The Photographic Grain

J. F. Hamilton

The term photographic grain has been used in the jargon of the trade with three separate meanings:
it applies sometimes to the grainy pattern visible in a highly enlarged photograph, sometimes to a particle of the developed silver in the image, and other times to the undeveloped silver halide particles of
the original film. A review of some significant topics related to each of these three meanings is given,
emphasizing the interactions between the three concepts.

Introduction
The photographic process is one of the few technological areas which has sustained a relatively active
scientific interest for well over a century.
As a result,
some of its jargon was born too early to be accurate in
meaning, but has become too thoroughly fixed in the
scientific literature to be easily replaced. Thus a
photographic emulsion is not an emulsion; chemical
development is no more chemical than is physical development; the well-known effects with the firmly established
names of high intensity or low intensity reciprocityfailure
actually deal with variations in what is now defined as
irradiance; the speck of a sensitivity speck is not at all
what that word implies; and so on. One of the most
glaring examples of poor terminology is the word grain,
which has traditionally been used not in just one but
actually in three different imprecise if not completely
misleading senses. The light-sensitive silver halide
microcrystals of an unprocessed photographic emulsion
are referred to as undeveloped grains, whereas the tangled
filaments of silver in the final photographic image are
called developed grains. And finally, although more
precise nomenclature has been agreed upon for both the

subjective and the objective aspects of the granular

pattern apparent in a magnified photographic image,
this has not been entirely successful in displacing its
earlier identification as photographic grain.
Whereas this ambiguous terminology leads to unfortunate confusion in some applications, it is, on the
other hand, a convenient one for use in the title of this
paper, which does touch on some aspects of all three

traditional uses of the term photographicgrain. There

are, in fact, some relationships between concepts in

these three areas that are easily overlooked; they will
be emphasized in this report.
Photographic Response
When a given type of photographic film is exposed
and processed under specified conditions, the familiar
relationship between optical density D and log exposure
E reproducibly results. The optical density of the
image is a consequence of the presence in the dense
areas of metallic silver, which absorbs the incident viewing or measuring light. A photomicrograph of a medium
density area, such as the one in Fig. 1, shows that the
silver is in the form of discrete elements, or grains, with
sizes normally in the range resolvable by visible-light
microscopy. By use of a simplified model that treats
these grains as uniform opaque disks with a completely

random spatial distribution, the Nutting equation,2

relating optical density to the number n of disks of area
a, is easily derived:
D

0.434na.

(1)

Experimentally, it is necessary to employ the concept of

a mean effective area de for the developed grains, to
account for light-scattering effects that depend upon
the microscopic and submicroscopic structure of the
developed grains.3 The experimental value of e may

be larger than the microscopicallyevaluated grain area

by a factor of as much as about 2 or 3, depending upon
emulsion and processing variables. With this correc-

tion, however, the Nutting equation is found to describe

experimental results remarkably well, considering the
simplicity of the model from which it is derived.
For a given film-processing combination, when density is changed by varying exposure, it is normally

found that the change in de is not great, and that the

The author is with the Research Laboratories, Eastman
Kodak Company, Rochester, New York 14650.
Received 12 July 1971.

density is modulated principally by the number of

developed grains n. By exposure and development, an
undeveloped grain is converted to a developed grain
January 1972 / Vol. 11, No. 1 / APPLIED OPTICS 13

layer also of finite volume obviously cannot be strictly

Poisson. However, there are enough random factors
involved that for low densities a Poisson distribution is

at least adequate to illustrate the points of importance.

Take, for example, the hypothetical emulsion referred
to above. If ae is taken to be 2.3 bt 2 , then, from Eq. (1),
an optical density of 0.3 requires an average of 0.3
developed grain per A 2 . At an optical enlargement of
3, the eye resolves an area corresponding to about 1000
There is thus an average of 300
A2 on the original.
grains per resolvable area. If the grains are randomly

distributed, however, the individual resolvable areas

will contain numbers varying around a mean of 300,

with a variance that is approximated by

=
Fig. 1. Light micrograph of a photographic negative showing
discrete grains of developed silver.

300

_ 17.

The individual areas resolved by the eye will thus have

different densities, with a mean fluctuation of 17/300 _
6%. Similarly, if the eye views the same area at an
enlargement of 10, the mean density fluctuation is approximately 18%. These density fluctuations are

either entirely or not at all. In other words, the term

easily discriminated by the sensory system, with the

result that the photographic image appears to show

grain defines an elemental unit of the development

process.

grain rather than a uniform homogeneous density.

Granularity
It is quite obvious that since the developed image is
composed of discrete elements, there is some limited
magnification or enlargement of the image that can be
tolerated before these elements are resolvable by the

human visual system. The image will appear grainy

at this or higher magnifications. A simple comparison
of typical or even limiting values of practical parameters,
however, definitely shows that this is not the cause of

the graininess pattern that is normally observed. The

eye is considered to be able to resolve linear dimensions
of 0.1-0.2 mm, under normal viewing conditions, and
even if the linear dimension of the grains of a film is 1 u
(corresponding to the coarsest of negative-type emulsions), a linear enlargement of 100 would be possible
before these are individually resolved. In such an
emulsion, a grainy pattern begins to be apparent in enlargements of only threefold or fourfold and is extremely
obvious at a tenfold enlargement. Although this
discrepancy has sometimes been dismissed on the basis
of either actual or optical clumping of individual grains

into much larger units, this explanation has not proved

adequate.
It is now quite clear that the cause of the visual
graininess sensation is found entirely in the statistical

fluctuations in the spatial distribution of the developed

significant aspect of this grainy pattern is that the sensation of graininess is fundamentally a function of the

number of grains per unit area: The larger the number

of grains, the smaller, relatively, is the variance of that
number. Because of the inverse relationship between
grain size and number, for a fixed density, as expressed

in the Nutting equation, there is also an indirect relationship between graininess and grain size, which was
recognized earlier than the more fundamental dependence on grain number. This obvious dependence on
grain size is apparently responsible for the incorrect

intuitive assumption that the sensation of graininess

resulted when the eye actually resolved the individual
developed grains or groups of them.
The subjective sensation of which an observer is
aware when viewing an enlarged photographic image is

termed graininess. Through extensive psycophysical

tests, 4 correlations have been established between this

subjective property and more objectively measured

ones. The simplest standard evaluation procedure is to
determine the rms fluctuations of density when a nominally uniform image is scanned with some fixed aper-

ture. This quantity is defined as granularity. For a

simple random pattern of uniform absorbing centers,
the granularity has been shown to be inversely pro-

portional to the square root of the area of the scanning

aperture, and the constant of proportionality is known
as the Selwyn granularity constant.5 In practice this

grains. The exact form of this distribution is the combined effect of a series of statistical factors, including

relationship is found to hold reasonably well over certain ranges of aperture sizes. There are, however,

the spatial distribution of undeveloped grains; their

size and/or sensitivity distribution, if significant; the
spatial distribution of the incident photons; and the

grains and cause, as mentioned previously, their distri-

probabilistic nature of the processes involved in conferring developability. The undeveloped grains have

finite volume, and their distribution within an emulsion

14 APPLIED OPTICS / Vol. 11, No. 1 / January 1972

spatial factors that restrict the overlap of developed

bution to deviate from strict randomness. This together with specific optical scattering effects and other
factors causes the complete analysis of the granularity
pattern to be far more complex. Methods involving

decomposition into a complete spatial-frequency spectrum are now commonly used.6

Developed Silver Grain
In terms of output signal, photographic response
profits because the effective projected area of a developed grain is larger than its actual projected area.
The optical density of a developed film may be two or
three times as great as it would be in the absence of
this phenomenon. The origin of the effect lies in multiple light scattering from the grains in a binder layer of
finite thickness, and its magnitude depends strongly
upon the form and structure of the developed grains
themselves, factors that are modified by the development conditions.
The usual processing procedures recommended for
high photographic speed involve a development reaction designated by another of the inexplicable photographic terms: chemical development. 7 Chemical development is distinguished from physical development
only by the source of the silver ions that are reduced by
the developer to produce the silver of the developed
grains. In so-called chemical development, these silver
ions reach the reaction sites through the solid phasethe silver halide crystals upon whose surfaces the reaction occurs. In so-called physical development, the
silver ions move to the reaction sites through the liquid
developer phase. This occurs when a soluble silver
salt is added to the developer, or when the developer
contains a solvent for the silver halide crystals. In
many developers, a mixture of physical and chemical
development results.
These two types of process generally produce developed photographic grains whose forms are clearly
different, and consequently an image with distinguishable features. A chemically developed grain has the
form of a tangle of silver filaments, of the order of 10
nm in diameter (as in Fig. 2a), whereas a physically
developed grain is a solid, more equidimensional mass
of silver which sometimes shows a tendency toward a
regular, crystalline shape (as in Fig. 2b). When both
chemical and physical development occur simultaneously, thickened filaments intermediate between the
two extremes are produced. 8 The filaments of chemically developed grains generally extend beyond the undeveloped grain outline and are very efficient scatterers
of incident light. This tangle of filaments acts much
like a\maze, which is very effective in trapping any
light incident within its boundary. Compact, physically developed silver has minimum projected area for a
given silver mass and is a less effective light scatterer.
Thus, for a given emulsion and exposure, photographic
covering power, defined as optical density per unit mass
of silver, is almost always highest for pure chemical
development and decreases with increasing physical
development.
The developers recommended for fine-grain negatives
function principally on the basis of this effect. These
developers contain relatively large amounts of silver
halide solvents, which both remove some of the silver
from each grain and also increase the extent of physical

1)

...

1-

Fig. 2. Electron micrographs of developed silver formed by

(a) chemical development and (b) physical development.

development of the remaining silver. Because the

effective grain area is reduced, more developed grains
are required for a given density, and hence the relative
variance of the number within a resolvable area is
reduced. Thus, a less noticeably grainy pattern is
produced at the expense of some photographic speed.
Once again, the decreased sensation of graininess is a

direct result of the increase of the number of grains and

is only indirectly related to the size of the developed

January 1972 / Vol. 11, No. 1 / APPLIED OPTICS 15

grains, contrary to possible intuitive impressions. A

part of the effect of fine-grain developers is also a
consequence of reducing the variation of grain areas.
In addition to covering power, speed, and graininess,
another property of the developed image that is affected by the form of the developed grains is the hue or
tone of the image.' Equidimensional silver particles
have very specific spectral scattering effects and frequently produce warm tones, whereas the severe

anisotropy of the filamentary particles scatters light

almost independently of wavelength and produces a
cold image tone. Although many correlations between
tone and developed grain form have been demonstrated
by electron microscopy, there are also chemical agents
that cause marked changes of tone without any detectable change of grain shape. Evidently surface
differences on the atomic scale also have a large influence.
The search for the cause of the filamentary form of
chemically developed silver has been a very challeng-

*.

ing and elusive problem from the time this structure

was first revealed in the early days of electron microscopy. 10,11 Observation of the silver in the early stage
of reaction shows, as in Fig. 3, that a developing center
grows from an unresolvable latent-image aggregate to
an approximately equidimensional silver speck of the

sage o0fdevlopent

order of 10-nm diameter, and then begins to grow out

from the silver halide crystal in a filament of about that

same diameter. Electron micrographs such as that of
Fig. 4 show that there are many twins and/or stacking
faults in developed silver filaments, but no axial defects
that could be responsible for the filamentary growth
habit, as is the case in some other examples of filamentary crystal growth.' 2 Defects such as dislocations at
the reaction site on the silver halide substrate can be
ruled out, because filaments also form by development
of silver halide grains known to be dislocation-free.
If physical development is excluded, then filaments of
very similar thickness are formed from any combinations
3
of the three useful halides of silver,' and under convaries widely. A
rate
reaction
the
that
such
ditions
number of rather speculative proposals have been made
about the peculiarities in the mechanism which lead to

this specificform of the silver,'4 -' 7 but so far none has

Berry' 8 concenbeen demonstrated experimentally.

trated recently on properties of the silver filaments
that would make this form stable, but did not adequately explain why there is no spreading of the interface at which the reaction occurs.

0.1

Fig. 4. High magnification electron micrograph of developed

silver filaments. The linear features within the filaments are
stacking faults and/or twins.
16 APPLIED OPTICS / Vol. 11, No. 1 / January 1972

Undeveloped Silver Halide Grain

Because the growing silver filaments of a developed
photographic grain are in essence extruded from the
surface of the existing silver halide crystal, there is no
exact correspondence of size and shape between the
developed grain and its undeveloped predecessor.
The enclosing gelatin-binding material, however, does
exert a restraining influence, and some correlation with
the size and shape of the original crystal generally
persists through development. The undeveloped grains
are regular crystals of silver halides and usually have

emulsions are prepared, the relative concentrations of

the excess silver and bromide ions determine which is
the stable form. Cubic crystals, with (100) faces, are
produced unless bromide ions are present in much
higher concentration than silver ions, in which case

octahedral crystals result. Through careful control of

the ionic concentrations, intermediate crystal forms can
be produced: either cubes or octahedra, with truncated corners.

16-22

In recent years, more sophisticated control techniques

have been employed in emulsion-making to maintain

uniform stirring and constant temperature and ionic

strength. As a result, emulsions having very uniform
and regular grains of defined size and shape can be
produced routinely.'9 -23 These grains are particularly
useful, both experimentally and practically, because
they can be made with essentially no internal structural
disorder. Defects such as dislocations have a marked
effect on photochemical behavior.
The grains of many commercial emulsions have more

complex shapes than the regular cubes and octahedra

mentioned above. Flattened plates with triangular or
Fig. 5. Model of the unit cell of a silver halide crystal.

hexagonal boundaries, such as those in Fig. 8, are

common forms, along with smaller concentrations of
needle-shaped grains, tetrahedra, and more complex
combined forms.
Most of these shapes occur as a consequence of the

marked effect on crystal growth of twins in the crystal

structure. 2 4 -2 7

The phenomenon of twinning in this

type of crystal structure may be visualized by condefinite geometrical shapes of varying complexity which
are related to the structure of the silver halide crystal

lattice.

sideration of the stacking of successive (111) planes

upon one another. As mentioned above, the ions in
these planes have hexagonal symmetry, and the planes

The practically important silver halides (silver

bromide or silver chloride, either singly or mixed, and
frequently containing a few percent of silver iodide)
all have the sodium chloride type of crystal structure,
whose unit cell is demonstrated in the model shown in
Fig. 5. The silver ions are represented by the small
white balls and halide ions by the large red ones. In

this crystal structure, these ions alternate along the

principal orthogonal axes to build up a lattice with cubic
symmetry. Two sets of planes of the crystal can exist
as stable crystal faces, depending upon the conditions
of crystal growth. One set is the six (100) faces, which
define the boundary of the cubic model shown in the
figure. When these faces are stable, the crystals
themselves (Fig. 6) have the same cubic symmetry
as the model unit cell, although of course many times
larger. The other set of faces that can be stabilized
is composed of the (111) faces, which are normal to the
diagonals of the cubic unit cell. These faces define an

octahedron with triangular faces. The (111) planes

contain ions of either one type or the other, arranged
with hexagonal symmetry. These (111) planes are
stacked in alternating sequence along a cube diagonal:
one of silver ions, one of halide ions, then another of
silver ions, etc. A simple crystal bounded by these
planes will have the form of an octahedron (Fig. 7).
When silver bromide crystals are precipitated from
aqueous solution, in the manner in which photographic

Fig. 9. Model showing the stacking arrangement of (lll) planes

in a silver halide crystal.
January 1972 / Vol. 11, No. 1 / APPLIED OPTICS 17

alternate between the ionic species. They stack upon

one another in a close-packed relationship, with each
ion of one layer resting in the depression between three
ions of the next layer in much the same way oranges are
stacked in a fruit-store display. A photograph of a
model of this type is shown in Fig. 9. Viewed along the
perpendicular to the (111) planes, each layer is seen
to be displaced laterally from the one just below it.

The lateral displacement is one third of the distance

between ions in the same layer, so that the fourth layer

(the top plane of white balls) is in lateral juxtaposition

over the first (the lower plane of red balls), and so on.

In other words, the (111) layers are sequentially arranged in the three nondegenerate lateral positions.
It is customary to designate the three lateral positions
by the letters A, B, and C, and to employ uppercase
letters for one ionic species, say halide ions, and lowercase for the silver ions. The stacking sequence of the
(111) planes of the perfect crystal may then be specified
by the series

'. fi;::'
i
X

ISa~d
i'::
.000
,efS 0 .

AbCaBcAbCaBcAbC,... etc.

A twin occurs when a layer is added in the incorrect

Fg6.Elcto

mi

crographof undeveloped photographic grains

show ing the cubic crystal habit.

position, with
layer. Notice
halide-ion layer
equally well in

respect to its second-nearest-neighbor

that a silver-ion layer forming over a
in the B position, for example, could fit
position a or position c, insofar as its

relation to layer B is concerned. It is only its position

relative to the layer on the opposite side of the B layer
that determines the correct crystal structure. The
interactions between second-nearest-neighbor layers
are relatively weak; therefore, occasionally a stacking

C ........

r557"')

FI

1___1

r
e.
IL

Fig. 7. Electron micrograph of undeveloped photographic grains

with octahedral habit.
18 APPLIED OPTICS / Vol. 11, No. 1 / January 1972

I/L.

Fig. 8. Electron micrograph of undeveloped photographic grains

with tabular forms.

growth on these six faces results in a tabular form.

Under conditions of slow growth with very high bromide-ion concentrations, this growth form can be

highly accentuated, and very large but very flat crystals may be produced. Figure 10 shows a photomicrograph of a population of crystals that are as much
as 50 ,. in lateral dimension but thin enough to produce

rather striking optical interference effects,making them

appear multicolored.
These crystals are good models of more practical
photographic grains, many of which have the same twin
structure. They are also suitable specimens for transmission electron microscopy, for which thin layers such
as these must be produced, in many other materials

only with very great difficulty. This advantage in

*ft:~~~

specimen preparation, however, is outweighed by the

high sensitivity of the crystals to the imaging electron

beam. They must be kept near liquid nitrogen

temperature during observation in order to prevent
extensive decomposition.
Transmission electron microscopy reveals the disa

N~

location structure of the crystals and shows that many

are dislocation-free."
Dislocations may be introduced
by external stresses. Most easily produced are a type
known as twin dislocations, which lie along the twin
planes. One such network of dislocations is shown in
Fig. 11.

The photographic process depends upon the fact that

Fig. 10. Light micrograph of very thin tabular silver bromide
grains showing optical interference colors.

a large enough exposure to light of a silver bromide

grain will cause a very marked change of the time required for initiation of the development reaction.

Absorption of light produces a catalyst, constituting

error occurs. This causes a reversal of the stacking
sequence at one plane, which is then the twin plane.
(correct)

(twinned)

what is known as the latent image. This catalyst is now

known to be an aggregate of silver atoms, with a
minimum size of perhaps three to five atoms. This is
a very small aggregate to control the development of an

AbCaBc~bCaBcAbC,

entire grain, and it is this to which the almost un-

AbCaBcABaCbAcB.

paralleled amplification factor of the photographic

process can be attributed.
The magnitude of the

amplificationis difficult to appreciate in abstract terms,

Here layer c (circled) has been positioned incorrectly,
and every subsequent layer has been positioned correctly with respect to the two preceding ones. Layer A
(arrows) is a twin plane, and the stacking sequence on
one side of this layer is a mirror image of that on the
other side.

Not only does the crystal structure reverse at a twin

plane, but the crystal-habit features do so as well.
Thus a face on a growing crystal that meets the twin

plane at an angle of greater than 90 in the solid phase

will reverse at the twin plane, producing a reentrant or
troughed feature. If the angle between a face and a
twin plane is less than 90, then a wedged or ridged
structure results. The reentrant faces produced in
this way are regions on which new layers nucleate with
ease and are thus faces with high growth rates.
It is easy to see that twinning produces complex,
faceted crystal forms and anisotropic growth rates.
For example, an octahedral crystal on which two
parallel twinning events occur will have reentrant
structures on six of its eight faces, and the accelerated

but an economic analogy makes its immensity strikingly apparent.

The model shown in Fig. 5 is con-

structed from Styrofoam balls and toothpicks, at an

expense of about one-half cent per ball. At this low
cost, we might give some fleeting thought to construction of a model of an entire photographic grain.
But a rough calculation quickly dispels this thought by
showing that such a model would cover a large city
block several stories high and would cost in the neighborhood of $10 million! On this scale, by contrast, the
latent image is worth only two or three cents.
An amplification of this magnitude is rarely encountered in any type of physical or chemical process.

That it is achieved in the photographic process must

be attributed to the details of the kinetics of the development reaction and the catalytic effects of silver

upon it. This reaction, which unquestionably is

thermodynamically favored, actually proceeds at such
a low rate in the absence of a catalyst that a tolerably
small fraction of the unexposed grains is developed.

In addition, it is a property of the system that only a

January 1972 / Vol. 11, No. 1 / APPLIED OPTICS 19

The photochemicalprocessby which the latent-image

silver aggregates

are formed is -now relatively well

understood.30 Absorption of light by the silver halide

produces electron-hole pairs with high efficiency. As
in other photoconductors and phosphors, these electronhole pairs may recombine with no permanent change.
A photochemical alternative is possible in the silver
: * '0
,

my '

f'

halide grains, however, and with proper sensitizing

treatments during emulsion-making may be made
highly efficient. The electrons may be trapped and

" .a

' '',0

0 .

'

combined with mobile interstitial silver ions in the

crystal to form silver atoms, whereas the holes may also

be trapped, either by liberation of halogen at the grain

surface or by combination with some sensitizing im-

purity.
The process is characterized by the thermal instability of single silver atoms in contact with a silver halide
crystal. These decay again to electrons and silver ions,
and in this form redistribute to form aggregates of two
or more atoms, which are stable. The aggregation is a

typical nucleation-growth phenomenon, and the number and size of the resulting silver aggregates are

governed by the statistics of the arrival of photons and

by the decay and recapture properties of the centers
formed. The efficient concentration into a small
number of larger aggregates is a condition for high

photographic sensitivity.

Fig. 11. Transmission electron micrograph of a tabular silver

bromide grain showing a network of intersecting dislocations.

very few atoms of the catalyst are required to cause a

very great rate increase. And finally, the reaction is
autocatalytic, producing more and more of its own

catalyst, at a rate that therefore continually increases

until the grain is completely converted from an undeveloped grain to a developed one. Thus the individual exposed grains normally develop rapidly and
are rarely observable in an intermediate state. This
explains why changes in density as a function of either
exposure or development time usually correspond
principally to changes of the factor n (number of
grains) of the Nutting Eq. (1) and only slightly, if at all,
to changes of &,.

The exact nature of the catalytic effect, and particularlyits dependenceuponsilver-aggregatesize,isnotcompletely understood. Presumably it has to do with the
vacant electronic energy levels of the silver aggregate
in contact with the silver halide, to which developer
molecules can transfer electrons. 29 Experimental evidence indicates that the lowest unoccupied level is
decreased at least several tenths of an electron volt by
the accumulation of four or five atoms into an aggregate.
20 APPLIED OPTICS / Vol. 11, No. 1 / January 1972

.1-.

Fig. 12. Transmission electron micrograph of a heavily exposed

silver bromide grain showing dislocation loops produced at the
growing silver particles.

The locations of silver aggregates are strongly influenced by crystalline imperfections which may trap
mobile photoelectrons. Silver may form on the grain
surface or in the interior if dislocations or twin planes
are present. It is for this reason that dislocation-free,
nontwinned grains are of such interest.

6. E. C. Doerner, J. Opt. Soc. Am. 52, 669 (1962); in Photographic Science, Symposium: Paris, 1965, J. Pouradier,
Ed. (Focal Press, London, 1967), p. 535.
7. C. E. K. Mees and T. H. James, The Theory of the Photographic Process (Macmillan, New York, 1966), Chap. 4.
8. R. B. Pontius and R. J. Newmiller, Photogr. Sci. Eng. 8,

a mass transport to that site and sets up compressive

stresses in the surrounding silver halide matrix. These
stresses are relaxed by the generation of prismatic dislocation loops, which are punched out from the silver
particle like smoke rings, along the 12 (110) directions
of easy slip in the lattice." Figure 12 shows a transmission electron micrograph of some such loops in an
exposed AgBr crystal.
These, then, are some of the features of the photographic grain that are of current interest. Some of

9. T. H. James and W. Vanselow, Photogr. Sci. Eng. 1, 104

The formation of an internal silver particle constitutes

them are only partially understood and some hardly at

all.

Undoubtedly, there are still other features whose

relevance to this subject is not yet appreciated. Never-

196 (1964).

(1958).
10. M. von Ardenne, Z. Angew. Phot. 2, 14 (1940).
11. C. E. Hall and A. L. Schoen, J Opt. Soc. Am. 31,
(1941).

281

12. J. D. Eshelby, J. Appl. Phys. 24, 176 (1953); Philos. Mag.

3, series 8, 440 (1958).
13. T. H. James, Photogr. Sci. Eng. 3, 225 (1959).

14. T. H. James, J. Chem. Phys. 11, 338 (1943).

15. N. F. Mott, Photogr. J. 88B, 119 (1948).

16. C. R. Berry, J. Opt. Soc. Am. 40, 615 (1950).

17. W. Jaenicke, Photogr. Sci. Eng. 6, 185 (1962).
18. C. R. Berry, Photogr. Sci. Eng. 13, 65 (1969).

19. C. R. Berry, S. J. Marino, and C. F. Oster, Photogr. Sci.

Eng. 5, 332 (1961).

20. R. W. Berriman, J. Photogr. Sci. 12, 121 (1964).
21. H. E. Spencer, Photogr. Sci. Eng. 11, 352 (1967).

theless, the search efforts of many laboratories throughout the world are continually filling in gaps in a coherent
framework relating the various aspects of this subject.
After its long history as a scientific curiosity, the photographic grain is still a challenging subject for further
research.

23. W. Markocki and W. Romer, Korpuskularphotographie

(Institut fur Wissenschaftliche Photographie der Technische

References

24. R. W. Berriman and R. H. Herz, Nature 180, 239 (1957).

25. C. R. Berry and D. C. Skillman, J. Appl. Phys. 33, 1900

22. E. Klein and C. Moisar, Ber. Bunsenges. Phys. Chem. 67, 349,
949 (1963).

Hochschule

(1962);

1. C. E. K. Mees and T. H. James, The Theory of the Photographic Process (Macmillan, New York, 1966).
2. P. G. Nutting,

Philos. Mag. 26, series 6, 423 (1913).

Munchen, Munich,

1963), Vol. 4, p. 149.

Photogr. Sci. Eng. 6, 159 (1962).

26. E. Klein, H. J. Metz, and E. Moisar, Photogr. Korr. 99,

99 (1963);

100, 55 (1964).

27. J. F. Hamilton and L. E. Brady, J. Appl. Phys. 35, 414

(1964).

3. C. E. K. Mees and T. H. James, The Theory of the Photographic Process (Macmillan, New York, 1966), Chap. 4.
4. C. E. K. Mees and T. H. James, The Theory of the Photographic Process (Macmillan, New York, 1966), Chap. 23.

28. J. F. Hamilton, Photogr. Sci. Eng. 11, 57 (1967); Philos.

Mag. 16, 1 (1967).
29. F. Trautweiler, Photogr. Sci. Eng. 12, 138 (1968).
30. Ref. 7, Chap. 5.
31. D. A. Jones and J. W. Mitchell, Philos. Mag. 3, 1 (1958).

5. E. W. H. Selwyn, Photogr. J. 75, 571 (1935); 82, 209 (1942).

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