Increasing the labour market relevance of VET provision and reducing skills

mismatches and shortages in the new booming "Sharing Economy" sector

EUROPEAN REPORT

DATE: SEPTEMBER 2016

This project has been funded with support from the European Commission. This publication [communication] reflects the views only of
the author, and the Commission cannot be held responsible for any use which may be made of the information contained therein.

Project Number: 539319-LLP-1-2013-1-PT-LEONARDO-LMP

EU Report

About this document

This document is part of the Erasmus+ project Sharing Skills - Increasing the labor market relevance of VET
provision and reducing skills mismatches and shortages in the new booming Sharing Economy sector".
In the frame of the project, O1 - Report on Sharing economy penetration - aims at providing insights on the
importance and impact of sharing economy in a number of European countries (Portugal, Greece, Poland,
Germany, Italy, the UK), the EU, as well as the USA, including aspects such as: market sectors of Sharing Economy
(and providers and users per sector), profile of providers, economic added value, side-effects of sharing economy.
This document provides the overview on the European Union concerning the penetration of the Sharing
economy.

EU Report

Consortium

EU Report

Contents
1.

Introduction and scope ...................................................................................................................... 5

2.

Sharing economy at European level ................................................................................................... 7

3.

Sharing Economy vs. Real Economy ................................................................................................. 15

4.

SWOT analysis .................................................................................................................................. 17

5.

Conclusions and remarks ................................................................................................................. 18

6.

Annexes: ........................................................................................................................................... 20

National Report: EU level

1. Introduction and scope

The purpose of this report is to summarise and collect the main findings of the desk research about
the sharing economy at the European level, providing a general overview about the benefits, the
tools and the differences with the traditional economy in the EU environment.
The geographical scope of this report is European rather than country specific and encompasses the
sharing economy at large rather than focusing on a specific sector or segment. The report may refer
to individual countries and / or sector to provide case-in-point examples. Reference to non-EU
countries is also made to investigate international and global trends of the growing phenomenon of
sharing economy that is lowering barriers to access and participation in the marketplace at global
level.
Desk research was used to carry out secondary research on a variety of data sources, ranging from
public institutions (European Union) to international organisations (OECD) to industry participants
(both providers and users) as well as market research and consulting companies (McKinsey, KPMG,
PWC and the likes). Secondary research was carried out using web resources with a three pronged
approach:
1. Search of organisational portals: the first step was to explore the web portals of the data
sources outlines above to identify reports, policy papers, memos, industry snapshots, etc.;
2. Cross-linking from bibliography resources: the bibliography lists of the papers identified in
step 1 above were used to identify additional sources and resources that were crossreferenced. This approach allowed to widen the scale of the desk research;
3. Search engines refined search: three types of search engines were used to carry out the
specialised research using different sets of keywords to identify reports, papers and pieces
depicting the Sharing Economy from sources that may not have been identified through the
previous two steps above.
Such an approach allowed to widen the scale and scope of the desk research to encompass also press
and media outlets, blogs and other unofficial resources that, in spite of their informal nature, allowed
to collect anecdotal evidences about the development of the Sharing Economy and
sentiment/expectations of users.
This report is produced in the framework of the Sharing Skills project co-funded by the European
Programme Erasmus Plus. The project involves partners from Germany, Greece, Italy, Poland and
Portugal, each carrying out research on the Sharing Economy in different countries and contexts.
This report, together with reports produced by the other partners, will feed into the Global Report as
key deliverables of Intellectual Output 1 of the project.

In traditional markets, consumers buy products and gain ownership. However, through accessibilitybased systems, consumers are increasingly paying for temporary access-rights to a product. Within
these accessibility based business models, there is a trend towards peer-to-peer platforms that
enable consumers to access consumer owned property or competencies.

National Report: EU level

AirB'nB, Blablacar, Couchsurfing, eBay, Wikipedia, Mooc, KickStarter, TOBIKE, Sharemymeal and
many others are the companies/platforms that are revolutionising the approach of customers to
main services (transports, accommodations, meals, music etc.)..
The shared economy describes a business model that is based on the sharing of resources between
individuals through peer-2-peer services.
In addition to economic benefits of the sharing economy, it is fundamental to underline the social
impact of this innovative business system, based on sharing and collaboration. Once people
experience the intrinsic power of the sharing economy and its added value, it is natural for them to
use it in every area of their lives. The key success element of the sharing economy could be identified
in the social/human involvement of the business process: not only selling a product/service, but
doing it using the personal resources and tools of the provider, who could easily become a customer
in a different sector.

National Report: EU level

2. Sharing economy at European level

Importance of the Sharing Economy in European Context
The Sharing Economy is a global phenomenon that originated in the USA but is growing exponentially
at global levels. European countries have a great potential in the participation to the Sharing
Economy, not only from a quantitative perspective (the Single Market of the EU alone accounts for
more than 500 million consumers), but also from a qualitative standpoint, with much to offer in
terms of content, services and infrastructure. Capturing the overall value and potential of the
Sharing Economy across the EU is a rather difficult exercise.
A recent analytical report from the European Parliament (February 2016, The Cost of Non-Europe in
the Sharing Economy: Economic, Social and Legal Challenges and Opportunities) sheds light on the
various dimensions of this phenomenon, its drivers and inhibitors at EU level and, most importantly,
identifies potentials and barriers for the Sharing Economy at EU level. The report highlights not only
the valuable contribution of the Sharing Economy to societal and economic development across the
EU, but also the cost of the EU not fully participating int he Sharing Economy.
A key issue at EU level is the lack of a consolidated and universally accepted definition of what the
Sharing Economy is (or what is not part of the Sharing Economy). Leaving aside any semantic issues,
the lack of a unified definition may contribute to increased fragmentation at regulatory, financial and
market levels across the EU, especially when cross-border transactions are taken into consideration.
As any new economic and transaction model, the Sharing Economy is poised to be interpreted and
considered differently by different actors: this led to confusing and at times overlapping
definitions, such as collaborative economy, shared consumption, sharing economy and so on.
For the purpose of the 2016 Report, the European Parliament provided its own definition:

The use of digital platforms or portals to reduce the scale for viable hiring
transactions or viable participation in consumer hiring markets (i.e. sharing in the
sense of hiring an asset) and thereby reduce the extent to which assets are underutilised.
Far from being the universally accepted and official definition by the EU institutions, this description
of the Sharing Economy encompasses the various dimensions of what is generally perceived as
sharing economy but tries to establish boundaries by defining the minimum elements:
1. use of digital platforms or portals: the use of digital means of intermediation is a prerequisite
2. reduce the scale for viable hiring transactions: limit the layers of intermediation between the
supply and demand for a transaction, i.e. establishing direct (or more direct) linkages
between the provider and the user

National Report: EU level

3. viable participation in consumer hiring markets: consumer based and demand driven
approach
4. sharing in the sense of hiring an asset: the hiring may foresee a financial transaction of
some sort
5. reduce the extent to which assets are under-utilised: the Sharing Economy is a means to
maximise spare-capacity of physical and intangible assets
Capturing the overall value of the Sharing Economy at EU level is a difficult task. According to a study
by the European Commission, the revenue generated by the sharing economy for individuals who
use it to supplement their income reached US$ 3.5 billion worldwide in 20131. Already, the turnover
of this economic sector is estimated at 20 billion and, according again to the European Commission,
the market for the sharing economy could eventually reach US$110 billion.
The potential economic gain linked with a better use of capacities (otherwise under-used) as a result
of the sharing economy is estimated at 572 billion. The table below is an elaboration that captures
the potential of the Sharing Economy by member states

http://ec.europa.eu/enterprise/policies/innovation/policy/business-innovation-observatory/files/casestudies/12-she-accessibility-based-business-models-for-peer-to-peer-markets_en.pdf

National Report: EU level

Table 1. Sharing Economy Amenable Sectors by Member State

Perishables

Other
Financial
Requires
sharing
Total
Sharing
business
services or
major
economy
economy
models
not
facilities
amenable
amenable
more
consumer
portion
suitable
markets
EU28
5,000
1,200
1,200
600
6,800
14,800
46%
Belgium
6,000
1,400
1,700
1,000
7,300
17,400
42%
Bulgaria (2011)
1,700
200
100
100
1,100
3,200
34%
Czech Republic
3,200
300
200
300
3,200
7,200
44%
Denmark
6,800
1,600
2,100
900
9,800
21,200
46%
Germany
5,800
1,500
1,600
800
8,100
17,800
46%
Estonia
3,200
600
200
200
2,500
6,700
37%
Ireland
5,200
1,000
800
1,000
8,500
16,500
52%
Greece (2011)
5,700
800
500
500
6,600
14,100
47%
Spain
4,700
900
700
500
6,800
13,600
50%
France
6,200
1,200
1,400
600
8,100
17,500
46%
Italy
5,400
1,500
900
600
7,200
15,600
46%
Cyprus
4,800
1,000
600
900
7,500
14,800
51%
Latvia
3,300
400
100
200
2,600
6,600
39%
Lithuania
3,900
600
200
100
2,200
7,000
31%
Luxembourg
11,000
2,000
2,300
600
14,600
30,500
48%
Hungary
2,600
200
400
200
2,000
5,400
37%
Malta
4,000
800
600
700
5,400
11,500
47%
Netherlands
5,100
1,300
1,900
400
7,300
16,000
46%
Austria
6,400
1,800
1,300
1,000
9,600
20,100
48%
Poland
2,800
500
600
200
2,000
6,100
33%
Portugal
4,000
900
700
300
4,300
10,200
42%
Romania (2010)
2,200
100
0
100
1,300
3,700
35%
Slovenia
4,700
800
700
400
3,900
10,500
37%
Slovakia
3,400
400
300
200
2,900
7,200
40%
Finland
5,900
1,400
1,300
1,000
9,500
19,100
50%
Sweden
6,700
1,500
1,600
900
9,700
20,400
48%
United Kingdom
5,500
1,800
1,300
800
9,600
19,000
51%
Source The Cost of Non-Europe in the Sharing Economy: Economic, Social and Legal Challenges and
Opportunities, European Parliament, 2016 based on data from Eurostat, Final consumption expenditure of
households by consumption purpose - COICOP 3 digit - aggregates at current prices [nama_co3_c]

Evolution of the Sharing Economy in Europe

There are several macro-economic factors driving the growth of the sharing economy. One of them is
the decreased trust of clients in the corporate world and business in general as a result of the
financial and economic crisis. In addition, unemployment rates have risen and the purchasing power
of consumers has dropped.
Another increasing trend that supported the evolution of the Sharing Economy is the willingness (and
in some cases, the need) for people to earn or save money: the Sharing Economy hence becomes an
essential means for citizens to identify alternative streams of financing by mobilising their assets

National Report: EU level

(either tangible or intangible: housing, transport, skills, etc.) for widened consumption by-passing the
mainstream distribution channels.
The above, coupled with the lowering costs of technology solutions (not only Internet solutions and
communication, but also marketing, advertising, etc.), led to the development of the Sharing
Economy in Europe as a whole. The combination of those trends, project annual growths estimates in
the range between 15 to 25% on a yearly basis for the Sharing Economy.
At present, there are many estimates and projections for the value of the Sharing Economy coming
from various operators and stakeholders of the Sharing Economy ecosystems. While encouraging,
those estimates may at times be confusing (if not misleading) due to the continuous hype and over
expectation about the scope and scale of the Sharing Economy in the coming years. The box below
depicts an example of how the snowball effect at times may lead to inaccurate interpretation of
data.
The value of the Sharing Economy: sources, estimates and reality...
Estimating the real value of the sharing economy is a daunting exercise: In spite of the use of reliable
infrastructure to inquire, book and pay, most sharing economy transactions may not be documented
properly and may escape the statistical records.
Some sharing economy transactions (especially in transportation and tourism) may not be officially
reported like in traditional sectors. Leaving aside aspects pertaining to fiscal regime, taxation and
consumer protection, this generates a considerable gap in understanding the exact value and other
elements of the phenomenon, such as total intermediation, number of transactions, average size of
transaction, etc.
The above leads to varying estimates whose reliability much depends on the accuracy of the source
of information: sometimes, one source may be reinterpreted many times to finally generate more
confusion than providing elements to capture the magnitude and relevance of the phenomenon. In
carrying out secondary research, an example of multiple referencing is provided below:
Step 1: industry report What the Sharing Economy Means to the Future of Travel, SKIFT
Report #7, 2013 refers to a European Commission report (The Sharing Economy:
Accessibility Based Business Models for Peer-to-Peer Markets, 2013, prepared by PWC)
quoting that
an estimated $ 3.5 billion of revenue will flow through the sharing economy directly
into users wallets, not counting the revenue generated by companies that facilitate the
transactions.
Step 2: the EU Commission report refers to a Forbes Magazine article by quoting
In 2013, an estimated USD 3.5 billion of revenue will flow through the sharing
economy directly into peoples wallets. This number does not include the revenues that
are generated by companies facilitating these flows.
Step 3: the Forbes article limits itself to mentioning:
FORBES estimates the revenue flowing through the share economy directly into
peoples wallets will surpass $3.5 billion this year, with growth exceeding 25%.
http://www.forbes.com/sites/tomiogeron/2013/01/23/airbnb-and-the-unstoppable-rise-of-theshare-economy/#df9e3aa6790b
Last accessed February 27, 2016

National Report: EU level

The example above illustrates how the same figure may be interpreted differently by different users.
This also leads to various interpretations of the assumptions used to estimate growth rates and
values of the Sharing Economy, with some estimates perhaps pandering the hype surrounding this
growing phenomenon.
Source: own elaboration on the resources quoted above

In traditional markets, consumers buy products and gain ownership. However, through accessibilitybased systems, consumers are increasingly paying for temporary access-rights to a product. Within
these accessibility based business models, there is a trend towards peer-to-peer platforms that
enable consumers to access consumer owned property or competencies. Platforms such as Airbnb
and Uber are experiencing explosive growth, which, in turn, has led to regulatory and political
battles.
The Sharing Economy as we know it originated in the United States of America, where the first
platforms in support of the sharing economy were established. Nonetheless, the sharing
phenomenon is increasingly becoming a global one: first because platforms are becoming
international service providers, expanding to countries with different languages and cultures; second,
thanks to the concept of sharing that is cross-cultural and hence not country-specific. In the EU
context, this is leading to many large European cities sorts of sharing economy hubs or centres of
sharing practices.
The major sharing sectors are peer-to-peer finance, online staffing, peer-to-peer accommodation, car
sharing and music and video streaming. The Sharing Economy has evolved since the entry of digital
technologies already in the production and distribution of goods and services. The starting elements
were in the media and entertainment industry, with movie rentals. Customers would rent movies
(first with VHS supported videotapes, then with DVDs) through a physical distribution network
(either large retailers like Blockbusters or small retailers / individual rental stores). This business
model was disrupted by the advent of enhanced internet connectivity coupled with digital media that
led to streaming and downloading of media content through a variety of sets and handsets (mobile
phones, tablet, laptop, desktop computer, TV, smart TV). Those business models are currently in
decline, and are at the top-left of the S-Curve of the Sharing Economy depicted below in Figure 1
extracted from the industry report of PWC

National Report: EU level

Figure 1. The sharing economy life-cycle

Source: PWC, 2015

The S-Curve above describe the evolution of the Sharing Economy in general terms, but is also
representative of the way the Sharing Economy has evolved in the EU in aggregate. Some segments
are in mature markets that will lead to their gradual decline or irrelevance: for instance car-rental
is being disrupted by new forms of car sharing that are being experimented in various cities across
the world; book rental is being disrupted by the eBook phenomenon and some parts of this segment
may easily transit into the digital sphere.
Some sectors have normalised while others are still in the breakthrough territory. The next
frontier or at least, for the time being is represented by financial services (not only peer-to-peer
lending and crowdfunding, but also smart contracts, blockchains, etc.) as well as online staffing
(increasingly common in those professions that allow to outsource business processes without
limitations of sort in terms of location, proximity, physical presence).

National Report: EU level

Industry estimates position the aggregate value of those breakthrough and niche Sharing Economy
sectors at USD 335 billion by 2025.
Figure 2. Sharing economy sector and traditional rental sector projected revenue growth

Capturing the share of EU companies and consumers participation to those turnover is considerably
difficult due to the inherent volatility of the Sharing Economy. However, some barriers remain that
may constraint companies and consumers to realise and take advantage of this potential: barriers
range from regulatory and legal aspects, technology elements, consumer protection and, most
importantly, fiscal and tax regime.

Stakeholders and Participants in the Sharing Economy at European Level

It is possible to identify several main groups of stakeholders at European level:
-European cities: some sharing economy activities have been regulated at local level. Certain
European cities have begun, for instance, to regulate short-term home rentals (the name used for
this type of rentals varies from city to city).

National Report: EU level

-European institutions, such as the European Commission, which has not so far taken any official
position on the sharing economy. It noted in its 2015 digital single market strategy paper that the
sharing economy offers opportunities for increased efficiency, growth and jobs, through improved
consumer choice, but also potentially raises new regulatory questions. The Commission also
announced in its digital single market strategy paper that it will launch a comprehensive assessment
of the role of platforms, including in the sharing economy, and of online intermediaries.
The European Parliament asks that activities on these platforms should be categorised in order to
distinguish between informal, ad-hoc sharing and professional services.

National Report: EU level

3. Sharing Economy vs. Real Economy

In recent years, a transition from ownership towards accessibility can be observed across a wide
variety of markets. Whereas in the conventional situation consumers would buy products and
become the owners, in an accessibility-based system consumers pay for temporary access-rights to a
product. Clearly this manner of commerce has already been conducted for many decades (probably
even centuries for some goods), in the form of for instance car rental services in B2C markets and
outsourcing in B2B markets.
This conventional business model, however, is subject to change. Two trends can be observed in the
evolution of this rental-like model. Firstly, technological advancement allows the business model to
spread to more and more markets and become more and more convenient and flexible.
An example of this is the music streaming service called Spotify that provides consumers access to
over thirteen million music tracks, conveniently through their smartphone, tablet or computer.
Another example is the car rental company Car2Go, which provides members with flexible and
nearby access to individual mobility through a large quantity of rental cars that are distributed across
European cities. These are examples of accessibility based business models in the B2C market.
There is, however, a second trend which constitutes a shift to peer-to-peer accessibility based
business models. Whereas in the conventional model, companies are providing access for consumers
to company owned property, in peer-to-peer models, companies are facilitating access for
consumers to consumer owned property or skills and competencies. Most of these companies
function through an online platform or marketplace that connects consumers that own certain assets
and skills with consumers in temporary need of those. These companies can facilitate peer-to-peer
markets for potentially all product or service owned by consumers. This business model might
become particularly disruptive to conventional rental solutions for mobility, accommodation,
catering and other sorts of services, because it is able to serve the same needs at a significantly lower
price. Moreover, it empowers consumers to capitalise on their property and skills, providing them
with an opportunity for micro-entrepreneurship and lowering total cost of ownership. Traditional
rental industries are being disrupted by the sharing economy as established industries mature and
are displaced by a new Sharing S-curve (Figure 1).
After a comparison between the revenue potential in five new sharing economy sectors (peer-topeer finance, online staffing, peer-to-peer accommodation, car sharing and music and video
streaming) with the potential in five traditional rental sectors (equipment rental, B&B and hostels,
car rental, book rental and DVD rental) it has been demonstrated
The five main sharing economy generate $15bn in global revenues, making up just 5% of total
revenue generated by the ten sectors.
The European Parliament tried to estimate the cost of the EU for not acting in addressing the barriers
and obstacles for the Sharing Economy.

National Report: EU level

Table 2: Value of obstacles and barriers

Shorter-term,

Longer-term,

572 bn

572 bn

Digital access and skills barriers

257 bn

543 bn

Physical barriers

103 bn

413 bn

Consumer preferences barriers

Labour market obstacles
Challenges achieving trust
Tax and other policy barriers
High regulatory barriers
Or
Low regulatory barriers
Memo: Cost of
High regulatory barriers
Or
Low regulatory barriers

51 bn
42 bn
30 bn
21 bn
14 bn

289 bn
237 bn
225 bn
158 bn
110 bn

18 bn

134 bn

6 bn

47 bn

3 bn

24 bn

Notional maximum potential

under-utilisation
Remaining value of potential
under-utilisation after
deducting for

National Report: EU level

4. SWOT analysis
SWOT analysis (including differences between 2 types of economies)

Helpful
to achieving the objective

Internal origin
(attributes of the system)

Strengths

Redistribution of wealth.
Environmental protection
Social impact and communication (it
teaches to people the power of sharing
and collaboration)
Lower prices of goods and services vs
higher prices in traditional economy
(hotel, taxi..)

Harmful
to achieving the objective
Weaknesses

Opportunities

External origin
(attributes of the environment)

The increasing world population (this

phenomenon will bring an increase of
the population in urban areas and will
promote the exchange created by the
sharing economy. The demand and
supply in urban areas will grow and it
will be easier to bring together these
two factors in an urban context of
sharing economy
Communication desire - individuals have
a desire to communicate, socialize and
create communities through the sharing
of goods.
Monetize unused resources

Lack of familiarity with digital media

vs direct access in traditional
economy.
Lack of a communication and training
plan able to work on the change
opportunities
Inactivity of some services (e.g. 70%
of Italian platforms has less than
10,000 users)
Tax evasion and unfair competition

Threats

Negative impact on the traditional

work
Create a flattened society where
everyone does everything.
Threat to safety, health and disability
compliance standards.

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5. Conclusions and remarks

The Sharing Economy represents an innovative means to create jobs, redistribute shared growth, and
provide enhanced services to consumers. New and innovative business models such as P2P
communities that share goods, space, and labour may also have generated a hype around the
Sharing Economy, whose models may also develop morph into traditional business models.
Two main implications of the Sharing Economy are now high on the agenda of priorities and concerns
of European policy makers and practitioners: on the one hand the skills and competences required
for Europeans to take part in the Sharing Economy (both as providers and users); on the other, the
considerable legal and regulatory barriers that may hinder the development of the Sharing Economy.
A key detriment to the growth of the Sharing Economy in the EU is perceived in the legal and
regulatory framework that presents challenges at both EU and member states levels:
Table 6: Legal obstacles preventing the SE from reaching its full potential
Country

BE

DE

FR

NL

Transportation
High: Ban on UberPOP in Brussels +
Existing legislation applies to the
sector indistinctly.
New legislation is under discussion in
Brussels.
High: Nationwide ban on UberPOP +
Existing legislation applies to the
sector indistinctly.
Medium-High: Ban on UberPOP
codified in the Law and considered
constitutional by the Constitutional
Court + Existing taxi legislation applies
to Uber-like platforms indistinctly +
prohibition on electronic cruising
But: express legalization of car sharing
platforms, understood as following
Blablacar's model.

Medium-high: Ban on UberPOP +

Existing legislation applies to the
sector indistinctly but willingness to
adapt the taxi market to innovation.
High: Ban on Uber + Blablacar is
challenged in court + Existing

Accommodation
Medium-Low: Some regions simplify
the rules, but Brussels imposed new
rules. Risk of legal fragmentation
which results in legal uncertainty for
foreign users.
High: New rules are imposed in Berlin
to expressly prohibit unregistered
short-term rentals + aggressive
enforcement
Medium-Low: Licencing is simplified
and the legal framework has been
clarified. Some tools to facilitate fiscal
law compliance are either
implemented or under discussion.
Threshold between commercial and
occasional use of SE platform: Criteria
to distinguish a commercial activity
from occasional use of SE platforms
are under discussion with the creation
of tax exemptions are discussed.
The prohibition on subletting is
unchanged.
Low: Rules are simplified, with some
requirements to be fulfilled.
Cooperation with the platform. Tools
to facilitate fiscal law compliance are
in place.
High: Existing legislation applies to the
sector indistinctly and is modified not

National Report: EU level

ES

UK

legislation applies to the sector

indistinctly.

Medium: Uber is legal in London, but

some measures under discussion are
potentially harmful to the SE.

to simplify rules but to ensure it is

effectively enforced + aggressive
enforcement.
New measures to regulate the activity
are foreseen.
Low: Rules are simplified, with some
requirements to be fulfilled + tax
exemptions apply until a certain
threshold for occasional users.

Source The Cost of Non-Europe in the Sharing Economy: Economic, Social and Legal Challenges and
Opportunities, European Parliament, 2016

As mentioned above, the sharing economy expresses considerable potential and decentralized
innovations, but needs a new regulatory framework in order to realize its potential, i.e. through the
digital platforms as partners in the regulation of exchange, rather than view these platforms as
adversaries or entities that require governmental regulation.
The main further and future steps at EU level can be identified as follows:
- Encourage the EU to become an early adopter of shared services by supporting users and providers
with the tools that can facilitate growth for the Sharing Economy;
- Identify opportunities and create more standardised methods for measuring the benefits of the
Sharing Economy to the public and private sector, above all in cities through Commission impact
assessment studies and life cycle analysis on sharing assets in the EU;
- Embed Sharing Economy principles into curricula across primary, secondary, vocational, higher and
adult education and training programmes (leadership, in-company, MBA, economics, engineering,
design, ICT, marketing and policy sciences);
- Facilitate the establishment of minimum safety and quality standards for Sharing Economy markets
and promote a "trust certificate" that could encourage consumers to participate in peer-to-peer
activities and platforms;
- Develop and implement appropriate legal mechanisms, insurance products and tax provisions for
collaborative forms of business, consumption, production and exchange, without creating
disadvantages to traditional business models.

National Report: EU level

6. Annexes:
Annex 1 Sources (based on Annex 1 of the methodological approach)

Boston college Debating the Sharing Economy, 2014,

http://www.geo.coop/sites/default/files/schor_debating_the_sharing_economy.pdf

CES, Info day su sharing economy , 2013, http://www.eesc.europa.eu/?i=portal.en.eventsand-activities-participative-consumption-21st-speeches

European Commission, "The sharing economy. Accessibility Based Business Models for Peerto-Peer Markets, 2013 ", http://ec.europa.eu/growth/industry/innovation/businessinnovation-observatory/files/case-studies/12-she-accessibility-based-business-models-forpeer-to-peer-markets_en.pdf

European Commission, A Digital Single Market Strategy for Europe, 2015,

http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:52015DC0192&from=EN

European Commission EU Commission to clarify stance on sharing economy, 2015,

https://www.theparliamentmagazine.eu/articles/news/eu-commission-clarify-stancesharing-economy

European Parliament, "The sharing economy and tourism (briefing) Tourist accommodation",
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