WASTE MANAGEMENT/ WASTE DISPOSAL

Waste management or Waste disposal is all the activities and actions required to
manage waste from its inception to its final disposal. This includes amongst other
things, collection, transport, treatment and disposal of waste together with
monitoring and regulation. It also encompasses the legal and regulatory framework
that relates to waste management encompassing guidance on recycling etc.
The term normally relates to all kinds of waste, whether generated during the
extraction of raw materials, the processing of raw materials into intermediate and
final products, the consumption of final products, or other human activities,
including municipal (residential, institutional, commercial), agricultural, and social
(health care, household hazardous waste, sewage sludge). Waste management is
intended to reduce adverse effects of waste on health, the environment or
aesthetics.

Central principles of waste management

Diagram of the waste hierarchy

Life-cycle of a product
The life-cycle begins with design, then proceeds through manufacture, distribution,
use and then follows through the waste hierarchy's stages of reduce, reuse and
recycle. Each of the above stages of the life-cycle offers opportunities for policy
intervention, to rethink the need for the product, to redesign to minimize waste
potential, to extend its use. The key behind the life-cycle of a product is to optimize
the use of the world's limited resources by avoiding the unnecessary generation of
waste.
Resource efficiency

Resource efficiency reflects the understanding that current, global, economic

growth and development cannot be sustained with the current production and
consumption patterns. Globally, we are extracting more resources to produce
goods than the planet can replenish. Resource efficiency is the reduction of the
environmental impact from the production and consumption of these goods, from
final raw material extraction to last use and disposal. This process of resource
efficiency can address sustainability.

DISPOSAL SOLUTIONS
LANDFILL
A landfill site (also known as a tip, dump, rubbish dump, garbage dump or
dumping ground) is a site for the disposal of waste materials by burial and is the
oldest form of waste treatment (although the burial part is modern; historically,
refuse was just left in piles or thrown into pits). Historically, landfills have been the
most common method of organized waste disposal and remain so in many places
around the world.
Some landfills are also used for waste management purposes, such as the
temporary storage, consolidation and transfer, or processing of waste material
(sorting, treatment, or recycling).
A landfill also may refer to ground that has been filled in with rocks instead of waste
materials, so that it can be used for a specific purpose, such as for building
houses. Unless they are stabilized, these areas may experience severe shaking or
soil liquefaction of the ground during a large earthquake.
Operations

One of several landfills used by Dryden, Ontario, Canada.

Typically, operators of well-run landfills for non-hazardous waste meet predefined
specifications by applying techniques to:

1. confine waste to as small an area as possible

2. compact waste to reduce volume
3. cover waste (usually daily) with layers of soil
During landfill operations a scale or weighbridge may weigh waste-collection
vehicles on arrival and personnel may inspect loads for wastes that do not accord
with the landfill's waste-acceptance criteria. Afterward, the waste-collection
vehicles use the existing road network on their way to the tipping face or working
front, where they unload their contents. After loads are deposited, compactors or
bulldozers can spread and compact the waste on the working face. Before leaving
the landfill boundaries, the waste collection vehicles may pass through a wheelcleaning facility. If necessary, they return to the weighbridge for re-weighing without
their load. The weighing process can assemble statistics on the daily incoming
waste-tonnage, which databases can retain for record keeping. In addition to
trucks, some landfills may have equipment to handle railroad containers. The use
of "rail-haul" permits landfills to be located at more remote sites, without the
problems associated with many truck trips.
Waste compaction is critical to extending the life of the landfill. Factors such as
waste compressibility, waste-layer thickness and the number of passes of the
compactor over the waste affect the waste densities.

Advantages
Landfills are often the most cost-efficient way to dispose of waste, especially in
countries like the United States with large open spaces. While resource recovery
and incineration both require extensive investments in infrastructure, and material
recovery also requires extensive manpower to maintain, landfills have fewer fixed
or ongoingcosts, allowing them to compete favorably. In addition, landfill gas
can be upgraded to natural gaslandfill gas utilizationwhich is a potential
revenue stream. Another advantage is having a specific location for disposal that
can be monitored, where waste can be processed to remove all recyclable
materials before tipping.

Social and environmental impact

Landfills have the potential to cause a number of issues. Infrastructure disruption,

such as damage to access roads by heavy vehicles, may occur. Pollution of local
roads and water courses from wheels on vehicles when they leave the landfill can
be significant and can be mitigated by wheel washing systems. Pollution of the
local environment, such as contamination of groundwater or aquifers or soil
contamination may occur, as well.
Leachate
Extensive efforts are made to capture and treat leachate from landfills before it
reaches groundwater aquifers, but engineered liners always have a lifespan,
though it may be 100 years or more. Eventually, every landfill liner will leak,
allowing the leachate to contaminate the groundwater.
Dangerous gases
Rotting food and other decaying organic waste allows methane and carbon dioxide
to seep out of the ground and up into the air. Methane is a potent greenhouse gas,
and can itself be a danger because it is flammable and potentially explosive. In
properly managed landfills, gas is collected and utilized. This could range from
simple flaring to landfill gas utilization. Carbon dioxide is the most widely produced
greenhouse gas. It traps heat in the atmosphere, contributing to climate change.
Infections
Poorly run landfills may become nuisances because of vectors such as rats and
flies which can cause infectious diseases. The occurrence of such vectors can be
mitigated through the use of daily cover.
Other potential issues include wildlife disruption, dust, odor, noise pollution, and
reduced local property values.
Landfill gas
Gases are produced in landfills due to the anaerobic digestion by microbes. In a
properly managed landfill this gas is collected and used. Its uses range from simple
flaring to the landfill gas utilization and generation of electricity.

INCINERATION
Incineration is a waste treatment process that involves the combustion of organic
substances contained in waste materials. Incineration and other high-temperature
waste treatment systems are described as "thermal treatment". Incineration of

waste materials converts the waste into ash, flue gas, and heat. The ash is mostly
formed by the inorganic constituents of the waste, and may take the form of solid
lumps or particulates carried by the flue gas. The flue gases must be cleaned of
gaseous and particulate pollutants before they are dispersed into the atmosphere.
In some cases, the heat generated by incineration can be used to generate electric
power.
Incineration with energy recovery is one of several waste-to-energy technologies
such as gasification, pyrolysis and anaerobic digestion. While incineration and
gasification technologies are similar in principle, the energy product from
incineration is high-temperature heat whereas combustible gas is often the main
energy product from gasification. Incineration and gasification may also be
implemented without energy and materials recovery.
In several countries, there are still concerns from experts and local communities
about the environmental effect of incinerators.
Combustion in an incinerator is not always perfect and there have been concerns
about pollutants in gaseous emissions from incinerator stacks. Particular concern
has focused on some very persistent organic compounds such as dioxins, furans,
and PAHs, which may be created and which may have serious environmental
consequences.
In some countries, incinerators built just a few decades ago often did not include a
materials separation to remove hazardous, bulky or recyclable materials before
combustion. These facilities tended to risk the health of the plant workers and the
local environment due to inadequate levels of gas cleaning and combustion
process control. Most of these facilities did not generate electricity.
Incinerators reduce the solid mass of the original waste by 8085% and the volume
(already compressed somewhat in garbage trucks) by 9596%, depending on
composition and degree of recovery of materials such as metals from the ash for
recycling. This means that while incineration does not completely replace
landfilling, it significantly reduces the necessary volume for disposal. Garbage
trucks often reduce the volume of waste in a built-in compressor before delivery to
the incinerator. Alternatively, at landfills, the volume of the uncompressed garbage
can be reduced by approximately 70% by using a stationary steel compressor,
albeit with a significant energy cost. In many countries, simpler waste compaction
is a common practice for compaction at landfills.

Incineration has particularly strong benefits for the treatment of certain waste types
in niche areas such as clinical wastes and certain hazardous wastes where
pathogens and toxins can be destroyed by high temperatures. Examples include
chemical multi-product plants with diverse toxic or very toxic wastewater streams,
which cannot be routed to a conventional wastewater treatment plant.
Waste combustion is particularly popular in countries such as Japan where land is
a scarce resource. Denmark and Sweden have been leaders in using the energy
generated from incineration for more than a century, in localized combined heat
and power facilities supporting district heating schemes. In 2005, waste
incineration produced 4.8% of the electricity consumption and 13.7% of the total
domestic heat consumption in Denmark. A number of other European countries
rely heavily on incineration for handling municipal waste, in particular Luxembourg,
the Netherlands, Germany, and France.

RECYCLING

Steel crushed and baled for recycling

Recycling is a resource recovery practice that refers to the collection and reuse of
waste materials such as empty beverage containers. The materials from which the
items are made can be reprocessed into new products. Material for recycling may
be collected separately from general waste using dedicated bins and collection
vehicles, a procedure called kerbside collection. In some communities, the owner
of the waste is required to separate the materials into different bins (e.g. for paper,
plastics, metals) prior to its collection. In other communities, all recyclable materials
are placed in a single bin for collection, and the sorting is handled later at a central
facility. The latter method is known as "single-stream recycling."
The most common consumer products recycled include aluminum such as
beverages cans, copper such as wire, steel from food and aerosol cans, old steel
furnishings or equipment, rubber tyres, polyethylene and PET bottles, glass bottles

and jars, paperboard cartons, newspapers, magazines and light paper, and
corrugated fiberboard boxes.
PVC, LDPE, PP, and PS are also recyclable. These items are usually composed of
a single type of material, making them relatively easy to recycle into new products.
The recycling of complex products (such as computers and electronic equipment)
is more difficult, due to the additional dismantling and separation required.
The type of material accepted for recycling varies by city and country. Each city
and country has different recycling programs in place that can handle the various
types of recyclable materials. However, certain variation in acceptance is reflected
in the resale value of the material once it is reprocessed.

RE-USE
Biological reprocessing

An active compost heap.

Recoverable materials that are organic in nature, such as plant material, food
scraps, and paper products, can be recovered through composting and digestion
processes to decompose the organic matter. The resulting organic material is then
recycled as mulch or compost for agricultural or landscaping purposes. In addition,
waste gas from the process (such as methane) can be captured and used for
generating electricity and heat (CHP/cogeneration) maximizing efficiencies. The
intention of biological processing in waste management is to control and accelerate
the natural process of decomposition of organic matter.
Energy recovery
Energy recovery from waste is the conversion of non-recyclable waste materials
into usable heat, electricity, or fuel through a variety of processes, including

combustion, gasification, pyrolyzation, anaerobic digestion, and landfill gas

recovery. This process is often called waste-to-energy. Energy recovery from waste
is part of the non-hazardous waste management hierarchy. Using energy recovery
to convert non-recyclable waste materials into electricity and heat, generates a
renewable energy source and can reduce carbon emissions by offsetting the need
for energy from fossil sources as well as reduce methane generation from landfills.
Globally, waste-to-energy accounts for 16% of waste management.
The energy content of waste products can be harnessed directly by using them as
a direct combustion fuel, or indirectly by processing them into another type of fuel.
Thermal treatment ranges from using waste as a fuel source for cooking or heating
and the use of the gas fuel, to fuel for boilers to generate steam and electricity in a
turbine. Pyrolysis and gasification are two related forms of thermal treatment where
waste materials are heated to high temperatures with limited oxygen availability.
The process usually occurs in a sealed vessel under high pressure. Pyrolysis of
solid waste converts the material into solid, liquid and gas products. The liquid and
gas can be burnt to produce energy or refined into other chemical products
(chemical refinery). The solid residue (char) can be further refined into products
such as activated carbon. Gasification and advanced Plasma arc gasification are
used to convert organic materials directly into a synthetic gas (syngas) composed
of carbon monoxide and hydrogen. The gas is then burnt to produce electricity and
steam. An alternative to pyrolysis is high temperature and pressure supercritical
water decomposition (hydrothermal monophasic oxidation).

PYROLYSIS
Pyrolysis is a process of thermo-chemical decomposition of organic materials by
heat in the absence of oxygen which produces various hydrocarbon gases. During
pyrolysis, the molecules of object are subjected to very high temperatures leading
to very high vibrations. Therefore, every molecule in the object is stretched and
shaken to an extent that molecules starts breaking down. The rate of pyrolysis
increases with temperature. In industrial applications, temperatures are above
430 C (800 F). Fast pyrolysis produces liquid fuel for feedstocks like wood. Slow
pyrolysis produces gases and solid charcoal. Pyrolysis hold promise for conversion
of waste biomass into useful liquid fuel. Pyrolysis of waste plastics can produce
millions of liters of fuel. Solid products of this process contain metals, glass, sand
and pyrolysis coke which cannot be converted to gas in the process.

RESOURCE RECOVERY
Resource recovery is the systematic diversion of waste, which was intended for
disposal, for a specific next use. It is the processing of recyclables to extract or
recover materials and resources, or convert to energy. These activities are
performed at a resource recovery facility. Resource recovery is not only
environmentally important, but it is also cost effective. It decreases the amount of
waste for disposal, saves space in landfills, and conserves natural resources.
Resource recovery (as opposed to waste management) uses LCA (life cycle
analysis) attempts to offer alternatives to waste management. For mixed MSW
(Municipal Solid Waste) a number of broad studies have indicated that
administration, source separation and collection followed by reuse and recycling of
the non-organic fraction and energy and compost/fertilizer production of the
organic material via anaerobic digestion to be the favoured path.
As an example of how resource recycling can be beneficial, many of the items
thrown away contain precious metals which can be recycled to create a profit, such
as the components in circuit boards. Other industries can also benefit from
resource recycling with the wood chippings in pallets and other packaging
materials being passed onto sectors such as the horticultural profession. In this
instance, workers can use the recycled chips to create paths, walkways, or arena
surfaces.

SUSTAINABILITY
The management of waste is a key component in a business' ability to maintaining
ISO14001 accreditation. Companies are encouraged to improve their
environmental efficiencies each year by eliminating waste through resource
recovery practices, which are sustainability-related activities. One way to do this is
by shifting away from waste management to resource recovery practices like
recycling materials such as glass, food scraps, paper and cardboard, plastic bottles
and metal.
Avoidance and reduction methods
An important method of waste management is the prevention of waste material
being created, also known as waste reduction. Methods of avoidance include reuse

of second-hand products, repairing broken items instead of buying new, designing

products to be refillable or reusable (such as cotton instead of plastic shopping
bags), encouraging consumers to avoid using disposable products (such as
disposable cutlery), removing any food/liquid remains from cans and packaging,
and designing products that use less material to achieve the same purpose (for
example, light weighting of beverage cans).

International waste movement

While waste transport within a given country falls under national regulations, transboundary movement of waste is often subject to international treaties. A major
concern to many countries in the world has been hazardous waste. The Basel
Convention, ratified by 172 countries, deprecates movement of hazardous waste
from developed to less developed countries. The provisions of the Basel
convention have been integrated into the EU waste shipment regulation. Nuclear
waste, although considered hazardous, does not fall under the jurisdiction of the
Basel Convention.

Benefits
Waste is not something that should be discarded or disposed of with no regard for
future use. It can be a valuable resource if addressed correctly, through policy and
practice. With rational and consistent waste management practices there is an
opportunity to reap a range of benefits. Those benefits include:
1. Economic Improving economic efficiency through the means of resource
use, treatment and disposal and creating markets for recycles can lead to
efficient practices in the production and consumption of products and
materials resulting in valuable materials being recovered for reuse and the
potential for new jobs and new business opportunities.
2. Social By reducing adverse impacts on health by proper waste
management practices, the resulting consequences are more appealing
settlements. Better social advantages can lead to new sources of
employment and potentially lifting communities out of poverty especially in
some of the developing poorer countries and cities.
3. Environmental Reducing or eliminating adverse impacts on the
environmental through reducing, reusing and recycling, and minimizing

resource extraction can provide improved air and water quality and help in
the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions.
4. Inter-generational Equity Following effective waste management practices
can provide subsequent generations a more robust economy, a fairer and
more inclusive society and a cleaner environment.

Challenges in developing countries

Waste management in cities with developing economies and economies in
transition experience exhausted waste collection services, inadequately managed
and uncontrolled dumpsites and the problems are worsening. Problems with
governance also complicate the situation. Waste management, in these countries
and cities, is an ongoing challenge and many struggles due to weak institutions,
chronic under-resourcing and rapid urbanization. All of these challenges along with
the lack of understanding of different factors that contribute to the hierarchy of
waste management affect the treatment of waste.

Technologies
Traditionally the waste management industry has been a late adopter of new
technologies such as RFID (Radio Frequency Identification) tags, GPS and
integrated software packages which enable better quality data to be collected
without the use of estimation or manual data entry.

METHODS OF SEWAGE TREATMENT

Every community should have a way of disposing of sewage so that people,
animals and flies cannot touch it. This is called a sewage system.
There are different types of sewage systems which can be described as on-site
systems and sewage or effluent systems.
An on-site system is one which treats the sewage in a septic tank so that most of
the sewage becomes effluent and is disposed of in an area close to the house or
buildings. An example of an on-site disposal system consists of a septic tank and
leach drains.

A sewage or wastewater system disposes of the effluent from a community at a

central place usually called a sewage lagoon or effluent pond. The sewage can
be treated:

in a septic tank at each building

just before the lagoon in a large septic tank or macerator system, or

in the lagoon itself

On-site disposal systems

All the liquid waste from the toilet, bathroom, laundry and sink goes into pipes
which carry it to a septic tank. The effluent from the tank is then disposed of
through effluent disposal drains often referred to as leach or French drains. Both
of these methods of disposing of liquid waste are on-site disposal systems. They
must be installed and maintained properly.
In these systems, the effluent is soaked into the surrounding soil. Some soils don't
allow good soakage such as clay or similar soils; if there are any problems with this
disposal system a local government authority or plumber should be consulted to
talk about the problem.

Plan view (top) of an on-site sewage disposal system.

On-site disposal systems cannot be installed in all situations. For example, they
cannot be installed:

in areas that flood regularly

in areas that have a high water table (that is, where the underground water
is close to the surface)

where the amount of wastewater to be disposed of is large

near to drinking water supplies

Effluent (wastewater) disposal system

In this method the effluent (wastewater) from the community is carried by large
pipes to the lagoon. These pipes serve all the houses and other buildings in the
community. The sewage may be either be treated in septic tanks at the houses or
buildings or at the lagoon. There are no leach or French drains.

Plan view of a wastewater disposal system.

Full sewage system

All the sewage from the toilet, shower, laundry and other areas enters waste and
sewer pipes directly and is pumped to a lagoon.

There are three types of full sewage system:

The sewage enters the lagoon without treatment

The sewage goes through a series of cutting blades which help break up the
solid matter before it enters the lagoon. These blades are called macerators.

Plan view of full sewage system and macerators.

The sewage may be treated in a large septic tank just before it enters the
lagoon.

Plan view of a full sewage system with a large septic tank.

The septic tank

A septic tank can be used to treat the sewage from individual buildings at the
building itself or for the whole community, at the lagoon. The sewage will pass
through sewer pipes to the septic tank either at the house or at the lagoon.
The septic tank is a sealed round or rectangular container which is used to break
down the sewage so that it becomes effluent through the action of bacteria living
on the waste matter.

Septic tank design

A household septic tank usually consists of two round concrete tanks with lids
placed close to each other. They are connected by a pipe. This type of septic tank
is designed to be used by up to 10 people. Round tanks are constructed (built) at a
factory and transported to the site (place) where they are to be used.

A round septic tank system.

A septic tank can also be a single rectangular concrete tank with a dividing wall in
it. A rectangular septic tank is designed to be used by more than 10 people and is
often used for sewage treatment at a lagoon. The tank is constructed on the site
where it is to be used.

A rectangular septic tank system.

Septic tanks are always divided into two sections, the first being twice the size of
the second. In round septic tanks, the separation into two tanks provides this

division. In rectangular tanks the dividing wall provides the division. This wall will
have a hole in it below the level of the sewage to allow effluent to pass from the
first to the second section.
Round septic tanks have concrete bottoms and lids. Rectangular tanks usually
have concrete bottoms and lids, but some may have metal lids. The lids can be
lifted off for maintenance.
There are many regulations (rules) which require septic tanks to be constructed,
positioned and installed in a particular way. These rules are controlled by local
authorities.
It is very important to find out if the regulations are being followed by contractors or
anyone else installing (putting in place) new septic tanks in the community. It is a
good idea to contact the local authority to check that the necessary approval has
been given to construct and/or install the septic tank disposal system.
How a septic tank works
A septic tank must be filled with water before it is used. The water helps start the
treatment of the sewage by the bacteria.
The sewage treatment by the bacteria turns the waste matter into effluent
(wastewater) and a solid substance called sludge. The effluent gets carried to the
leach drain, French drain or lagoon.
The material in the septic tank gets covered by a hard crust known as a scum
blanket. This blanket acts as an air seal keeping air away from the sewage. The
lack of air helps in the breakdown of the sewage by the bacteria.
The sludge gathers at the bottom of the tanks. Eventually there will be too much
sludge in the tank and it must be pumped out and the sludge disposed of correctly.
By having two tanks or a rectangular tank divided into two sections, most of the
sludge stays in the first tank or section. In the second tank or section, the sewage
undergoes further treatment to remove solid matter.
The effluent is then piped to the effluent disposal system, such as the lagoon.

PROBLEM SIGNS IN SEPTIC TANKS

The septic tank will need to be checked if there are signs that it is not working
properly.
Some signs that a septic tank is not working properly are:

The sewage in the toilet or the liquid waste from other fixtures flows
away very slowly

Liquid waste overflows from the disconnector trap

Wet areas are seen at the top of the septic tank

There is a strong unpleasant smell near the septic tank

The grass around the tank is very green and growing well

In the case of on-site disposal systems, it is important to remember that some of

these signs may indicate problems with the leach or French drain. Therefore, these
drains will need to be checked at the same time as the septic tanks are checked.
If the septic tank and the leach or French drain need to be pumped out, both
should be done at the same time.

Pumping out septic tanks

Septic tanks should be pumped out every five years to keep the disposal system
working properly. However, this may need to be done more often, for example, if
they overflow or become blocked.
If there are any signs of a problem with the septic tank, it will need to be checked.
The inside parts of the tank system which will need to be checked are:

The scum blanket (as it may become too thick and block the inlet pipe)

The inlet or outlet pipes (as they may be blocked by solid matter)

The sludge (as it may have accumulated so that it fills most of the tank)

The tank's bottom, sides or lids (as one or more of these may have been
cracked or broken. For example, vehicle movements over septic tanks are
likely to damage the lids and sides.)

Emptying a septic tank

Before commencing Pump-out
a. Find out if the community has or can obtain a pump-out tank or tanker. Make
sure the sludge pump (pump-out equipment) is available and working.
b. Locate an appropriate disposal site.
If a tank or tanker is used, the disposal site must be a place which is
suitable for getting rid of the dangerous sludge and effluent and be able to
take all the pumped out materials. For example, the site must be well away
from water supplies, children's play areas, camp places, rivers and streams,
and downwind if possible. Often this place will be a hole dug in a separate
part of the community rubbish tip.
If there is no tank or tanker available, the pumped-out material must be
disposed of in a hole near the septic tank.
The distance between the septic tanks and the disposal hole will depend
upon the length of the pump-out hose. The hole must be away from water
supplies.
c. Where possible, remove any tins, bottles, rags, newspaper and other
rubbish that may be in the septic tank. This material can either be disposed
of in the pump-out hole at the site or at the rubbish tip.
All sewage material which is to be taken to the tip should be transported in
sealed drums.

Removing solid materials.

When pumping out the septic tank:

a. Pump out the sludge into the tanker or the hole.
If using a tanker the sludge can be deposited at the appropriate site away
from the community.
If the disposal site is near the septic tank and the pump-out has
commenced, the hole must be guarded at all times even if the pump-out
stops for some reason, for example, for a lunch break or because of an
equipment breakdown. The sewage must be covered with soil if the pumpout is not finished by the end of the day.
After covering the sludge with this layer of soil there may still be space in the
hole to complete the pump-out the next day.
When covering the sludge with soil, remember that some time must allowed
for the liquid to soak away before putting soil in the hole.
b. When the job is finished the hole should be filled with a thick layer of soil.
c. Once the septic tank has been completely emptied, it must be filled with
water before it is used again.

Pumping out a septic tank.

Effluent disposal drains (leach and French drains)

Effluent disposal drains such as leach drains and French drains are used to get rid
of effluent that comes from the septic tanks. It is better to have these disposal
systems put in two at one time (dual), so that one can be in use while the other one
is rested. Resting one drain system lets oil and grease that has collected in the
surrounding soil be broken down. These dual systems also last longer than a
single system the same size.
Leach drains
A leach drain is a tube-like structure which is made of concrete or plastic and
buried in the ground. There are holes in the sides. Its width can vary and its length
depends upon the size of the leach drain being used, the amount of liquid waste to
be disposed of, the type of soil (dirt) around it, and how it is built.

Septic tanks and brick leach drain.

The liquid waste enters the leach drain at one end then slowly seeps down through
the open base and out the sides through holes into the surrounding soil.

Concrete segment leach drain.

French (rubble) drains
The French drain is also used to dispose of the liquid waste coming from the septic
tank. It is a pipe with holes or slits cut in it, laid on a bed of round rocks. The holes
or slits in the pipe face downwards. It is usually about 20 m long but the length
depends upon the amount of effluent to be disposed of and the soil type around the
drain.

The drain is covered with plastic or some similar material and is then covered with
a protective layer of sand or gravel. This helps prevent the pipe holes or the gaps
between the rocks from blocking up with the protective sand or gravel.

French drain (rubble drain).

Leach/french drain maintenance
It is very important to remember that leach and French drains have a limited life
(they do not last forever) because the surrounding soil can become clogged with oil
and grease.
By using the dual drain systems, only one half of the system is being used at any
one time. By alternating the use of these dual systems, the half that is not being
used can dry out, the air breaks down the oil and grease so that the drain can be
used again once the soil has become unclogged.
It is important to make sure that these alternating drains have their diversion valve
switched over regularly so that the drains give a long life use.
By making sure septic tanks are regularly pumped out there is less solids entering
the drains and they will have a much longer life.
All leach and French drain sizes depends on a set of regulations. These take into
account surrounding soil types and the amount of effluent which needs to be
disposed of each day. These rules also detail siting and construction requirements.

Sewage lagoons
A sewage lagoon is a large pond into which the sewage or effluent from the
sewage system flows. Sewage lagoons are also called effluent ponds.
The sewage and effluent are broken down by germs in the lagoon. The sun and
wind play an important role in the working of the lagoon. They provide light, warmth
and oxygen to the water. This is necessary for the growth of the bacteria in the
water.
The light, warmth and oxygen also aid the growth of algae in the water. The algae
give the lagoon its greenish flecked colour. The algae helps the bacteria to break
down the sewage and effluent.
The wind helps with the evaporation of the water and serves to get oxygen into the
water. It also creates waves which help stop insects from breeding and living in the
water. Disease-causing mosquitoes, for example, need still water to breed.
For a lagoon to be able to break down the sewage or effluent properly and to be a
healthy place it must meet the following requirements:

It must not be more than 1 m deep

The banks need to be sloped at approximately 15 to 20 degrees and made

of concrete, gravel or rock. This stops the wave action from eroding
(breaking down) the banks

There must be no grass, trees or other vegetation on the banks or

surrounding area which would stop the sun and wind action needed by the
lagoon

The water must be free of vegetation or objects which stop the lagoon's
surface wave action or create still patches

It must be surrounded by a high fence with a lockable gate to keep children

and animals out

Lagoon overflows
Where there is only one lagoon in the sewage disposal system, it will have an
overflow situated directly opposite where the pipe carrying the sewage or effluent
enters the lagoon. If there is more than one lagoon in the system, the overflow will
be in the last lagoon.
The overflow releases water from the lagoon system which has not been removed
by evaporation. New lagoon systems are required to be designed so disposal
occurs by evaporation only. They should not rely on overflow, except during very
heavy rainfall periods. However, where an existing lagoon system uses an overflow
method, the overflow should not create a flooded or swampy area suitable for
mosquito breeding, or where it may contaminate drinking water or the environment.

This is how the overflow from sewage lagoon contaminates the community drinking

water supply. This is the wrong way.

Lagoon maintenance
Lagoons which are not working properly or are poorly maintained or damaged may
be dangerous to health.
Signs of a lagoon which is not working properly are heavy overflow, mosquito
breeding or a bad smell.
Signs of a lagoon which is poorly maintained or damaged include broken fences
and gates, trees, shrubs or grass on the banks, grass growing and other objects in
the water causing still patches.

Unsafe sewage lagoon.

To be properly maintained the lagoon should be checked frequently and any
problems reported to the authority responsible for providing the maintenance.
It is important to report any of the following:

eroded or broken lagoon banks

lagoon banks which are not angled at 15-20 degrees

trees and/or other vegetation growing in the lagoon, on its banks or in the
area around the lagoon

bad smells given off by the lagoon

water which is not a light, flecked green colour

still areas on the surface of the lagoon

signs of mosquitoes breeding in the water

damaged fences or gates that cannot be locked properly to keep out

animals and children

rubbish in the water

a swampy situation near the lagoon (possibly caused by the overflow) which
could provide mosquito breeding areas

grass on the banks of lagoons, particularly growing at the edge of water,

which can provide ideal mosquito breeding areas

Properly maintained lagoon.

Communities without a sewage disposal system

Some communities may not have sewage systems with pipes, septic tanks/leach
drains or lagoons. This may be because they are new communities or the people
are staying in a place which is not used all the time.
The sewage and effluent has to be disposed of properly in some other way. If this
does not happen the sewage and effluent may cause disease.
Wastewater from people washing themselves and their clothes and bedding, and
from cooking must not be tipped onto the ground. This wastewater can contain
disease-causing germs. The wastewater can lie in pools allowing germs to breed
and causing bad smells. It attracts flies and mosquitoes, and can also be harmful
to children and family pets who like to play in water.
The methods of sewage disposal outlined below can be used as temporary (shortterm) solutions, but they will never be as good as a proper sewage system.

Combination of a grease trap and soakage pit

This pit can be used for disposing of cooking and washing wastewater in temporary
camps and in new communities for a short period of time until proper disposal
systems are installed. It cannot be used for toilet waste.

Grease trap and soakage pit.

The grease trap collects any food scraps and solids and prevents any grease or
fat from entering the soakage pit.
The grease trap is a 20 L (4 gallon) drum with a tight fitting removable lid. It has
holes in the bottom and in the sides.
The grease trap is set into a large hole called the soakage pit. This is filled with
stones and sand. The hole should be carefully packed with sand at the bottom and
layered with stones of different sizes - small stones (gravel) at the bottom to large
stones at the top.
Soakage pits should be about 1200 mm square and the same distance (1200 mm)
deep. If one pit is not big enough more of the same size can be dug. These can be

individual pits or connected by pipes.

It may be necessary to clean out the grease trap every day depending on how
much use the pit is getting. The waste from the grease trap should be buried at the
place where other rubbish (solid waste) is being buried.
Grease traps and soakage pits should be covered to keep out flies. Flywire can be
used to cover the soakage pit around the grease trap.
Pit toilets
Where there are temporary camps or where the community is newly established
and there is not yet a water supply which will allow the use of flush toilets, the
following types of pit toilets can be used:

bore-hole latrines

VIP latrines

shallow trench latrines

Shallow trench latrines can be built where there are large numbers of people who
are going to live in a place for a short time only. There is a latrine for each sex and
each time a person goes to the toilet he/she should cover any faeces with soil.
When a trench is nearly full, it should be filled with soil.
Chemical toilets may be considered, but are rarely practical in these situations
because of the need for supplies of chemical and pump-out equipment. Also, it is
sometimes difficult transporting these toilets to remote places.

M & M Construction limited is considering to implement a mega project, and

you were lucky to be in the team who recently held a site visit held on the 2812-2016 in Paradise View, Coastal Gambia.
Among the findings are the following:
Lack of water supply

Write a report to the consultant of the said project informing him about the
outcomes of your visit. In your explain to the consultant including the following:
methods of treatment and
storage of water

Buildings are an integration of many interdependent systems: structure, envelope, lighting,

mechanical, HVAC, materials, plumbing, telecommunications, security, etc. How these systems
relate and work together is key in understanding and designing a green building. Sustainable
architecture means looking at the building process and design in a holistic manner because each
design decision affects another. For example, the choice early in schematic design to use natural
ventilation and daylighting will affect the capacity of the HVAC unit specified.
In turn, these decisions all have local, global, natural resource, indoor environmental quality, and
cost implications.
Therefore, the design team should address environmental design concepts from the start of the
project.
To that end, MIT requires all new construction and renovation projects to comply with the following
Design Requirements. This document is intended for the project team to use as a reference guide
during the planning, design and construction phases.