR DGAl SD SSA					France
Emmanuel Albina		CIRAD-EMVT					France
Dominique Martinez		CIRAD-EMVT					France
Arnaud Martrenchar		DDSV Guyane					French Guyana
Irene Greiser-Wilke		Institute of Virology					Germany
Volker Moennig		Institute of Virology					Germany
Bowen Louison		Ministry of Agriculture					Grenada
Sophie Molia		CIRAD-EMVT					Guadeloupe
Thierry Lefrançois		CIRAD-EMVT					Guadeloupe
Eric Bajazet		GDS					Guadeloupe
Tony Samuth		GDS					Guadeloupe
Firmin Lodin		GDS					Guadeloupe
Nathalie Vachiéry		CIRAD-EMVT					Guadeloupe
Martial Petitclerc		DDSV Guadeloupe					Guadeloupe
Maxine Parris Aaron		IICA					Guyana
Margaret Kalloo		CARICOM					Guyana
Kenrick Elias		Ministry of Agriculture					Guyana
Michel Louis		Laboratoire	de	diagnostic	vétérinaire	de	Haiti
		Tamarinier
Siméon Phanord		MARNDR					Haiti
Max Millien		MARNDR					Haiti
Michel Chancy		Veterimed					Haiti

Osbil Watson		Ministry of Agriculture	Jamaica
Wintorph Marsden		Ministry of Agriculture	Jamaica
Nigel Elliott		Jamaica Broilers Group	Jamaica
Benoît Bourbon		DDSV Martinique	Martinique
Loic Gouyet		DDSV Martinique	Martinique
Jean-Michel Mac		GDSM	Martinique
Luis Romero Gonzales		Ministry of Agriculture	Spain
Patricia	Bartlette-	Ministry of Agriculture	St Kitts & Nevis
Powell
Henry Lesroy		Ministry of Agriculture	St Kitts & Nevis
Tracy Challenger		Ministry of Agriculture	St Kitts & Nevis
Eden Compton		Ministry of Agriculture	St Lucia
Charles Isaac		Ministry of Agriculture	St Lucia
Peter Gabriel		Ministry of Agriculture	St Lucia
Kathian	Herbert	Ministry of Agriculture	St	Vincent	&	the
Hackshaw			Grenadines
Mervyn Butcher		Sector Health Care Affairs	St Maarten
Jorien Lucas		Sector Health Care Affairs	St Maarten
Benjamin Lieveld		Ministry of Agriculture	Surinam
Lisa Indar		CAREC	Trinidad & Tobago
David Kangaloo		Ministry of Agriculture	Trinidad & Tobago
Joseph Ryan		Ministry of Agriculture	Trinidad & Tobago
Angela James		USDA APHIS	USA
Kenneth Geter		USDA APHIS	USA
Barry Beaty		Colorado State University	USA

•	An insufficiently effective quarantine system, albeit one that is steadily improving,
•	A	300 km-long western DR-Haiti border, which is porous to the entry of pests, and
•	the occurrence of tropical storms and hurricanes, which can spread certain pests and plant pathogens after their introduction into the Caribbean region.
	The main implications of the introduction of alien invasive species are as follows:
•	Many are major pests, which cause direct yield losses to crops, and/or reductions in quality of harvested products, and increase costs of production. Consequently production of some affected crops becomes unprofitable and unsustainable with severe socio-economic effects. Such impacts were suffered during the early 1990s when the Bemisia-Geminivirus complex destroyed the production of tomatoes and other host crops in the DR.
•	Loss of export markets: Alien pests often cause restrictions or bans on potentially infested or infected products intended for export to countries where these pests or plant pathogens have a quarantine status. This has severe economic implications to the producers, and they risk the loss of competitiveness.
•	Losses in biodiversity: In particular, invasive alien plant species tend to displace endemic and native species from protected natural areas.

Arthropods: 23			Molluscs:		1
- 16 Insect species:
	Hemiptera: 7 Sternorrhyncha, 1 Auchenorrhyncha;		Plant pathogens:			13
	2	Heteroptera; 2 Thysanoptera,	- 5 fungi,
	2	Diptera, 1 Coleoptera, 1 Lepidoptera sp.	- 2 bacteria,
- 7 Arachnid Species: 6 Mites & 1 Spider			- 1 phytoplasma,
			-	5 viruses

Plants:	61	Fungal pathogens:	3	Vertebrates:	52
- Graminae	13	Invertebrates:	38	- Fishes	16
- Asteraceae	8	- Molluscs	5	- Amphibians	5
- Ornamentals	10	- Crustaceae	1	- Reptiles	3
- Forestry species	12	- Acari	5	- Birds	15
- Fruit species	3	- Insects	27	- Mammals	13