Basic Physics Module

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BASIC PHYSICS 1 MODULE

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MAASAI MARA UNIVERSITY
(MMU)
SCHOOL OF SCIENCE
DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS
PHY 110 MODULE FOR
BSC, BED, BSC (COMPUTER)
PHY110: BASIC PHYSICS 1
Maera John
JAN-APRIL 2015
Page 1 of 64
SYMBOLS USED
Take Note
Further Reading
Question
Written Exercises
A question: This symbol indicates that

there is a ?...
Activity
Summary
A
Congratulations
Definitions of Key Words
Words
Self-Diagnosis Test
Written Assignment
Written
Assignment
?
100
My score
Objectives
o
Page 2 of 64
Table of Contents
Symbols used .................................................................................................................................................... 2
TOPIC 1:
MECHANICS ..................................................................................................................................... 6
Self diagnostic Test ........................................................................................................................................... 6

Introduction ...................................................................................................................................................... 6
Specific objectives ............................................................................................................................................. 6
Nature of physics .............................................................................................................................................. 6
Physical and non-physical quantities ................................................................................................................ 6
Vectors and scalars ........................................................................................................................................... 7
Vector addition ................................................................................................................................................. 7
Dot Product or Scalar Product .......................................................................................................................... 7
The VECTOR PRODUCT or CROSS PRODUCT ..................................................................................................... 8
Written Exercise 1.1 .......................................................................................................................................... 9
TYPES OF MOTION ............................................................................................................................................ 9
Equations of uniformly accelerated linear motion ...................................................................................... 10
Classic version ............................................................................................................................................. 10
Examples ..................................................................................................................................................... 11
Written Exercise 1.2 ........................................................................................................................................ 11
Projectile Motion ............................................................................................................................................ 12
Introduction ................................................................................................................................................ 12
The Trajectory of a Simple Projectile is a Parabola ..................................................................................... 13
Summary ..................................................................................................................................................... 13
Circular Motion ............................................................................................................................................... 14
Equations of circular motion ....................................................................................................................... 14
Simple Harmonic Motion ................................................................................................................................ 15
Hooke's Law: ............................................................................................................................................... 16
Definitions:.................................................................................................................................................. 16
Dynamics of simple harmonic motion......................................................................................................... 17
Energy of simple harmonic motion ............................................................................................................. 18
Newton's laws of motion ................................................................................................................................ 18
Impulse ........................................................................................................................................................... 19
Relationship to the conservation laws ........................................................................................................ 20
Kepler's laws ................................................................................................................................................... 20
Page 3 of 64
Examples of Kepler's Third Law ................................................................................................................... 21

Friction .............................................................................................................................................................. 21
Coulomb friction ........................................................................................................................................... 22
Coefficient of friction .................................................................................................................................. 22
Reducing friction........................................................................................................................................... 23
Summary ..................................................................................................................................................... 23
TOPIC TWO:
PROPRTIES OF MATTER ............................................................................................................... 25
Self diagnostic Test ......................................................................................................................................... 25

Introduction .................................................................................................................................................... 25
Specific objectives ........................................................................................................................................... 25
Phases of matter. ............................................................................................................................................ 25
Six Common Phase Changes ....................................................................................................................... 26
Density and Elasticity ...................................................................................................................................... 26
BERNOULLI'S EQUATION: for Ideal Fluid Flow ................................................................................................ 30
Written Exercise 2.1 ........................................................................................................................................ 31
TOPIC THREE:
THERMAL PHYSICS .................................................................................................................. 33

Introduction .................................................................................................................................................... 33
Rankine scale .............................................................................................................................................. 33
Thermometers ................................................................................................................................................ 34
Calibration of thermometers .......................................................................................................................... 34
Coefficient of thermal expansion .................................................................................................................... 35
Thermal expansion coefficient .................................................................................................................... 35
Linear thermal expansion ........................................................................................................................... 35
Area thermal expansion .............................................................................................................................. 36
Volumetric thermal expansion .................................................................................................................... 36
Conservation of energy ................................................................................................................................... 37
The first law of thermodynamics .................................................................................................................... 37
Heat capacity or specific heat ......................................................................................................................... 38
Kinetic theory of gases .................................................................................................................................... 41
Postulates of kinetic theory of gases .............................................................................................................. 41
Pressure ..................................................................................................................................................... 42
Page 4 of 64
Temperature and kinetic energy ................................................................................................................. 44

Number of collisions with wall .................................................................................................................... 45
RMS speeds of molecules ........................................................................................................................... 46
Heat transfer ................................................................................................................................................... 46
Conduction.................................................................................................................................................. 46
Convection .................................................................................................................................................. 47
Radiation ..................................................................................................................................................... 48
Clothing and building surfaces, and radiative transfer................................................................................ 48
Newton's law of cooling .............................................................................................................................. 49
One dimensional application, using thermal circuits .................................................................................. 49
Insulation and radiant barriers.................................................................................................................... 51
Critical insulation thickness......................................................................................................................... 52
Blackbody Radiation ....................................................................................................................................... 52
TOPIC FOUR:
SOUND.................................................................................................................................... 55

Introduction .................................................................................................................................................... 55
Sound .............................................................................................................................................................. 55
Perception of sound........................................................................................................................................ 55
Physics of sound.............................................................................................................................................. 56
Longitudinal and transverse waves ................................................................................................................. 56
Sound wave properties and characteristics ................................................................................................ 56
Speed of sound ........................................................................................................................................... 56
Acoustics and noise..................................................................................................................................... 57
Sound pressure level ................................................................................................................................... 57
Examples of sound pressure and sound pressure levels ............................................................................. 57
Equipment for dealing with sound .............................................................................................................. 58
References .......................................................................................................................................................... 61
Appendix 1: COURSE outline Phy110 .............................................................................................................. 62
Page 5 of 64
TOPIC 1
MECHANICS
SELF DIAGNOSTIC TEST

Answer all questions
?
1.
What is physics?
100
2.
What is a physical quantity?
3. Distinguish between vectors and scalars giving five examples for each
4. Discuss the types of motion
5. Relate Newtons laws to Keplers laws of motion
INTRODUCTION
In this topic we shall discuss the physical quantities, their measurement units and classify them into
scalars and vectors. Operation of vectors is core in dealing with mechanical systems. We shall then
derive the equations of linear, rotational, circular motion and simple Harmonic motion. Finally we
shall relate Newtons law to Keplers laws.
SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
At the end of this TOPIC you should be able to:
1. Distinguish between vectors and scalars

2. Add, subtract and multiply vectors
3. Derive the equations of various types of motion
4. State Newtons laws of motion
5. State the conservation of energy and momentum
NATURE OF PHYSICS
Physics, is a major science, dealing with the fundamental constituents of the universe, the
forces they exert on one another, and the results produced by these forces. Sometimes in
modern physics a more sophisticated approach is taken that incorporates elements of the
three areas listed above; it relates to the laws of symmetry and conservation, such as those
pertaining to energy, momentum, charge, and parity.
PHYSICAL AND NON-PHYSICAL QUANTITIES

Dfn 1: A physical quantity is one that can be measured and a number assigned to it. An example is
time, mass, volume, power, force, amount of substance. A laboratory is not a physical quantity but
its length, width and height are physical quantities.
Dfn 2: A non-physical quantity is one that cannot be measured and a number given to value. An
example is smell. One can only say good, bad, average but not give a number objectively.
Page 6 of 64
VECTORS AND SCALARS

Dfn:
Vectors are quantities that have a size and a direction.

Examples: Time, temperature, and Mass
Dfn:
Scalars quantities have only size.

Examples: acceleration, momentum, velocity, electric field
Vectors are central to the study of physics. Early on in this study you will encounter types of vector
quantities. Besides displacement and velocity, other examples of vectors include acceleration, force,
gravitational field, torque, and electric and magnetic fields.
Classify the basic physical quantities into scalars and vectors?
VECTOR ADDITION
The unit vectors i, j, and k are chosen so that through the addition of multiples of themselves
with each other, the three of them can describe all vectors possible in the space.
An arbitrary vector V, is described by specifying the amounts of i, j, and k which, when
summed together, make V.
The components of Vare Vx, Vy, and Vz .
To specify V, it is sufficient to specify its three components (Vx, Vy, and Vz). Hence, a three
dimensional vector is an ordered set of three numbers.
A seventy dimensional vector is an ordered set of 70 numbers.
Two vectors, A and B, are equal if and only if each of their components are equal: Ax = Bx; Ay
= By; Az = Bz. It is interesting to observe that 1 vector equation (A = B) is equivalent to three
scalar equations. This brevity is a nice aspect to vector algebra.
When we add vectors, we add each of their components separately. By this it is clear that in
order to add two vectors, they must have the same dimension - otherwise the operation is
undefined. When we visualize this in space, we imagine moving the start point of one vector to
the endpoint of the other vector. The sum vector is the resultant.
In a two dimensional case, we have mathematically A + B = (4, 7) + (4, 1) = (8, 8). We should
also remember that multiplication of a vector by scalar is multiplication of each component by
the same scalar, namely cA = (cAx, cAy, cAz)
The length of a vector is called its magnitude and is usually denoted by |A|. The directionality
of the vector is lost for this quantity so it is a scalar.
DOT PRODUCT OR SCALAR PRODUCT

One way of combining two vectors is through an operation called the dot product. It is written as:
A B B A A B COS
Another form of the equation is
A B (Ax i Ay j Az k) (Bx i By j Bzk) A x Bx A y By Az Bz
Page 7 of 64
This last form can be seen clearly when we consider the dot product of the unit vectors i, j, and k.
Because they are fixed at 90 degrees from each other we have:
i i j j k k COS0 1
and
i j j k k i COS 0
2
This property of these three vectors (the dot product with themselves produces 1 and the dot
product with each other produces 0) is what defines them as being a set of orthogonal,
normalized vectors or orthonormal, for short. In a 2 or 3 dimensional space, we can
characterize this condition as having the vectors placed at right-angles to each other. The
same concept holds in higher order spaces, but we are unable to visualize "right angles" in a
70 dimensional space!
With this information it is clear to see that this provides a quick route to the magnitude of a
vector, namely to take the dot product of a vector with itself.
A A A 2 A x2 A y 2 A z 2 A A x2 A y 2 A z 2
1/ 2
THE VECTOR PRODUCT OR CROSS PRODUCT

There is another way to combine vectors. This is the cross product but in this case the result
is another vector, rather than a scalar as with the dot product. It is a little more involving
mathematically to remember the form of the operation so we cast it in the form of a
determinant (is that any easier to remember?)
Vector multiplication yielding another vector

Yields a vector which has a direction determined by the right hand rule
Yields a vector perpendicular to the plane containing the other two vectors
The cross product DOES NOT commute
+ a j(b i + b j + b k)
a b = a1i (b1i + b2 j + b3k)

2
1
2
3 + a 3k (b1i + b 2 j + b3k)
a b = (a 2 b3 - a3b2 )i + (a3b1 - a1b3 )j + (a1b2 - a 2 b1)k
i
a b = a1
j
a2
k
a3
b1
b2
b3
Take a look at the order of the subscripts in the result and you will see a cyclical
appearance of each one. Learn to appreciate the order in this for it will appear time
and again. There are a couple of other properties worth noting here.
Page 8 of 64
Using the definition of cross product and right hand rule:
i i j j k k 0
i j k j i
j k i k i
k i j i k
Graphically, the concept to remember is that the cross product produces a vector which is
perpendicular to both vectors making up the argument of the product. This means it is
orthogonal to both (though the two argument vectors need not be orthogonal to each other).
When the two original vectors are orthogonal to each other, the cross product vector has the
greatest magnitude (it is at its longest). As the two vectors are rotated in towards each other, the
resultant vector shortens until it disappears when the two overlap. This same happens when the
two initial vectors rotate away from each other, the resultant disappearing when the point
opposite each other.
WRITTEN EXERCISE 1.1

1. Write down five physical quantities and five non-physical quantities apart
from the ones given above
2. Find sum, difference, scalar product and cross product of the following
vectors (i) A 3i 5 j 10k and C 3 j - 2i - 6k
and (2i + 3j - k)
(ii) (5i - j + 2k)
Revision Exercises 1.1

Ans.
1.24
What displacement at 70 has a component of 450 m? What is its y-component?
1.3 km, 1.2km
1.25
What displacement must be added to a 50 cm displacement in the +x-direction to give a resultant displacement
of 85 cm at 25? Ans. 45 cm at 53
TYPES OF MOTION
In physics, equations of motion describe the behavior of a system (e.g., the motion of a particle under
an influence of a force) as a function of time. Sometimes the term refers to the differential equations
that the system satisfies (e.g., Newton's second law), and sometimes to the solutions to those equations.
Page 9 of 64
Equations of uniformly accelerated linear motion

The body is considered between two instants in time: one "initial" point and one "current".
Often, problems in kinematics deal with more than two instants, and several applications of
the equations are required. If acceleration, a is constant, a differential, adt, may be
integrated over an interval from 0 to t (t = t ti), to obtain a linear relationship for
velocity.
Integration of the velocity yields a quadratic relationship for position at the end of the
interval.
v u at;
1
s si ut a( t)2 and v 2 u 2 2a(s si )
2
where...
ui ----is the body's initial velocity;
si-----is the body's initial position
and its current state is described by:
v--- The velocity at the end of the interval
s---- the position at the end of the interval (displacement)
t--- the time interval between the initial and current states
a---- the constant acceleration, or in the case of bodies moving under the influence of
gravity, a = g.
Note that each of the equations contains four of the five variables. Thus, in this situation it is
sufficient to know three out of the five variables to calculate the remaining two.
Classic version
The above equations are often written in the following form:
v u at;
1
1
s ut at 2 ; s (u v)t and v 2 u 2 2as
2
2
where
s = the distance between initial and final positions (displacement) (sometimes
denoted R or x)
u = the initial velocity (speed in a given direction)
v = the final velocity
a = the constant acceleration
t = the time taken to move from the initial state to the final state
Page 10 of 64
Examples
Many examples in kinematics involve projectiles, for example a ball thrown upwards into
the air.
Given initial speed u, one can calculate how high the ball will travel before it begins to fall.
The acceleration is local acceleration of gravity g. At this point one must remember that
while these quantities appear to be scalars, the direction of displacement, speed and
acceleration is important. They could in fact be considered as uni-directional vectors.
Choosing s to measure up from the ground, the acceleration a must be in fact g, since the
force of gravity acts downwards and therefore also the acceleration on the ball due to it.
At the highest point, the ball will be at rest: therefore v = 0. Using the fourth equation, we have:
s
v 2 u2
u2
Substituting and cancelling minus signs gives: s
2g
2g

1. Derive the three equations of linear motion
2. How motion under gravity affect the three equations?

2.15
A ball that is thrown vertically upward on the Moon returns to its starting point in 4.0 s. The acceleration due
to gravity there is 1.60 m/s 2 downward. Find the ball's original speed.
2.30
A truck starts from rest and moves with a constant acceleration of 5.0 m/s 2. Find its speed and the distance
traveled after 4.0 s has elapsed.
Ans. 20 m/s, 40 m
2.31
A box slides down an incline with uniform acceleration. It starts from rest and attains a speed of 2.7 m/s in 3.0
s. Find (a) the acceleration and (b) the distance moved in the first 6.0 s.
Ans. (a) 0.90 m/s2; (b) 16 m
2.32
A car is accelerating uniformly as it passes two checkpoints that are 30 m apart. The time taken between
checkpoints is 4.0 s, and the car's speed at the first checkpoint is 5.0 m/s. Find the car's acceleration and its
speed at the second checkpoint.
Ans. 1.3 m/s2, 10 m/s
2.33
An auto's velocity increases uniformly from 6.0 m/s to 20 m/s while covering 70 m in a straight line. Find the
acceleration and the time taken.
Ans. 2.6 m/s2, 5.4 s
Page 11 of 64
PROJECTILE MOTION
Introduction
A projectile is any object that is cast, fired, flung, heaved, hurled, pitched, tossed, or thrown.
The path of a projectile is called its trajectory. Some examples of projectiles include
a bullet the instant it exits the barrel of a gun or rifle

a moving airplane in the air with its engines and wings disabled
the space shuttle or any other spacecraft after main engine cut off (MECO)
The force of primary importance acting on a projectile is gravity. This is not to say that
other forces do not exist, just that their effect is minimal in comparison. A tossed heliumfilled balloon is not normally considered a projectile as the drag and buoyant forces on it are
as significant as the weight. Helium-filled balloons can't be thrown long distances and don't
normally fall. In contrast, a crashing airplane would be considered a projectile. Even though
the drag and buoyant forces acting on it are much greater in absolute terms than they are on
the balloon, gravity is what really drives a crashing airplane. The normal amounts of drag
and buoyancy just aren't large enough to save the passengers on a doomed flight from an
unfortunate end.
A projectile is any object with an initial non-zero, horizontal velocity whose acceleration is
due to gravity alone.
An essential characteristic of a projectile is that its future has already been preordained. The
only relevant quantities that might vary from projectile to projectile then are initial velocity
and initial position
This is where we run into some linguistic complications. Airplanes, guided missiles, and
rocket-propelled spacecraft are sometimes also said to follow a trajectory. Since these
devices are acted upon by the lift of wings and the thrust of engines in addition to the force
of gravity, they are not really projectiles. To get around this dilemma, it is common to use
the term ballistic trajectory when dealing with projectiles. The laws of physics are assumed
universal until it can be demonstrated otherwise. The unification of physical law is a theme
that surfaces from time to time in physics.
A projectile and a satellite are both governed by the same physical principles even though
they have different names. A simple projectile is made mathematically simple by an
idealization (basically a lie of convenience). By assuming a constant value for the
acceleration due to gravity, we make the problem easier to solve and (in many cases) do not
really lose all that much in the way of accuracy.
Every projectile problem is essentially two one-dimensional motion problems
The kinematic equations for a simple projectile are those of an object traveling with constant
horizontal velocity and constant vertical acceleration.
Horizontal
Vertical
Quantity
Page 12 of 64
ay = g
ax = 0
acceleration
vx = ux
vy = uy gt
velocity-time
x = x0 + uxt
y = y0 + uyt gt2
displacement-time
vy2 = uy2 2g(y u)
velocity-displacement
The Trajectory of a Simple Projectile is a Parabola

max range at 45, equal ranges for launch angles that exceed and fall short of 45 by equal amounts
(ex. 40 & 50, 30 & 60, 0 & 90)
Summary
A projectile is any object

o with an initial non-zero, horizontal velocity
o whose acceleration is due to gravity alone.
The path of a projectile is called its trajectory.
A projectile is said to be
o a simple projectile if the acceleration due to gravity may be assumed
constant in both magnitude and direction throughout its trajectory.
o a satellite if it follows a closed path that never brings it in contact
with a celestial body (like the earth).
o a general projectile no matter where its trajectory may take it.
The kinematic equations for a simple projectile are those of an object
traveling with
o constant horizontal velocity and
o constant vertical acceleration.
he horizontal distance traveled by a projectile is called its range.
projectile launched on level ground with an initial speed u at an angle above
the horizontal
o will have the same range as a projectile launched with an initial speed
u at (90 ). (Identical projectiles launched at complementary angles
have the same range.)
o will have a maximum range when = 45.

2.43
A marble, rolling with speed 20 cm/s, rolls off the edge of a table that is 80 cm high, (a) How long does it
Page 13 of 64
take to drop to the floor? (b) How far, horizontally, from the table edge does the marble strike the
floor?
Ans. (a) 0.40 s; (b) 8.1 cm
2.44
A body projected upward from the level ground at an angle of 50 with the horizontal has an initial speed of
40 m/s. (a) How long will it take to hit the ground? (b) How far from the starting point will it strike? (c) At
what angle with the horizontal will it strike?
Ans. (a) 6.3 s; (b) 0.16 km; (c) 50
2.45
A body is projected downward at an angle of 30 with the horizontal from the top of a building 170 m high.
Its initial speed is 40 m/s. (a) How long will it take before striking the ground? (b) How far from the foot of
the building will it strike? (c) At what angle with the horizontal will it strike?
Ans. (a) 4.2 s; (b) 0.15 km;
(c) 60
CIRCULAR MOTION
For circular motion at a constant speed v, the centripetal acceleration of the motion can be
derived. Since in radian measure,
Equations of circular motion

The analogues of the above equations can be written for rotation:
1
2
1
2
1
2
= o + t; = ( + o )t; = o t + t 2 ; 2 = o2 + 2 and = t - t 2
where:
is the angular acceleration
is the angular velocity
is the angular displacement
0 is the initial angular velocity.
Page 14 of 64
Revision questions 1.4

9.19
A flywheel turns at 480 rpm. Compute the angular speed at any point on the wheel and the tangential
speed 30.0 cm from the center.
Ans. 50.3 rad/s, 15.1 m/s
9.20
It is desired that the outer edge of a grinding wheel 9.0 cm in radius move at a rate of 6.0 m/s. (a)
Determine the angular speed of the wheel, (b) What length of thread could be wound on the rim of the
wheel in 3.0 s when it is turning at this rate?
Ans. (a) 67 rad/s; (b) 1 8 m
9.21
Through how many radians does a point on the Earth's surface move in 6.00 h as a result of the
Earth's rotation? What is the speed of a point on the equator? Take the radius of the
Earth to be 6370km.
Ans. 1.57 rad, 463 m/s
9.22 A wheel 25.0 cm in radius turning at 120 rpm increases its frequency to 660 rpm in 9.00 s. Find
(a) the constant angular acceleration in rad/s 2 , and (b) the tangential acceleration of a
point on its rim. Ans. (a) 6.28 rad/s 2 ; (b) 157 cm/s 2
SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION

Simple harmonic motion (SHM) is the motion of a simple harmonic oscillator, a motion that is
neither driven nor damped. A body in simple harmonic motion experiences a single force which is
given by Hooke's law; that is, the force is directly proportional to the displacement x and points in the
opposite direction.
The motion is periodic: the body oscillates about an equilibrium position in a sinusoidal pattern. Each
oscillation is identical, and thus the period, frequency, and amplitude of the motion are constant. If the
equilibrium position is taken to be zero, the displacement x of the body at any time t is given by
x(t) A cos( 2ft ) Where A is the amplitude, f is the frequency, and is the phase.
The frequency of the motion is determined by the intrinsic properties of the system (often the mass of
the body and a force constant), while the amplitude and phase are determined by the initial conditions
(displacement and velocity) of the system. The kinetic and potential energies of the system are also
determined by these properties and conditions.
Introduction
Simple harmonic motion showed both in real space and phase space. The orbit is periodic.
(Here the velocity and position axes have been reversed from the standard convention in
order to align the two diagrams)
A typical example of a system that undergoes simple harmonic motion is an idealized
springmass system, which is a mass attached to a spring. If the spring is outstretched, there
is no net force on the mass (that is, the system is in mechanical equilibrium). However, if the
mass is displaced from equilibrium, the spring will exert a restoring force, which is a force
that tends to restore the mass to the equilibrium position. In the case of the springmass
system, this force is the elastic force, which is given by Hooke's Law,
Idea: Any object that is initially displaced slightly from a stable equilibrium point will
oscillate about its equilibrium position. It will, in general, experience a restoring force that
depends linearly on the displacement x from equilibrium:
Page 15 of 64
Hooke's Law:
Fs -kx
(1)
where the equilibrium position is chosen to have x -coordinate x = 0 and k is a constant that
depends on the system under consideration. The units of k are:
Newtons
k
(2)
metres
Definitions:
Amplitude (A): The maximum distance that an object moves from its equilibrium
position. A simple harmonic oscillator moves back and forth between the two
positions of maximum displacement, at x = A and x = - A.
Period ( T ): The time that it takes for an oscillator to execute one complete cycle of
its motion. If it starts at t = 0 at x = A , then it gets back to x = A after one full period
at t = T .
Frequency ( f ): The number of cycles (or oscillations) the object completes per unit
time.
f
1
T
(3)
The unit of frequency is usually taken to be 1 Hz = 1 cycle per second.

Simple Harmonic Oscillator: Any object that oscillates about a stable equilibrium position and
experiences a restoring force approximately described by Hooke's law. Examples of simple
harmonic oscillators include: a mass attached to a spring, a molecule inside a solid, a car stuck
in a ditch being ``rocked out'' and a pendulum.
Note:
The negative sign in Hooke's law ensures that the force is always opposite to the direction of the
displacement and therefore back towards the equilibrium position (i.e. a restoring force).
Page 16 of 64
The constant k in Hooke's law is traditionally called the spring constant for the system, even
when the restoring force is not provided by a simple spring.
The motion of any simple harmonic oscillator is completely characterized by two quantities: the
amplitude, and the period (or frequency).
Dynamics of simple harmonic motion

For oscillation in a single dimension, combining Newton's second law (F = md2x/dt2) and Hooke's law
d2 x
(F = kx, as above) gives the second-order differential equation m
kx where m is the mass
dt 2
of the body, x is its displacement from the mean position, and k is a constant.
The solutions to this differential equation are sinusoidal; one solution is
x(t) A cos( 2ft )
where A, , and are constants, and the equilibrium position is chosen to be the origin. Each of these
constants represents an important physical property of the motion: A is the amplitude, = 2f is the
angular frequency, and is the phase.
Position, velocity and acceleration of an harmonic oscillator

Using the techniques of differential calculus, the velocity and acceleration as a function of time can be
found:
Acceleration can also be expressed as a function of displacement:
, Now since ma = m2x = kx, ;
; Then since = 2f,
and since T = 1/f,

These equations demonstrate that period and frequency are independent of the amplitude and
the initial phase of the motion.
Page 17 of 64
Energy of simple harmonic motion

The kinetic energy K of the system at time t is
and the potential energy is
The total mechanical energy of the system therefore has the constant value

[11.2]
A spring makes 12 vibrations in 40 s. Find the period and frequency of the vibration. [Ans: 0.30
Hz]
[11.5]
A 50-g mass vibrates in SHM at the end of a spring. The amplitude of the motion is 12 cm, and
the period is 1.70 s. Find: (a) the frequency, (b) the spring constant, (c) the maximum speed of the
mass, (d) the maximum acceleration of the mass, (e) the speed when the displacement is 6.0 cm,
and (f) the acceleration when x = 6.0 cm.
[11.16] In Fig. below the 2.0-kg mass is released when the spring is unstretched. Neglecting the inertia
and friction of the pulley and the mass of the spring and string, find (a) the amplitude of the
resulting oscillation and (b) its center or equilibrium point.
k =300
3000300
m = 2.0 kg
N/m
[11.27]
Find the frequency of vibration on Mars for a simple pendulum that is 50 cm long. Objects weigh 0.40 as
much on Mars as on the Earth.
Ans. 0.45 Hz
[11.28] A "seconds pendulum" beats seconds; that is, it takes 1 s for half a cycle, (a) What is the length of a simple
"seconds pendulum" at a place where g = 9.80 m/s ? (b) What is the length there of a pendulum for which
T = 1.00 s?
Ans. (a) 99.3 cm; (b) 24.8 cm
NEWTON'S LAWS OF MOTION

Page 18 of 64
Newton's laws of motion are three physical laws that form the basis for classical mechanics. They
are:
First law
There exists a set of inertial reference frames relative to which all particles with no net force
acting on them will move without change in their velocity. This law is often simplified as "A
body persists its state of rest or of uniform motion unless acted upon by an external
unbalanced force." Newton's first law is often referred to as the law of inertia.
Second law
Observed from an inertial reference frame, the net force on a particle is equal to the time rate
of change of its linear momentum: F = d(mv)/dt. When mass is constant, this law is often
stated as, "Force equals mass times acceleration (F = ma): the net force on an object is equal
to the mass of the object multiplied by its acceleration."
Third law
Whenever a particle A exerts a force on another particle B, B simultaneously exerts a force on
A with the same magnitude in the opposite direction. The strong form of the law further
postulates that these two forces act along the same line. This law is often simplified into the
sentence, "To every action there is an equal and opposite reaction."
Note:
These laws describe the relationship between the forces acting on a body and the motion of
that body. They were first compiled by Sir Isaac Newton in his work Philosophi Naturalis
Principia Mathematica, first published on July 5, 1687. Newton used them to explain and
investigate the motion of many physical objects and systems. For example, in the third
volume of the text, Newton showed that these laws of motion, combined with his law of
universal gravitation, explained Kepler's laws of planetary motion.
IMPULSE
An impulse I occurs when a force F acts over an interval of time t, and it is given by
I
t Fdt
Since force is the time derivative of momentum, it follows that I p mv

This relation between impulse and momentum is closer to Newton's wording of the second
law. Impulse is a concept frequently used in the analysis of collisions and impacts.
According to modern ideas of how Newton was using his terminology, his is understood,
in modern terms, as an equivalent of:
The change of momentum of a body is proportional to the impulse impressed on the
body, and happens along the straight line on which that impulse is impressed.
Page 19 of 64
Relationship to the conservation laws

In modern physics, the laws of conservation of momentum, energy, and angular
momentum are of more general validity than Newton's laws, since they apply to both light
and matter, and to both classical and non-classical physics.
This can be stated simply, "Momentum, energy and angular momentum cannot be created
or destroyed."
Conservation of energy was discovered nearly two centuries after Newton's lifetime, the
long delay occurring because of the difficulty in understanding the role of microscopic and
invisible forms of energy such as heat and infra-red light.
8.21
An empty 15000-kg coal car is coasting on a level track at 5.00 m/s. suddenly 5000 kg of
coal is dumped into it from directly above it. The coal initially has zero horizontal velocity.
Find the final speed of the car.
Ans. 3.75 m/s.
8.22
Sand drops at a rate of 2000 kg/min from the bottom of a hopper onto a belt conveyer
moving horizontally at 250 m/min. Determine the force needed to drive the conveyer,
neglecting friction. Ans. 139 N
8.26 Two bodies of masses 8 kg and 4 kg move along the x-axis in opposite directions with velocities of 11
m/s POSITIVE ^-DIRECTION and 7 m/s NEGATIVES-DIRECTION , respectively. They collide and stick
together. Find their velocity just after collision.
Ans. 5 m/s POSITIVE S-DIRECTION
8.27 A 1200-kg gun mounted on wheels shoots an 8.00-kg projectile with a muzzle velocity of 600 m/s at
an angle of 30.0 above the horizontal. Find the horizontal recoil speed of the gun.
Ans.
3.46 m/s
KEPLER'S LAWS
LAW 1: The orbit of a planet/comet about the Sun is an ellipse with the Sun's center of mass at one
focus
This is the equation for an ellipse:
x2 y 2
1
2
2
a
b
LAW 2: A line joining a planet/comet and the Sun sweeps out equal areas in equal intervals of time
Page 20 of 64
n
LAW 3: The squares of the periods of the planets are proportional to the cubes of their semimajor
axes:
Ta2 / Tb2 = Ra3 / Rb3
Square of any planet's orbital period (sidereal) is proportional to cube of its mean distance
(semi-major axis) from Sun
Mathematical statement: T = kR3/2 , where T = sideral period, and R = semi-major axis
Example - If a is measured in astronomical units (AU = semi-major axis of Earth's orbit) and
sidereal period in years (Earth's sidereal period), then the constant k in mathematical
expression for Kepler's third law is equal to 1, and the mathematical relation becomes
T2 =k R3
Examples of Kepler's Third Law

Planet
P (yr)
a (AU)
T2
R3
Mercury
0.24
0.39
0.06
0.06
Venus
0.62
0.72
0.39
0.37
Earth
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
Mars
1.88
1.52
3.53
3.51
Jupiter
11.9
5.20
142
141
Saturn
29.5
9.54
870
868
Friction
Friction is the force resisting the relative motion of two surfaces in contact or a surface in
contact with a fluid (e.g. air on an aircraft or water in a pipe). It is not a fundamental force,
as it is derived from electromagnetic forces between atoms and electrons, and so cannot be
calculated from first principles, but instead must be found empirically.
When contacting surfaces move relative to each other, the friction between the two objects
converts kinetic energy into thermal energy, or heat. Friction between solid objects is often
referred to as dry friction or sliding friction and between a solid and a gas or liquid as fluid
friction. Both of these types of friction are called kinetic friction.
Page 21 of 64
Contrary to many popular explanations, sliding friction is caused not by surface roughness
but by chemical bonding between the surfaces.
Surface roughness and contact area, however, do affect sliding friction for micro- and
nano-scale objects where surface area forces dominate inertial forces. Internal friction is
the motion-resisting force between the surfaces of the particles making up the substance.
Friction should not be confused with traction. Surface area does not affect friction
significantly, but in traction it is essential.
Coulomb friction
Coulomb friction, named after Charles-Augustin de Coulomb, is a model to describe
friction forces. It is described by the equation:
Ff = Fn
where
Ff is either the force exerted by friction, or, in the case of equality, the maximum
possible magnitude of this force.
is the coefficient of friction, which is an empirical property of the contacting
materials,
Fn is the normal force exerted between the surfaces
For surfaces at rest relative to each other = s, where s is the coefficient of static
friction. This is usually larger than its kinetic counterpart. The Coulomb friction may take
any value from zero up to Ff, and the direction of the frictional force against a surface is
opposite to the motion that surface would experience in the absence of friction. Thus, in
the static case, the frictional force is exactly what it must be in order to prevent motion
between the surfaces; it balances the net force tending to cause such motion. In this case,
rather than providing an estimate of the actual frictional force, the Coulomb approximation
provides a threshold value for this force, above which motion would commence.
For surfaces in relative motion = k, where k is the coefficient of kinetic friction. The Coulomb
friction is equal to Ff, and the frictional force on each surface is exerted in the direction opposite to its
motion relative to the other surface.
Coefficient of friction
The coefficient of friction (also known as the frictional coefficient) is a dimensionless scalar value
which describes the ratio of the force of friction between two bodies and the force pressing them
together. The coefficient of friction depends on the materials used; for example, ice on steel has a low
coefficient of friction (the two materials slide past each other easily), while rubber on pavement has a
high coefficient of friction (the materials do not slide past each other easily). Coefficients of friction
range from near zero to greater than one under good conditions, a tire on concrete may have a
coefficient of friction of 1.7.
Page 22 of 64
Reducing friction
Devices such as tires, ball bearings, air cushion or roller bearing can change sliding friction into a
much smaller type of rolling friction. Many thermoplastic materials such as nylon, HDPE and PTFE
are commonly used for low friction bearings. They are especially useful because the coefficient of
friction falls with increasing imposed load.
A common way to reduce friction is by using a lubricant, such as oil, water, or grease, which is
placed between the two surfaces, often dramatically lessening the coefficient of friction. The science
of friction and lubrication is called tribology. Lubricant technology is when lubricants are mixed with
the application of science, especially to industrial or commercial objectives.
Superlubricity, a recently-discovered effect, has been observed in graphite: it is the substantial
decrease of friction between two sliding objects, approaching zero levels. A very small amount of
frictional energy would still be dissipated.
Lubricants to overcome friction need not always be thin, turbulent fluids or powdery solids such as
graphite and talc; acoustic lubrication actually uses sound as a lubricant.
Summary
We have basically tackled three major issues in this TOPIC.

-
There are threeNewtons laws of motion Viz:
Every body persists in its state of being at rest or of

moving uniformly straight forward, except insofar
as it is compelled to change its state by force
impressed.
The change of momentum of a body is proportional
to the impulse impressed on the body, and happens
along the straight line on which that impulse is
impressed.
To every action there is always an equal and
opposite reaction: or the forces of two bodies on
each other are always equal and are directed in
opposite directions.
There are three Keplers laws of motion Viz:
LAW 1: The orbit of a planet/comet about the Sun
is an ellipse with the Sun's center of mass at one
focus
LAW 2: A line joining a planet/comet and the Sun
sweeps out equal areas in equal intervals of time
LAW 3: The squares of the periods of the planets
are proportional to the cubes of their semimajor
axes:
Page 23 of 64
Note:
1. A vector quantity can not be added to
scalar quantity.
2. Newtons and Keplers laws are applicable
to macroscopic bodies.
3. Discuss the methods of reducing friction.
Written Assignments
PHY110/1
Written
Assignment
1.
Do the following assignment and post it to:

The Head
Department of PHYSICS
MMU
P.O. Box 861,
Narok- Kenya
While driving on the interstate one day at 27.8 m/s (60.0 mph) I accidentally dropped the
Encyclopedia of Physics out the window, 1.15 m above the ground. Determine the
following
a. the horizontal and vertical components of the book's velocity the instant I released
it
b. the time the book was in the air
c. the horizontal distance the book traveled before hitting the ground
d. the horizontal and vertical components of the book's velocity the instant it hit the
ground
Page 24 of 64
TOPIC TWO
: PROPRTIES OF MATTER

?
100
1. Identify the phases of matter

2. Explain the term elasticity
3. What is Bernaullis equation?
4. Explain laminar and turbulent motion of a fluid
INTRODUCTION
In this topic we shall discuss the properties of materials. This enables us to select materials for different
purposes and to deeply understand properties of materials such as elasticity, rigidity, brittleness and ductility.
We wil the consider fluid flow through pipes and relationships that the flow obeys.
SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
1. Define Hookes laws

2. Define elasticity, surface tension and turbulency.
3. Explain factors that afffect surface tension, viscosity and streamline flow of
fluid.
What is the difference between ductile and melliable materials?
PHASES OF MATTER.
There are four phases of matter.
1. Solid
2. Liquid
3. Gas
4. Plasma
The state of matter depends on the motion of the molecules that make it up.
Solids: Solids are objects that have definite shapes and volumes. The atoms or molecules are tightly
packed, so the solid keeps its shape. The arrangement of particles in a solid are in a regular, repeating
pattern called a crystal.
Page 25 of 64
Liquids:
The particles in a liquid are close together, but are able to move around more
freely than in a solid. Liquids have no definite shape and take on the shape of the container that
they are in.
Gases: Agas does not have a definite shape or volume. The particles of a gas have much
more energy than either solids or liquids and can move around freely.
Plasma:
Plasma is a gas-like mixture of positively and negatively charged particles. Plasma
is the most commonly found element in the universe, making up 99% of all matter. It is found in
stars, such as the sun, and in fluorescent lighting. Plasma occurs when temperatures are high
enough to cause particles to collide violently and be ripped apart into charged particles.
Six Common Phase Changes

1.
Melting- temperature at which a substance changes from solid to liquid.
2.
Freezing temperature at which a substance changes from a liquid to a solid.
3.
Evaporation substance changes from a liquid to a gas. (Heat of Vaporization- energy a

substance must absorb in order to change from a liquid to a gas.)
4.
Condensation- substance changes from a gas or vapor to a liquid.
5.
Sublimation substance changes from a solid to a gas or vapor without changing to a

liquid first (endothermic)
6.
Deposition substance changes directly into a solid without first changing to a liquid
(exothermic)
DENSITY AND ELASTICITY

THE MASS DENSITY () of a material is its mass per unit volume:
mass of body
volume of body
The SI unit for mass density is kg/m3, although g/cm3 is also used: 1000 kg/m3 = 1 g/cm3. The density of
water is close to 1000 kg/m3.
THE SPECIFIC GRAVITY (sp gr) of a substance is the ratio of the density of the substance to
the density of some standard substance. The standard is usually water (at 4C) for liquids and
solids, while for gases, it is usually air.
Page 26 of 64
sp gr=
standard
Since sp gr is a dimensionless ratio, it has the same value for all systems of units.
ELASTICITY is the property by which a body returns to its original size and shape when the forces that
deformed it are removed.
THE STRESS () experienced within a solid is the magnitude of the force acting (F), divided by the area
(A) over which it acts:
stress=
force
area of surface on which force acts
Its SI unit is the pascal (Pa), where 1 Pa = 1 N/m2. Thus, if a cane supports a load the stress at any point within the
cane is the load divided by the cross-sectional area at that point; the narrowest regions experience the greatest
stress.
STRAIN () is the fractional deformation resulting from a stress. It is measured as the ratio of the
change in some dimension of a body to the original dimension in which the change occurred.
strain=
change in dimension
original dimension
Thus, the normal strain under an axial load is the change in length (AL) over the original length L 0:
L
Lo
Strain has no units because it is a ratio of like quantities. The exact definition of strain for various situations is
given later.
THE ELASTIC LIMIT of a body is the smallest stress that will produce a permanent distortion in the body.
When a stress in excess of this limit is applied, the body will not return exactly to its original state after
the stress is removed.
YOUNG'S MODULUS (Y) or the modulus of elasticity, is defined as
modulus of elasticity=
stress
strain
The modulus has the same units as stress. A large modulus means that a large stress is required to
produce a given strain - the object is rigid.
Accordingly,
Y=
A FLo
L
AL
Lo
Its SI unit is Pa. Unlike the constant k in Hooke's Law, the value of Y depends only on the material of the
wire or rod, and not on its dimensions or configuration. C onsequently, Young's modulus is an important
basic measure of the mechanical behavior of materials.
Page 27 of 64
THE BULK MODULUS (B) describes the volume elasticity of a material. Suppose that a
uniformly distributed compressive force acts on the surface of an object and is directed
perpendicular to the surface at all points. Then if F is the force acting on and
perpendicular to an area A, we define
pressure on A=P=
F
A
The SI unit for pressure is Pa.

Suppose that the pressure on an object of original volume F 0 is increased by an amount A/ 3 .
The pressure increase causes a volume change V, where V will be negative. We then define
volume stress=P and volume strain=-
Then Bulk modulus =
V
Vo
V P
stress
P
and then B = o
V
strain
V
Vo
The minus sign is used so as to cancel the negative numerical value of F and thereby make B
a positive number. The bulk modulus has the units of pressure.
The reciprocal of the bulk modulus is called the compressibility K of the substance.
THE SHEAR MODULUS (S) describes the shape elasticity of a material. Suppose, as
shown in Fig. 12-1, that equal and opposite tangential forces F act on a rectangular
block. These shearing forces distort the block as indicated, but its volume remains
unchanged. We define
F
A;
L
Then shear modulus
Lo ;
shearing strain=
distancesheared
distance between surfaces
shearing modulus=
F
stress
A FLo
or S
L
strain
AL
Lo
Definition Of Mechanical Properties
Tensile Strength
Compressive Strength
This is the ability of a material to withstand

tensile loads without rupture when the
material is in tension
Compressive (squeezing) loads without
being crushed when the material is in
compression .
Page 28 of 64
Shear Strength
Toughness
Elasticity
Plasticity
Ductility
Malleability
Fatigue Strength
Hardness

offset or traverse loads without rupture
occurring .
This is the ability of a material to withstand shatter. A
material which easily shatters is brittle. Toughness
indicates the ability of a material to absorb energy
This is the ability of a material to deform under load
and return to its original size and shape when the load
is removed. The property is required for springs
This is the property of a material to deform
permanently under the application of a load. Plastacine
is plastic. This is the exact opposite to elasticity.
This is ability of a material to stretch under the
application of tensile load and retain the deformed
shape on the removal of the load. A ductile material
combines the properties of plasticiy and tensile
strength. All materials which are formed by drawing
are required to be ductile
This is the property of a material to deform
permanently under the application of a compressive
load. A material which is forged to its final shape is
required to be malleable.
This is the property of a material to withstand
continuously varying and alternating loads
This is the property of a material to withstand
indentation and surface abrasion by another hard
object. It is an indication of the wear resistance of a
material.e.g Diamonds are very hard.

12.31 A load of 50 kg is applied to the lower end of a steel rod 80 cm long and 0.60 cm in diameter. How much will
the rod stretch? Y = 190 GPa for steel.
Ans. 73 m
12.32 A platform is suspended by four wires at its corners. The wires are 3.0 m long and have a diameter
of 2.0 mm. Young's modulus for the material of the wires is 180 GPa. How far will the platform drop (due
to
elongation of the wires) if a 50-kg load is placed at the center of the platform?
Ans. 0.65 mm
12.33 Determine the fractional change in volume as the pressure of the atmosphere (1 x 10 5 Pa) around a
metal block is reduced to zero by placing the block in vacuum. The bulk modulus for the metal is
125 GPa.
Ans. 8 x 10-7
12.34 Compute the volume change of a solid copper cube, 40 mm on each edge, when subjected to a pressure
of 20 MPa. The bulk modulus for copper is 125 GPa.
Page 29 of 64
Ans.
-10mm 3
BERNOULLI'S EQUATION: FOR IDEAL FLUID FLOW

Assumptions:
The fluid is incompressible and nonviscous.

There is no energy loss due to friction between the fluid and the wall of the pipe.
There is no heat energy transferred across the boundaries of the pipe to the fluid as
either a heat gain or loss.
There are no pumps in the section of pipe under consideration.
The fluid flow is laminar and steady state.
1
1
p1 1v12 1gh1 p2 2 v22 2 gh2
2
2
Bernoulli's Equation is basically a statement of the conservation of energy per unit

volume along the pipe.
E
Energy Density or Energy per unit Volume (SI: J/m3):
V
For an ideal fluid flow the energy density is the same at all locations along the pipe. This
is the same as saying that the energy of a unit mass of the fluid does not change as it
flow through the pipe system.
1
Cons tan t P v 2 gh
2
* A compressed fluid or gas has the ability to do work if it is allowed to expand, i.e. it has
stored energy. The magnitude of the pressure P is equal to the Potential Energy per unit
volume due to the Hydrostatic Pressure in the fluid. Note that the unit of pressure even
can be expressed at a unit of energy density, Pa = N/m2=(N. m)/(m2 . m) = J/m3.
Page 30 of 64
* The kinetic energy density can be though of a pressure exerted by the fluid due to its
motion.
* We have already seen that gravitational potential energy density, gh, is just the
pressure of a fluid due to its weight.

1. What are the factors which affect surface tension of a fluid?
2. Explain why tree branches bend towards the road on a busy tarmac road
used by motor vehicles
3. Explain the equation of continuity..
Revision Questions (fluid at rest) 2.2

13.42
A spring, which may be either bronze (sp gr 8.8) or brass (sp gr 8.4), has a mass of 1.26 g when measured in air and
1.11 g in water. Which is it?
Ans. brass
13.43
What fraction of the volume of a piece of quartz (p = 2.65 g/cm3) will be submerged when it is floating in a container
of mercury (p = 13.6 g/cm3)?
Ans. 0.195
13.47
A cube of wood floating in water supports a 200-g mass resting on the center of its top face. When the mass is removed,
the cube rises 2.00 cm. Determine the volume of the cube. Ans: 1000cm3
Revision Questions (fluid in motion) 2.3

14.29 Calculate the theoretical velocity of efflux of water from an aperture that is 8.0 m below the surface of water in a large
tank, if an added pressure of 140 kPa is applied to the surface of the water.
Ans. 21 m/s
14.30
What horsepower is required to force 8.0 m 3 of water per minute into a

water main at a pressure of 220 kPa?
Ans. 39 hp
14.31 A pump lifts water at the rate of 9.0 liters/s from a lake through a 5.0 cm i.d. Pipe and discharges it into the air at
a point 16 m above the level of the water in the lake. What are the theoretical (a) velocity of the water
at the point of discharge and (b) power delivered by the pump. Ans. (a) 4.6 m/s; (b) 2.0 hp
14.32 Water flows steadily through a horizontal pipe of varying cross-section. At one place the pressure is 130 kPa and the
speed is 0.60 m/s. Determine the pressure at another place in the same pipe where the speed is 9.0 m /s.
Ans. 90 k Pa.
Page 31 of 64
Summary
We have basically tackled three major issues in this

TOPIC.
There are four phases of matter: Solid , Liquid ,
Gas and Plasma
The mass density () of a material is its mass per unit
volume:
mass of body
volume of body
Young's modulus (Y) or the modulus of elasticity, is

defined as
stress
strain
Bernoulli's Equation is basically a statement of the
conservation of energy per unit volume along the
pipe.
modulus of elasticity=
- The specific gravity (sp gr) of a substance is

the ratio of the density of the substance to the
density of some standard substance. the
standard is usually water (at 4c) for liquids
and solids, while for gases, it is usually air
- Strain has no units because it is a ratio of like
quantities. the exact definition of strain for
various situations is given later.
Note:
Written Assignments
PHY110/1
Do the following revision exercices and post it to:
Written
Assignment
The Head
MMU
P.O. Box 861,
Narok- Kenya
Page 32 of 64
TOPIC THREE
THERMAL PHYSICS

?
100
1. arrange the metals you know in order of their

expansivities.
2. Show how you can convert temperature from celcius to Rankin scale
3. State the assumptions of the kinetic theory of gases
4. What is the difference between radiation and conduction methods of
heat transfers?
INTRODUCTION
Thermal expansion, the general increase in the volume of a material as its temperature is increased.
It is usually expressed as a fractional change in length or volume per unit temperature change; a
linear expansion coefficient is usually employed in describing the expansion of a solid, while a
volume expansion coefficient is more useful for a liquid or a gas. If a crystalline solid is isometric
(has the same structural configuration throughout), the expansion will be uniform in all dimensions
of the crystal. If it is not isometric, there may be different expansion coefficients for different
crystallographic directions, and the crystal will change shape as the temperature changes.
In a solid or liquid, there is a dynamic balance between the cohesive forces holding the atoms or
molecules together and the conditions created by temperature; higher temperatures imply greater
distance between atoms. Different materials have different bonding forces and therefore different
expansion coefficients.
SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
1.
Describe expansion in matter
2.
Discuss construction of temperature scales
3.Distinguish between Cp and Cv
4.Explain the mechanisms of heat transfer
Rankine scale
Rankine is a thermodynamic (absolute) temperature scale named after the Scottish engineer and
physicist William John Macquorn Rankine, who proposed it in 1859. The symbol is R).
As with the Kelvin scale (symbol: K), zero on the Rankine scale is absolute zero. But the Rankine
degree is defined as equal to one degree Fahrenheit, rather than the one degree Celsius used by the
Kelvin scale. A temperature of 459.67R is precisely equal to 0F.
Rankine temperature conversion formulas
To find
Fahrenheit
From
Formula
Rankine
F = R 459.67
Page 33 of 64
Rankine
Fahrenheit
R = F + 459.67
kelvin
Rankine
K = R 1.8
Rankine
kelvin
R = K 1.8
Celsius
Rankine
C = (R 1.8) 273.15
Rankine
Celsius
R = (C + 273.15) 1.8
For temperature intervals rather than specific temperatures,

1 F = 1 R
and
1 kelvin = 1.8 R
THERMOMETERS
A thermometer is a device that measures temperature or temperature gradient using a
variety of different principles. A thermometer has two important elements: the
temperature sensor (e.g. the bulb on a mercury thermometer) in which some physical
change occurs with temperature, plus some means of converting this physical change into
a value (e.g. the scale on a mercury thermometer). Thermometers increasingly use
electronic means to provide a digital display or input to a computer.
Thermometers can be divided into two separate groups according to the level of
knowledge about the physical basis of the underlying thermodynamic laws and
quantities. For primary thermometers the measured property of matter is known so
well that temperature can be calculated without any unknown quantities.
Secondary thermometers are most widely used because of their convenience. Also,
they are often much more sensitive than primary ones. For secondary thermometers
knowledge of the measured property is not sufficient to allow direct calculation of
temperature. They have to be calibrated against a primary thermometer at least at one
temperature or at a number of fixed temperatures. Such fixed points, for example, triple
points and superconducting transitions, occur reproducibly at the same temperature.
There is an absolute thermodynamic temperature scale. Internationally agreed
temperature scales are designed to approximate this closely, based on fixed points and
interpolating thermometers. The most recent official temperature scale is the
International Temperature Scale of 1990. It extends from 0.65 K (272.5 C; 458.5 F)
to approximately 1,358 K (1,085 C; 1,985 F).
CALIBRATION OF THERMOMETERS
Thermometers can be calibrated either by comparing them with other certified
thermometers or by checking them against known fixed points on the temperature scale.
The best known of these fixed points are the melting and boiling points of pure water.
(Note that the boiling point of water varies with pressure, so this must be controlled.)
Page 34 of 64
The traditional method of putting a scale on a liquid-in glass or liquid-in-metal

thermometer was in three stages:
1.Immerse the sensing portion in a stirred mixture of pure ice and water and mark the point
indicated when it had come to thermal equilibrium.
2.Immerse the sensing portion in a steam bath at 1 standard atmosphere (101.3 kPa; 760.0 mmHg)
and again mark the point indicated.
3.Divide the distance between these marks into equal portions according to the temperature scale
being used.
COEFFICIENT OF THERMAL EXPANSION

When the temperature of a substance changes, the energy that is stored in the intermolecular bonds
between atoms changes. When the stored energy increases, so does the length of the molecular
bonds. As a result, solids typically expand in response to heating and contract on cooling; this
dimensional response to temperature change is
Material Properties
expressed by its coefficient of thermal
expansion.
Different coefficients of thermal expansion can
be defined for a substance depending on whether
the expansion is measured by:
Specific heat
linear thermal expansion

area thermal expansion
volumetric thermal expansion
Compressibility
These characteristics are closely related. The

volumetric thermal expansion coefficient can be
defined for both liquids and solids. The linear
thermal expansion can only be defined for solids,
and is common in engineering applications.
Thermal
expansion
Some substances expand when cooled, such as freezing water, so they have negative thermal
expansion coefficients.
Thermal expansion coefficient

The thermal expansion coefficient is a thermodynamic property of a substance.
It relates the change in temperature to the change in a material's linear dimensions. It is the
fractional change in length per degree of temperature change.
dL = L0 x ( alpha x dT )
where
is the original length,
the new length, and
Linear thermal expansion
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the temperature.
The linear thermal expansion is the one-dimensional length change with temperature.
Area thermal expansion

The change in area with temperature can be written:
For exactly isotropic materials, the area thermal expansion coefficient is very closely
approximated as twice the linear coefficient.
Volumetric thermal expansion

The change in volume with temperature can be written.
The volumetric thermal expansion coefficient can be written
where is the temperature, is the volume, is the density, derivatives are taken at
constant pressure ; measures the fractional change in density as temperature
increases at constant pressure.
For exactly isotropic materials, the volumetric thermal expansion coefficient is very
closely approximated as three times the linear coefficient.
Proof:
This ratio arises because volume is composed of three mutually orthogonal directions.
Thus, in an isotropic material, one-third of the volumetric expansion is in a single axis (a
very close approximation for small differential changes). Note that the partial derivative
of volume with respect to length as shown in the above equation is exact, however, in
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practice it is important to note that the differential change in volume is only valid for
small changes in volume (i.e., the expression is not linear). As the change in temperature
increases, and as the value for the linear coefficient of thermal expansion increases, the
error in this formula also increases. For non-negligible changes in volume:
Note that this equation contains the main term,

, but also shows a secondary term that scales as
, which shows that a large change in temperature can overshadow a
small value for the linear coefficient of thermal expansion. Although the coefficient of linear
thermal expansion can be quite small, when combined with a large change in temperature the
differential change in length can become large enough that this factor needs to be considered. The
last term,
is vanishingly small, and is almost universally ignored.
CONSERVATION OF ENERGY
The law of conservation of energy states that the total amount of energy in a closed system
remains constant. A consequence of this law is that energy cannot be created nor destroyed. The
only thing that can happen with energy in a closed system is that it can change form, for instance
kinetic energy can become thermal energy.
Albert Einstein's theory of relativity shows that energy can be converted to mass (rest mass) and
mass converted to energy. Therefore, neither mass nor pure energy are conserved separately, as it
was understood in pre-relativistic physics. Today, conservation of energy refers to the
conservation of the total mass-energy, which includes energy of the rest mass. Therefore, in an
isolated system, mass and "pure energy" can be converted to one another, but the total amount of
energy (which includes the energy of the mass of the system) remains constant.
Another consequence of this law is that perpetual motion machines can only work perpetually if
they deliver no energy to their surroundings. If such machines produce more energy than is put into
them, they must lose mass and thus eventually disappear over perpetual time, and are therefore
impossible.
THE FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

For a thermodynamic system with a fixed number of particles, the first law of thermodynamics may
be stated as:
, or equivalently,
,
where Q is the amount of energy added to the system by a heating process, W is the amount of
energy lost by the system due to work done by the system on its surroundings and dU is the change
in the internal energy of the system.
The 's before the heat and work terms are used to indicate that they describe an
increment of energy which is to be interpreted somewhat differently than the dU
increment of internal energy. Work and heat are processes which add or subtract energy,
while the internal energy U is a particular form of energy associated with the system.
Thus the term "heat energy" for Q means "that amount of energy added as the result of
heating" rather than referring to a particular form of energy. Likewise, the term "work
energy" for W means "that amount of energy lost as the result of work". The most
significant result of this distinction is the fact that one can clearly state the amount of
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internal energy possessed by a thermodynamic system, but one cannot tell how much
energy has flowed into or out of the system as a result of its being heated or cooled, nor
as the result of work being performed on or by the system. In simple terms, this means
that energy cannot be created or destroyed, only converted from one form to another.
For a simple compressible system, the work performed by the system may be written
,
where P is the pressure and dV is a small change in the volume of the system, each of
which are system variables. The heat energy may be written
,
where T is the temperature and dS is a small change in the entropy of the system.
Temperature and entropy are also system variables.
HEAT CAPACITY OR SPECIFIC HEAT

Suppose that a body absorbs an amount of heat Q and its temperature
consequently rises byT. The usual definition of the heat capacity, or specific
heat, of the body is
C
Q
T
If the body consists of moles of some substance then the molar specific heat
(i.e., the specific heat of one mole of this substance ) is defined
c
1 Q
v T
In writing the above expressions, we have tacitly assumed that the specific heat
of a body is independent of its temperature. In general, this is not true. We can
overcome this problem by only allowing the body in question to absorb a very
small amount of heat, so that its temperature only rises slightly, and its specific
heat remains approximately constant. In the limit as the amount of absorbed
heat becomes infinitesimal, we obtain
c
1 Q
v T
In classical thermodynamics, it is usual to define two specific heats. Firstly, the

molar specific heat at constant volume, denoted
cv
1 dQ
v dT V
and, secondly, the molar specific heat at constant pressure, denoted

1 dQ
cp
v dT P
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Consider the molar specific heat at constant volume of an ideal gas. Since
, no work is done by the gas, and the first law of thermodynamics
reduces to
It follows that
Now, for an ideal gas the internal energy is volume independent. Thus, the above
expression implies that the specific heat at constant volume is also volume independent.
Since is a function only of , we can write
The previous two expressions can be combined to give
for an ideal gas.

Let us now consider the molar specific heat at constant pressure of an ideal gas. In
general, if the pressure is kept constant then the volume changes, and so the gas does
work on its environment. According to the first law of thermodynamics,
The equation of state of an ideal gas tells us that if the volume changes by
, the
temperature changes by
, and the pressure remains constant, then
The previous two equations can be combined to give
Now, by definition
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so we obtain
for an ideal gas. This is a very famous result. Note that at constant volume all of the heat
absorbed by the gas goes into increasing its internal energy, and, hence, its temperature,
whereas at constant pressure some of the absorbed heat is used to do work on the
environment as the volume increases. This means that, in the latter case, less heat is
available to increase the temperature of the gas. Thus, we expect the specific heat at
constant pressure to exceed that at constant volume, as indicated by the above formula.
The ratio of the two specific heats
cp
cv
is conventionally denoted . We have
for an ideal gas. In fact, is very easy to measure because the speed of sound in an ideal
gas is written
where is the density. Table below lists some experimental measurements of cv and for
common gases. The extent of the agreement between calculated andexperimental is
quite remarkable.
Table 2: Specific heats of common gases in joules/mole/deg. (at 15 C and 1 atm.) From Reif.
Gas
Symbol
(experiment)
(experiment)
(theory)
Helium
He
12.5
1.666
1.666
Argon
Ar
12.5
1.666
1.666
Nitrogen
20.6
1.405
1.407
Oxygen
21.1
1.396
1.397
Carbon
Dioxide
28.2
1.302
1.298
Ethane
39.3
1.220
1.214
Revision Questions 3.1

15.13
15.14
Compute the increase in length of 50 m of copper wire when its

temperature changes from 12 C to 32 C. For copper, a = 1.7 x 10 -3 0C.
Ans.
1.7cm
15.15 A rod 3.0 m long is found to have expanded 0.091 cm in length after a temperature rise of 60 C. What is a for
the material of the rod? Ans.
5.1 x 10-6 C
Page 40 of 64
15.15 At 15.0 C, a bare wheel has a diameter of 30.000 cm, and the inside diameter of a steel rim is 29.930 cm. To
what temperature must the rim be heated so as to slip over the wheel? For this type of steel, a=
l.l0x -5 C Ans 221 oC
15.19
Calculate the increase in volume of 100 cm3 of mercury when its temperature changes from 10 C to 35 C.
Ans. 0.45 cm . The volume coefficient of expansion of mercury is 0.000 18 C-1
15.23 The density of gold is 19.30 g/cm 3 at 20.0 C, and the coefficient of linear expansion is 14.3 x
Compute the density of gold at 90.0C.
Ans. 19.2 g/cm3
KINETIC THEORY OF GASES
The temperature of an ideal monatomic gas is a measure related to the average kinetic energy of its
atoms as they move. In this animation, the size of helium atoms relative to their spacing is shown to
scale under 1950 atmospheres of pressure. These room-temperature atoms have a certain, average
speed (slowed down here two trillion fold).
Kinetic theory (or kinetic theory of gases) attempts to explain macroscopic properties of gases, such
as pressure, temperature, or volume, by considering their molecular composition and motion.
Essentially, the theory posits that pressure is due not to static repulsion between molecules, as was
Isaac Newton's conjecture, but due to collisions between molecules moving at different velocities.
Kinetic theory is also known as the kinetic-molecular theory (of gases) or the collision theory.
POSTULATES OF KINETIC THEORY OF GASES

The theory for ideal gases makes the following assumptions:
The gas consists of very small particles, all with non-zero mass.
The number of molecules is large such that statistical treatment can be applied.
These molecules are in constant, random motion. The rapidly moving particles
constantly collide with the walls of the container.
The collisions of gas particles with the walls of the container holding them are
perfectly elastic.
The interactions among molecules are negligible. They exert no forces on one
another except during collisions.
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The total volume of the individual gas molecules added up is negligible compared to
the volume of the container. This is equivalent to stating that the average distance
separating the gas particles is large compared to their size.
The molecules are perfectly spherical in shape, and elastic in nature.
The average kinetic energy of the gas particles depends only on the temperature of
the system.
Relativistic effects are negligible.
Quantum-mechanical effects are negligible. This means that the inter-particle
distance is much larger than the thermal de Broglie wavelength and the molecules
are treated as classical objects.
The time during collision of molecule with the container's wall is negligible as
comparable to the time between successive collisions.
The equations of motion of the molecules are time-reversible.
Pressure
Pressure is explained by kinetic theory as arising from the force exerted by gas molecules
impacting on the walls of the container. Consider a gas of N molecules, each of mass m,
enclosed in a cuboidal container of volume V. When a gas molecule collides with the wall of
the container perpendicular to the x coordinate axis and bounces off in the opposite direction
with the same speed (an elastic collision), then the momentum lost by the particle and
gained by the wall is:
where vx is the x-component of the initial velocity of the particle.

The particle impacts the wall once every 2l/vx time units (where l is the length of the
container). Although the particle impacts a side wall once every 1l/vx time units, only the
momentum change on one wall is considered so that the particle produces a momentum
change on a particular wall once every 2l/vx time units.
The force due to this particle is:
The total force acting on the wall is:
where the summation is over all the gas molecules in the container.
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The magnitude of the velocity for each particle will follow:
Now considering the total force acting on all six walls, adding the contributions from each direction we
have:
where the factor of two arises from now considering both walls in a given direction.
Assuming there are a large number of particles moving sufficiently randomly, the force on each of the
walls will be approximately the same and now considering the force on only one wall we have:
The quantity
can be written as
, where the bar denotes an average, in this case an average
over all particles and where N is the number of particles in the box. This quantity is also denoted by
where vrms is the root-mean-square velocity of the collection of particles.
Thus the force can be written as:
Pressure, which is force per unit area, of the gas can then be written as:
where A is the area of the wall of which the force exerted on is considered.
Thus, as cross-sectional area multiplied by length is equal to volume, we have the following expression
for the pressure
where V is the volume. Then we have
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As Nm is the total mass of the gas, the density is mass divided by volume
Nm
. Then the
V
pressure is
This result is interesting and significant, because it relates pressure, a macroscopic property,
1
to the average (translational) kinetic energy per molecule mv 2rms which is a microscopic
2
property. Note that the product of pressure and volume is simply two thirds of the total
kinetic energy.
Temperature and kinetic energy

From the ideal gas law
(1)
where
is the Boltzmann constant, and
the absolute temperature,
and from the above result
we have
then the temperature
takes the form

(2)
which leads to the expression of the kinetic energy of a molecule
The kinetic energy of the system is N time that of a molecule K
1
Nmv 2rms
2
The temperature becomes

(3)
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Eq.(3)1 is one important result of the kinetic theory: The average molecular kinetic energy is
proportional to the absolute temperature.
From Eq.(1) and Eq.(3)1, we have
(4)
Thus, the product of pressure and volume per mole is proportional to the average (translational)
molecular kinetic energy.
Eq.(1) and Eq.(4) are called the "classical results", which could also be derived from statistical
mechanics; .
Since there are
degrees of freedom (dofs) in a monoatomic-gas system with
kinetic energy per dof is
particles, the
(5)
In the kinetic energy per dof, the constant of proportionality of temperature is 1/2 times Boltzmann
constant. This result is related to the equipartition theorem.
As noted in the article on heat capacity, diatomic gases should have 7 degrees of freedom, but the
lighter gases act as if they have only 5.
Thus the kinetic energy per kelvin (monatomic ideal gas) is:
per mole: 12.47 J

per molecule: 20.7 yJ = 129 eV
At standard temperature (273.15 K), we get:
per mole: 3406 J

per molecule: 5.65 zJ = 35.2 meV
Number of collisions with wall

One can calculate the number of atomic or molecular collisions with a wall of a container
per unit area per unit time.
Assuming an ideal gas, a derivation results in an equation for total number of collisions per
unit time per area:
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RMS speeds of molecules

From the kinetic energy formula it can be shown that
with v in m/s, T in kelvins, and R is the gas constant. The molar mass is given as kg/mol.
The most probable speed is 81.6% of the rms speed, and the mean speeds 92.1%
(distribution of speeds).
Revision questions 3.2
17.13
Find the mass of a neon atom. The atomic mass of neon is 20.2 kg/kmol. Ans. 3.36 x 10
kg
17.14 A typical polymer molecule in polyethylene might have a molecular mass of 15 x 103. (a) What is the mass in
kilograms of such a molecule? (b) How many such molecules would make up 2 g of polymer? Ans. (a) 7.5 x
10^23 kg; (b) 8 x 1019
17.15
A certain strain of tobacco mosaic virus has M = 4.0 x 107 kg/kmol. How many molecules of the virus are
present in 1.0 mL of a solution that contains 0.10 mg of virus per mL?
Ans. 1.5 x 1012
17.16
17.17
The pressure of helium gas in a tube is 0.200 mmHg. If the temperature of the gas is 20 C, what is
the density of the gas? (Use MHe = 4.0 kg/kmol.)
Ans. 4.4 x 10 -5 kg/m3
17.18 At what temperature will the molecules of an ideal gas have twice the rms speed they have at
20 C?
Ans. 1170 K 900 C
HEAT TRANSFER
Heat transfer is the transition of thermal energy from a hotter object to a cooler object
("object" in this sense designating a complex collection of particles which is capable of
storing energy in many different ways). When an object or fluid is at a different temperature
than its surroundings or another object, transfer of thermal energy, also known as heat
transfer, or heat exchange, occurs in such a way that the body and the surroundings reach
thermal equilibrium. Heat transfer always occurs from a higher-temperature object to a
cooler temperature one as described by the second law of thermodynamics or the Clausius
statement. Where there is a temperature difference between objects in proximity, heat
transfer between them can never be stopped; it can only be slowed.
Conduction
Conduction is the transfer of heat by direct contact of particles of matter. The transfer of energy could
be primarily by elastic impact as in fluids or by free electron diffusion as predominant in metals or
phonon vibration as predominant in insulators. In other words, heat is transferred by conduction when
adjacent atoms vibrate against one another, or as electrons move from atom to atom. Conduction is
greater in solids, where atoms are in constant contact. In liquids (except liquid metals) and gases, the
molecules are usually further apart, giving a lower chance of molecules colliding and passing on
thermal energy.
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Heat conduction is directly analogous to diffusion of particles into a fluid, in the situation where there
are no fluid currents. This type of heat diffusion differs from mass diffusion in behaviour, only in as
much as it can occur in solids, whereas mass diffusion is mostly limited to fluids.
Metals (eg. copper, platinum, gold, iron, etc.) are usually the best conductors of thermal energy. This is
due to the way that metals are chemically bonded: metallic bonds (as opposed to covalent or ionic
bonds) have free-moving electrons which are able to transfer thermal energy rapidly through the metal.
As density decreases so does conduction. Therefore, fluids (and especially gases) are less conductive.
This is due to the large distance between atoms in a gas: fewer collisions between atoms means less
conduction. Conductivity of gases increases with temperature. Conductivity increases with increasing
pressure from vacuum up to a critical point that the density of the gas is such that molecules of the gas
may be expected to collide with each other before they transfer heat from one surface to another. After
this point in density, conductivity increases only slightly with increasing pressure and density.
To quantify the ease with which a particular medium conducts, engineers employ the thermal
conductivity, also known as the conductivity constant or conduction coefficient, k. In thermal
conductivity k is defined as "the quantity of heat, Q, transmitted in time (t) through a thickness (L), in a
direction normal to a surface of area (A), due to a temperature difference (T). Thermal conductivity is
a material property that is primarily dependent on the medium's phase, temperature, density, and
molecular bonding.
A heat pipe is a passive device that is constructed in such a way that it acts as though it has extremely
high thermal conductivity.
This mode of analysis has been applied to forensic sciences to analyse the time of death of humans.
Also it can be applied to HVAC (heating, ventilating and air-conditioning, or building climate control),
to ensure more nearly instantaneous effects of a change in comfort level setting.
Convection
Convection is the transfer of heat energy between a solid surface and the nearby liquid or
gas in motion. As fluid motion goes more quickly the convective heat transfer increases. The
presence of bulk motion of fluid enhances the heat transfer between the solid surface and the
fluid.
There are two types of Convective Heat Transfer:
Natural Convection: is when the fluid motion is caused by buoyancy forces that
result from the density variations due to variations of temperature in the fluid. For
example in the absence of a external source when the mass of the fluid is in contact
with the hot surface its molecules separate and scatter causing the mass of fluid to
become less dense. When this happens, the fluid is displaced vertically or
horizontally while the cooler fluid gets denser and the fluid sinks. Thus the hotter
volume transfers heat towards the cooler volume of that fluid.
Forced Convection: is when the fluid is forced to flow over the surface by external
source such as fans and pumps. It creates an artificially induced convection current.
Internal and external flow can also classify convection. Internal flow occurs when the fluid
is enclosed by a solid boundary such as a flow through a pipe. An external flow occurs when
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the fluid extends indefinitely without encountering a solid surface. Both these convections,
either natural or forced, can be internal or external as they are independent of each other.
The formula for Rate of Convective Heat Transfer.
q = hA(Ts Tb)
A is the surface area of heat transfer. Ts is the surface temperature and while Tb is the
temperature of the fluid at bulk temperature. However Tb varies with each situation and is
the temperature of the fluid far away from the surface. The h is the constant heat transfer
coefficient which depends upon physical properties of the fluid such as temperature and the
physical situation in which convection occurs. Therefore, the heat transfer coefficient must
be derived or found experimentally for every system analyzed. Formulae and correlations
are available in many references to calculate heat transfer coefficients for typical
configurations and fluids. For laminar flows the heat transfer coefficient is rather low
compared to the turbulent flows, this is due to turbulent flows having a thinner stagnant fluid
film layer on heat transfer surface.
Radiation
Radiation is the transfer of heat energy through empty space. All objects with a temperature
above absolute zero radiate energy at a rate equal to their emissivity multiplied by the rate at
which energy would radiate from them if they were a black body. No medium is necessary
for radiation to occur; radiation works even in and through a perfect vacuum. The energy
from the Sun travels through the vacuum of space before warming the earth.
Both reflectivity and emissivity of all bodies is wavelength dependent. The temperature
determines the wavelength distribution of the electromagnetic radiation as limited in
intensity by Plancks law of black-body radiation. For any body the reflectivity depends on
the wavelength distribution of incoming electromagnetic radiation and therefore the
temperature of the source of the radiation. The emissivity depends on the wave length
distribution and therefore the temperature of the body itself. For example, fresh snow, which
is highly reflective to visible light, (reflectivity about 0.90) appears white due to reflecting
sunlight with a peak energy wavelength of about 0.5 micrometres. Its emissivity, however,
at a temperature of about -5C, peak energy wavelength of about 12 micrometres, is 0.99.
Gases absorb and emit energy in characteristic wavelength patterns that are different for each gas.
Visible light is simply another form of electromagnetic radiation with a shorter wavelength (and
therefore a higher frequency) than infrared radiation. The difference between visible light and the
radiation from objects at conventional temperatures is a factor of about 20 in frequency and
wavelength; the two kinds of emission are simply different "colours" of electromagnetic radiation.
Clothing and building surfaces, and radiative transfer

Lighter colours and also whites and metallic substances absorb less illuminating light, and thus heat up
less; but otherwise colour makes little difference as regards heat transfer between an object at everyday
temperatures and its surroundings, since the dominant emitted wavelengths are nowhere near the
visible spectrum, but rather in the far infrared. Emissivities at those wavelengths have little to do with
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visual emissivities (visible colours); in the far infrared, most objects have high emissivities. Thus,
except in sunlight, the colour of clothing makes little difference as regards warmth; likewise, paint
colour of houses makes little difference to warmth except when the painted part is sunlit. The main
exception to this is shiny metal surfaces, which have low emissivities both in the visible wavelengths
and in the far infrared. Such surfaces can be used to reduce heat transfer in both directions; an example
of this is the multi-layer insulation used to insulate spacecraft. Low-emissivity windows in houses are a
more complicated technology, since they must have low emissivity at thermal wavelengths while
remaining transparent to visible light.
Newton's law of cooling

A related principle, Newton's law of cooling, states that the rate of heat loss of a body is proportional
to the difference in temperatures between the body and its surroundings, or environment. The law is
Q = Thermal energy in joules

h = Heat transfer coefficient
A = Surface area of the heat being transferred
T0 = Temperature of the object's surface
Tenv = Temperature of the environment
This form of heat loss principle is sometimes not very precise; an accurate formulation may require
analysis of heat flow, based on the (transient) heat transfer equation in a nonhomogeneous, or else
poorly conductive, medium. An analog for continuous gradients is Fourier's Law.
In such cases, the entire body is treated as lumped capacitance heat reservoir, with total heat
content which is proportional to simple total heat capacity C , and T, the temperature of the
body, or Q = C T. From the definition of heat capacity C comes the relation C = dQ/dT.
Differentiating this equation with regard to time gives the identity (valid so long as
temperatures in the object are uniform at any given time): dQ/dt = C (dT/dt). This
expression may be used to replace dQ/dt in the first equation which begins this section,
above. Then, if T(t) is the temperature of such a body at time t , and Tenv is the temperature
of the environment around the body:
where r = hA/C is a positive constant characteristic of the system, which must be in units of
1/time, and is therefore sometimes expressed in terms of a characteristic time constant t0
given by: r = 1/t0 = T/[dT/dt] . Thus, in thermal systems, t0 = C/hA. (The total heat
capacity C of a system may be further represented by its mass-specific heat capacity cp
multiplied by its mass m, so that the time constant t0 is also given by mcp/hA).
One dimensional application, using thermal circuits

A very useful concept used in heat transfer applications is the representation of thermal
transfer by what is known as thermal circuits. A thermal circuit is the representation of the
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resistance to heat flow as though it were an electric resistor. The heat transferred is
analogous to the current and the thermal resistance is analogous to the electric resistor. The
value of the thermal resistance for the different modes of heat transfer are calculated as the
denominators of the developed equations. The thermal resistances of the different modes of
heat transfer are used in analyzing combined modes of heat transfer. The equations
describing the three heat transfer modes and their thermal resistances, as discussed
previously are summarized in the table below:
In cases where there is heat transfer through different media (for example through a
composite), the equivalent resistance is the sum of the resistances of the components that
make up the composite. Likely, in cases where there are different heat transfer modes, the
total resistance is the sum of the resistances of the different modes. Using the thermal circuit
concept, the amount of heat transferred through any medium is the quotient of the
temperature change and the total thermal resistance of the medium. As an example, consider
a composite wall of cross- sectional area A. The composite is made of an L1 long cement
plaster with a thermal coefficient k1 and L2 long paper faced fiber glass, with thermal
coefficient k2. The left surface of the wall is at Ti and exposed to air with a convective
coefficient of hi. The Right surface of the wall is at To and exposed to air with convective
coefficient ho.
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Using the thermal resistance concept heat flow through the composite is as follows:
Insulation and radiant barriers

Thermal insulators are materials specifically designed to reduce the flow of heat by limiting
conduction, convection, or both. Radiant barriers are materials which reflect radiation and therefore
reduce the flow of heat from radiation sources. Good insulators are not necessarily good radiant
barriers, and vice versa. Metal, for instance, is an excellent reflector and poor insulator.
The effectiveness of an insulator is indicated by its R- (resistance) value. The R-value of a
material is the inverse of the conduction coefficient (k) multiplied by the thickness (d) of the
insulator. The units of resistance value are in SI units: (Km/W)
;
Rigid fiberglass, a common insulation material, has an R-value of 4 per inch, while poured
concrete, a poor insulator, has an R-value of 0.08 per inch.
The effectiveness of a radiant barrier is indicated by its reflectivity, which is the fraction of
radiation reflected. A material with a high reflectivity (at a given wavelength) has a low
emissivity (at that same wavelength), and vice versa (at any specific wavelength,
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reflectivity = 1 - emissivity). An ideal radiant barrier would have a reflectivity of 1 and

would therefore reflect 100% of incoming radiation. Vacuum bottles (Dewars) are 'silvered'
to approach this. In space vacuum, satellites use multi-layer insulation which consists of
many layers of aluminized (shiny) mylar to greatly reduce radiation heat transfer and control
satellite temperature.
Critical insulation thickness

To reduce the rate of heat transfer, one would add insulating materials i.e with low thermal
conductivity (k). The smaller the k value, the larger the corresponding thermal resistance (R)
value.
The units of thermal conductivity(k) are Wm-1K-1 (watts per meter per kelvin), therefore
increasing width of insulation (x meters) decreases the k term and as discussed increases
resistance.
This follows logic as increased resistance would be created with increased conduction path
(x).
However, adding this layer of insulation also has the potential of increasing the surface area
and hence thermal convection area (A).
An obvious example is a cylindrical pipe:
As insulation gets thicker, outer radius increases and therefore surface area increases.
The point where the added resistance of increasing insulation width becomes
overshadowed by the effects of surface are is called the critical insulation
thickness. In simple cylindrical pipes:
BLACKBODY RADIATION
"Blackbody radiation" or "cavity radiation" refers to an object or system which

absorbs all radiation incident upon it and re-radiates energy which is characteristic of
this radiating system only, not dependent upon the type of radiation which is incident
upon it. The radiated energy can be considered to be produced by standing wave or
resonant modes of the cavity which is radiating.
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The amount of radiation emitted in a given

frequency range should be proportional to the
number of modes in that range. The best of
classical physics suggested that all modes had an
equal chance of being produced, and that the
number of modes went up proportional to the
square of the frequency.
But the predicted continual

increase in radiated energy
with frequency (dubbed the
"ultraviolet catastrophe") did
not happen. Nature knew
better.
Explain why water has the highest heat capacity?
1. What is black body radiation?

2. Convert 456oR to oC
3. Why are heat and work not thermodynamic quantity?

19.10
A single-thickness glass window on a house actually has layers of stagnant air on its two surfaces. But if it did
not, how much heat would flow out of an 80 cm x 40 cm x 3.0 mm window each hour on a day when the
outside temperature was precisely 0C and the inside temperature was 18C? For glass, k T is 0.84
W/K-m. Ans. 1.4 x 10 3 kcal/h
19.11
How many grams of water at 100 C can be evaporated per hour per cm 2 by the heat transmitted through a
steel plate 0.20 cm thick, if the temperature difference between the plate faces is 100 C? For steel, kT is 42
W/K-m. Ans. 0.33 kg/h-cm 2
19.15
A sphere of 3.0 cm radius acts like a blackbody. It is in equilibrium with its surroundings and absorbs 30 kW of
power radiated to it from the surroundings. What is the temperature of the sphere?
Ans. 2.6 x 103 K
19.16
A 2.0 cm thick brass plate (kT = 105 W/K-m) is sealed to a glass sheet (kT = 0.80 W/K-m), and both have the
same area. The exposed face of the brass plate is at 80 C, while the exposed face of the glass is at 20 C. How
thick is the glass if the glass-brass interface is at 65 C?
Ans. 0.46 mm
Summary
We have basically tackled three major issues in this TOPIC.
Thermometers have been built which utilise a range of physical effects

to measure temperature. Most thermometers are originally calibrated to
a constant-volume gas thermometer.
, or equivalently,
,
Note:
Page 53 of 64
In a Liquid in glass thermometer, the liquid expands more

thean the glass.
Written Assignments
PHY110/1
Written
Assignment

The Head
MMU
P.O. Box 861,
Narok- Kenya
Page 54 of 64
TOPIC FOUR:
SOUND

?
100
1. Distinguish between sound and light waves

2. What is ultrasonic?
3. Identify three characteristics of sound waves.
INTRODUCTION
SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
1. State the properties of sound

2. Distinguish between sound and light waves.
3. Explain the characteristics of sound waves.
SOUND
Sound is a travelling wave which is an oscillation of pressure transmitted through a solid, liquid, or
gas, composed of frequencies within the range of hearing and of a level sufficiently strong to be heard,
or the sensation stimulated in organs of hearing by such vibrations.
PERCEPTION OF SOUND
For humans, hearing is normally limited to frequencies between about 12 Hz and 20,000 Hz (20 kHz),
although these limits are not definite. The upper limit generally decreases with age. Other species have
a different range of hearing. For example, dogs can perceive vibrations higher than 20 kHz.
As a signal perceived by one of the major senses, sound is used by many species for detecting danger,
navigation, predation, and communication.
Earth's atmosphere, water, and virtually any physical phenomenon, such as fire, rain, wind, surf, or
earthquake, produces (and is characterized by) its unique sounds.
Many species, such as frogs, birds, marine and terrestrial mammals, have also developed special
organs to produce sound. In some species, these have evolved to produce song and speech.
Furthermore, humans have developed culture and technology (such as music, telephone and radio) that
allows them to generate, record, transmit, and broadcast sound.
Page 55 of 64
PHYSICS OF SOUND
The mechanical vibrations that can be interpreted as sound are able to travel through all
forms of matter: gases, liquids, solids, and plasmas. The matter that supports the sound is
called the medium. Sound cannot travel through vacuum.
LONGITUDINAL AND TRANSVERSE WAVES
Sinusoidal waves of various frequencies; the bottom waves have higher frequencies than
those above. The horizontal axis represents time.
Sound is transmitted through gases, plasma, and liquids as longitudinal waves, also called
compression waves. Through solids, however, it can be transmitted as both longitudinal and
transverse waves. Longitudinal sound waves are waves of alternating pressure deviations
from the equilibrium pressure, causing local regions of compression and rarefaction, while
transverse waves (in solids) are waves of alternating shear stress at right angle to the
direction of propagation.
Matter in the medium is periodically displaced by a sound wave, and thus oscillates. The
energy carried by the sound wave converts back and forth between the potential energy of
the extra compression (in case of longitudinal waves) or lateral displacement strain (in case
of transverse waves) of the matter and the kinetic energy of the oscillations of the medium.
Sound wave properties and characteristics

Sound waves are characterized by the generic properties of waves, which are frequency,
wavelength, period, amplitude, intensity, speed, and direction (sometimes speed and
direction are combined as a velocity vector, or wavelength and direction are combined as a
wave vector).
Transverse waves, also known as shear waves, have an additional property of polarization.
Sound characteristics can depend on the type of sound waves (longitudinal versus
transverse) as well as on the physical properties of the transmission medium.
Speed of sound
The speed of sound depends on the medium through which the waves are passing, and is
often quoted as a fundamental property of the material. In general, the speed of sound is
proportional to the square root of the ratio of the elastic modulus (stiffness) of the medium
to its density. Those physical properties and the speed of sound change with ambient
conditions. For example, the speed of sound in gases depends on temperature. In 20 C
(68 F) air at the sea level, the speed of sound is approximately 343 m/s (1,230 km/h;
Page 56 of 64
767 mph) using the formula "v = (331 + 0.6T) m/s". In fresh water, also at 20 C, the speed
of sound is approximately 1,482 m/s (5,335 km/h; 3,315 mph). In steel, the speed of sound is
about 5,960 m/s (21,460 km/h; 13,330 mph). The speed of sound is also slightly sensitive (a
second-order anharmonic effect) to the sound amplitude, which means that there are
nonlinear propagation effects, such as the production of harmonics and mixed tones not
present in the original sound .
Acoustics and noise

The scientific study of the propagation, absorption, and reflection of sound waves is called acoustics.
Noise is a term often used to refer to an unwanted sound. In science and engineering, noise is an
undesirable component that obscures a wanted signal.
Sound pressure level

Sound pressure is defined as the difference between the average local pressure of the medium outside
of the sound wave in which it is traveling through (at a given point and a given time) and the pressure
found within the sound wave itself within that same medium. A square of this difference (i.e. a square
of the deviation from the equilibrium pressure) is usually averaged over time and/or space, and a
square root of such average is taken to obtain a root mean square (RMS) value. For example, 1 Pa
RMS sound pressure (94 dBSPL) in atmospheric air implies that the actual pressure in the sound wave
oscillates between (1 atm
Pa) and (1 atm
Pa), that is between 101323.6 and 101326.4 Pa.
Such a tiny (relative to atmospheric) variation in air pressure at an audio frequency will be perceived
as quite a deafening sound, and can cause hearing damage, according to the table below.
As the human ear can detect sounds with a very wide range of amplitudes, sound pressure is often
measured as a level on a logarithmic decibel scale. The sound pressure level (SPL) or Lp is defined as
where p is the root-mean-square sound pressure and pref is a reference sound pressure.
Commonly used reference sound pressures, defined in the standard ANSI S1.1-1994, are 20
Pa in air and 1 Pa in water. Without a specified reference sound pressure, a value expressed
in decibels cannot represent a sound pressure level.
Since the human ear does not have a flat spectral response, sound pressures are often frequency
weighted so that the measured level will match perceived levels more closely. The International
Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) has defined several weighting schemes. A-weighting attempts to
match the response of the human ear to noise and A-weighted sound pressure levels are labeled dBA.
C-weighting is used to measure peak levels.
Examples of sound pressure and sound pressure levels

Source of sound
Theoretical limit for undistorted sound at
RMS sound
sound pressure
pressure
level
Pa
dB re 20 Pa
101,325
191
Page 57 of 64
1 atmosphere environmental pressure

1883 Krakatoa eruption
Stun grenades
rocket launch equipment acoustic tests
threshold of pain
100
hearing damage during short-term effect
20
jet engine, 100 m distant
6200
jackhammer, 1 m distant / discotheque
2
hearing damage from long-term exposure
0.6
traffic noise on major road, 10 m distant
0.20.6
moving automobile, 10 m distant
0.020.2
TV set typical home level, 1 m distant
0.02
normal talking, 1 m distant
0.0020.02
very calm room
0.00020.0006
quiet rustling leaves, calm human breathing
0.00006
auditory threshold at 2 kHz undamaged human ears
0.00002
approx 180 at 100

miles
170-180
approx. 165
134
approx. 120
110140
approx. 100
approx. 85
8090
6080
approx. 60
4060
2030
10
0
Equipment for dealing with sound

Equipment for generating or using sound includes musical instruments, hearing aids, sonar
systems and sound reproduction and broadcasting equipment. Many of these use electroacoustic transducers such as microphones and loudspeakers.
Vibrations of frequencies greater than the upper limit of the audible range for humansthat
is, greater than about 20 kilohertz. The term sonic is applied to ultrasound waves of very
high amplitudes. Hypersound, sometimes called praetersound or microsound, is sound
waves of frequencies greater than 1013 hertz. At such high frequencies it is very difficult for
a sound wave to propagate efficiently; indeed, above a frequency of about 1.25 1013 hertz,
it is impossible for longitudinal waves to propagate at all, even in a liquid or a solid, because
the molecules of the material in which the waves are traveling cannot pass the vibration
along rapidly enough.
Many animals have the ability to hear sounds in the human ultrasonic frequency range.
Some ranges of hearing for mammals and insects are compared with those of humans in the
Table. A presumed sensitivity of roaches and rodents to frequencies in the 40 kilohertz
region has led to the manufacture of pest controllers that emit loud sounds in that
frequency range to drive the pests away, but they do not appear to work as advertised.
Frequency range of hearing for humans
and selected animals
animal
frequency (hertz)
low
high
Page 58 of 64
humans
20
cats
100
dogs
40
horses
31
elephants
16
cattle
16
bats
1,000
grasshoppers and locusts 100
rodents
1,000
whales and dolphins
70
seals and sea lions
200
20,000
32,000
46,000
40,000
12,000
40,000
150,000
50,000
100,000
150,000
55,000
What do you think the term noise means?
How do ultrasonic sensors service the marketplace?
A: Ultrasonic sensors service the market by providing a cost effective sensing method with unique
properties not possessed by other sensing technologies. By using a wide variety of ultrasonic
transducers and several different frequency ranges, an ultrasonic sensor can be designed to solve many
application problems that are cost prohibitive or simply cannot be solved by other sensors.
Long range detection: In industrial sensing, more and more applications require detection
over distance. Ultrasonic sensors detect over long ranges up to forty feet, while limit switches
and inductive sensors do not.
Broad area detection: While some photo electric sensors can detect over long distances they
lack the ability to detect over a wide area without using a large number of sensors. The
advantage of Migatron's ultrasonic sensors is that both wide and narrow areas can be covered.
All it takes is the proper ultrasonic transducer selection.
Widest range of target materials: Only ultrasonic sensors are impervious to target material
composition. The target material can be clear, solid, liquid, porous, soft, wood and any color
because all can be detected.
Non contact distance measuring: Because sound can be timed from when it leaves the
transducer to when it returns, distance measuring is easy and accurate to .05% of range which
equates to +or- .002 of an inch at a distance of 4 inches.
What are the advantages of ultrasonics?

A: When used for sensing functions, the ultrasonic method has unique advantages over conventional
sensors...
Measures and detects distances to moving objects.

Impervious to target materials, surface and color.
Solid-state units have virtually unlimited, maintenance-free lifespan.
Page 59 of 64
Detects small objects over long operating distances.

Resistant to external disturbances such as vibration, infrared radiation, ambient noise
and EMI radiation.
Ultrasonic sensors are not affected by dust, dirt or high-moisture environments.
State threeof sound waves
Why is sound heard over corners more than light waves?
A modern mehod of controlling moscuitoes in the house is
production of vibrations from a coil. Explain howthis is possible?
4. Explain three applications of sound waves.
1.
2.
3.

23.23
23.24
23.29
23.30
What is the speed of sound in air when the air temperature is 31 C?
Ans.
0.35 km/s
A shell fired at a target 800 m distant was heard to strike it 5.0 s after leaving the gun. Compute the average
horizontal velocity of the shell. The air temperature is 20 C.
Ans. 0.30 km/s
At S.T.P., the speed of sound in air is 331 m/s. Determine the speed of sound in hydrogen at S.T.P. if the
specific gravity of hydrogen relative to air is 0.0690 and if 7 = 1.40 for both gases. Ans. 1.26 km/s
Helium is a monatomic gas that has a density of 0.179 kg/m3 at a pressure of 76.0 cm of mercury and a
temperature of precisely 0 C. Find the speed of compression waves (sound) in helium at this temperature
and pressure. Ans. 970 m/s.
7
W/m2. What is its intensity level? Ans.
23.34
A sound has an intensity of 5.0 x 10
57 dB
23.35
A person riding a power mower may be subjected to a sound of intensity 2.00 x 10 -2 W/m2. What is the
intensity level to which the person is subjected? Ans. 103 dB
23.36
A rock band might easily produce a sound level of 107 dB in a room. To two significant figures, what is the
sound intensity at 107 dB?
Ans. 0.0500 W/m2
Summary
We have basically tackled three major issues in this

TOPIC.
The scientific study of the propagation,
absorption, and reflection of sound waves is
called acoustics.
Noise is a term often used to refer to an unwanted
sound. In science and engineering, noise is an
undesirable component that obscures a wanted
signal.
Sound waves are characterized by the generic
properties of waves, which are frequency,
wavelength, period, amplitude, intensity, speed,
and direction .
Sound is a travelling wave which is an oscillation
of pressure transmitted through a solid, liquid, or
Page 60 of 64
gas, composed of frequencies within the range of

hearing and of a level sufficiently strong to be
heard, or the sensation stimulated in organs of
hearing by such vibrations.
Note:
Sound is a longitudinal wave while light is transverse
wave.
Written Assignments
PHY110/1
Written
Assignment

The Head
MMU
P.O. Box 861,
Narok- Kenya
References
1. Paul A., Tipler; Gene Mosca (2008). Physics for Scientists and Engineers, Volume 1 (6th ed.). New York, NY: Worth
Publishers. pp. 666670. ISBN 1-4292-0132-0.
2. W. Murray Bullis (1990). "Chapter 6". In O'Mara, William C.; Herring, Robert B.; Hunt, Lee P.. Handbook of
semiconductor silicon technology. Park Ridge, New Jersey: Noyes Publications. p. 431. ISBN 0-8155-
3. Halliday, David; Resnick, Robert; Walker, Jearl (2004-06-16). Fundamentals of Physics (7 Sub ed.).
Wiley. ISBN 0471232319.
4. Hanrahan, Val; Porkess, R (2003). Additional Mathematics for OCR. London: Hodder & Stoughton.
p. 219. ISBN 0-340-86960-7.
5. YoungD.H & R.A Freedman (1998)
International students Edtn University physics with modern
physics 9th edtn. Addison-Wesley ltd.USA.
6. Raymond A. Serway and J.W. Jewett (2006)
Physics for scientists and Engineers 6th edition.
Thomson.USA
7. Fredrick J.B, Eugene H. (1998)
Theory and Problems in college Physics 9th edition.Schaums
series. NY. USA.
8. Nelkon, M. (1978) Mechanics and Properties of Matter. (5th Ed.) London:
9. KIE (2008).
Secondary school physics books 1-4. Jomo Kenyatta Foundation. Nairobi.
Page 61 of 64
APPENDIX 1: COURSE OUTLINE PHY110
MAASAI MARA UNIVERSITY

School of Science
Course:
PHY 110: BASIC PHYSICS 1
Credit: 4
Lecture: Maera John (Mr) E-mail: maerajt@mmarau.ac.ke. Cell phone: +254-722-325306

Consultation hrs: _Tues 2-4pm and Frid 2-5pm____Office No: PHY LAB
Purpose:
To introduce the student to basic concepts in physics

Objectives:
At the end of the course the learner should be able to:

i)
Resolve vectors
ii)
Describe the various types of motion
iii)
Explain the properties of matter,
iv) State and derive Newtons and Keplers laws of motion,
v)
Discuss expansionof matter and heat transfer mechanisms,
vi) Explain temperature scales and thermometers,
vii) Explain the kinetic theory of gases,
viii) Discuss the velocity of sound through media and
ix)
Discuss ultrasonics and its aaplications,
COURSE OUTLINE
Week one, two and Three: Mechanics
- Physical and non-physical quantities
- Vectors: classification; addition and subtraction; scalar product; vector product
- Types of motion: Linear; Projectile; Circular; Simple Harmonic motion(SMH)
- Derivation of equations of motion of each kind and applications
- Newtons laws of motion
- Conservation of Energy and momentum
- Friction: causes and its prevention
Week four, five and six: Properties of Matter
- Elasticity
- Surface tension
- Viscosity
- Fluid flow
Week seven: CAT one
- Sit in CAT one
- Revision of CAT one
Week Eight, nine and ten: Thermal physics
-
Expansion of solids, liquids and gases

Temperature scales
Page 62 of 64
- Thermometers
- First law of thermodynamics
- Specific heat capacities of gases
- Kinetic theory of gases
- Mechanism of heat transfer (conduction, convection and Radiation)
Week Eleven and twelve: Sound
-
Characteristics of sound
Genaral equation of a wave
Velocity of sound in medium
Waves on a string
Velocity and elasticity of medium
- Ulatrsonics and its applications
Week Thirteen:
-
Sit in CAT two

Revision of CAT two
Week fourteen and fifteen: End of semester Examinations

- Individual learner revision
- Sit-in examinations
Course assessment:
ASSIGNMENTS: 5%
PRACTICALS: 10%
CATS: 15% EXAM: 70%.
Assessment schedule
First test:
Second Test:
________7th week
________ 13th week
References
YoungD.H & R.A Freedman (1998)

Raymond A. Serway and J.W. Jewett (2006)
Fredrick J.B, Eugene H. (1998)
Nelkon, M. (1978)
KIE (2008).
International students Edtn University physics with

modern physics 9th edtn. Addison-Wesley ltd.USA.
Physics for scientists and Engineers 6th edition.
Thomson.USA
Theory and Problems in college Physics 9th
edition.Schaums series. NY. USA.
Mechanics and Properties of Matter. (5th Ed.) London:
Secondary school physics books 1-4. Jomo Kenyatta
Foundation. Nairobi.
End
Page 63 of 64
NOTES
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BASIC PHYSICS 1 MODULE

ERP training View project

All in-text references underlined in blue are linked to publications on ResearchGate,

Available from: John Maera

MAASAI MARA UNIVERSITY

PHY 110 MODULE FOR

BSC, BED, BSC (COMPUTER)

PHY110: BASIC PHYSICS 1

A question: This symbol indicates that

Definitions of Key Words

Self diagnostic Test ........................................................................................................................................... 6

Examples of Kepler's Third Law ................................................................................................................... 21

PROPRTIES OF MATTER ............................................................................................................... 25

Self diagnostic Test ......................................................................................................................................... 25

THERMAL PHYSICS .................................................................................................................. 33

Self diagnostic Test ......................................................................................................................................... 33

Temperature and kinetic energy ................................................................................................................. 44

Self diagnostic Test ......................................................................................................................................... 55

SELF DIAGNOSTIC TEST

At the end of this TOPIC you should be able to:

1. Distinguish between vectors and scalars

PHYSICAL AND NON-PHYSICAL QUANTITIES

VECTORS AND SCALARS

Vectors are quantities that have a size and a direction.

Scalars quantities have only size.

DOT PRODUCT OR SCALAR PRODUCT

THE VECTOR PRODUCT OR CROSS PRODUCT

Vector multiplication yielding another vector

a b = a1i (b1i + b2 j + b3k)

Using the definition of cross product and right hand rule:

WRITTEN EXERCISE 1.1

(ii) (5i - j + 2k)

Revision Exercises 1.1

What displacement at 70 has a component of 450 m? What is its y-component?

1.3 km, 1.2km

Equations of uniformly accelerated linear motion

WRITTEN EXERCISE 1.2

Revision Exercises 1.2

a bullet the instant it exits the barrel of a gun or rifle

vy2 = uy2 2g(y u)

The Trajectory of a Simple Projectile is a Parabola

A projectile is any object

Revision Exercises 1.3

Equations of circular motion

Revision questions 1.4

SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION

The unit of frequency is usually taken to be 1 Hz = 1 cycle per second.

Dynamics of simple harmonic motion

Position, velocity and acceleration of an harmonic oscillator

Acceleration can also be expressed as a function of displacement:

, Now since ma = m2x = kx, ;

; Then since = 2f,

and since T = 1/f,

Energy of simple harmonic motion

and the potential energy is

Revision Exercises 1.5

NEWTON'S LAWS OF MOTION

Since force is the time derivative of momentum, it follows that I p mv

Relationship to the conservation laws

This is the equation for an ellipse:

Examples of Kepler's Third Law

We have basically tackled three major issues in this TOPIC.