Search:

Search is trying to find something by looking or otherwise seeking carefully and thoroughly.
Research:
Research is simply the process of finding solutions to a problem after a thorough study and
analysis of the situational factors.
Business Research:
Business research is the application of the scientific method in searching for the truth about
business phenomena. These activities include defining business opportunities and problems,
generating and evaluating alternative courses of action, and monitoring employee and
organizational performance.
This definition suggests that business research information is not intuitive or haphazardly
gathered. Literally, research (re-search) means to search again. The term connotes patient
study and scientific investigation wherein the researcher takes another, more careful look at the
data to discover all that is known about the subject. Ultimately, all findings are tied back to the
underlying theory. The definition also emphasizes, through reference to the scientific method,
that any information generated should be accurate and objective. Business research can also be
described as a systematic and organized effort to investigate a specific problem encountered in
the work setting, that needs a solution. It comprises a series of steps designed and executed, with
the goal of finding answers to the issues that are of concern to the manager in the work
environment. This means that the first step in research is to know where the problem areas exist
in the organization, and to identify as clearly and specifically as possible the problems that need
to be studied and resolved. Once the problem that needs attention is clearly defined, then steps
can be taken to gather information, analyze the data, and determine the factors that are associated
with the problem and solve it by taking the necessary corrective measures.
This entire process by which we attempt to solve problems is called research. Thus, research
involves a series of well-thought-out and carefully executed activities that will enable the
manager to know how organizational problems can be solved, or at least considerably
minimized. Research thus encompasses the processes of inquiry, investigation, examination, and
experimentation. These processes have to be carried out systematically, diligently, critically,
objectively, and logically. The expected end results would be the discovery that will help the
manager to deal with the problem situation.
Definition of Research:
Business research can now be defined as an organized, systematic, data-based, critical,
objective, scientific inquiry or investigation into a specific problem, undertaken with the purpose
of finding answers or solutions to it. In essence, research provides the needed information that
guides managers to make informed decisions to successfully deal with problems. The
information provided could be the result of a careful analysis of data gathered firsthand or of data
that are already available (in the company, industry, archives, etc.). Data can be quantitative (as
generally gathered through structured questions) or qualitative (as generated from the broad
answers to specific questions in interviews, or from responses to open-ended questions in a
questionnaire, or through observation, or from already available information gathered from
various sources).

Types of Business Research:

Applied Research
Basic Research
Applied Research:
Research can be undertaken for two different purposes. One is to solve a current problem faced
by the manager in the work setting, demanding a timely solution. For example, a particular
product may not be selling well and the manager might want to find the reasons for this in order
to take corrective action. Such research is called applied research. Applied business research is
conducted to address a specific business decision for a specific firm or organization.
Basic Research:
Basic business research (sometimes referred to as pure research) is conducted without a specific
decision in mind, and it usually does not address the needs of a specific organization. It attempts
to expand the limits of knowledge in general, and as such it is not aimed at solving a particular
pragmatic problem. Basic research can be used to test the validity of a general business theory
(one that applies to all businesses) or to learn more about a particular business phenomenon. It is
to generate a body of knowledge by trying to comprehend how certain problems that occur in
organizations can be solved. It is quite possible that some organizations may later on apply the knowledge
gained by the findings of such basic research to solve their own problems

Scientific Research and Method:

The scientific method is the way researchers go about using knowledge and evidence to reach
objective conclusions about the real world. Scientific research focuses on solving problems and
pursues a step-by-step logical, organized, and rigorous method to identify the problems, gather
data, analyze them, and draw valid conclusions there from. It constitutes of following steps:

identification of problem area

information search
hypothesis formation
research design
data collection
data results
data result interpretation
implications

Identifying Problems or Opportunities:

Before any strategy can be developed, an organization must determine where it wants to go and
how it will get there. Business research can help managers plan strategies by determining the
nature of situations or by identifying the existence of problems or opportunities present in the
organization. Business research may be used as a scanning activity to provide information about
what is occurring within an organization or in its environment. The mere description of some
social or economic activity may familiarize managers with organizational and environmental
occurrences and help them understand a situation. A paradigm or thinking view is needed to
identify the problems. A logical base is required to start the research process. By identifying the
problem or opportunities, we provide ourselves with a logical base to start our research.

Deduction and Induction:

Answers to issues can be found either by the process of deduction or the process of induction, or
by a combination of the two.
Deduction:
Deduction is the process by which we arrive at a reasoned conclusion by logical generalization
of a known fact. By deduction, we usually test theories. For example, we know that all high
performers are highly proficient in their jobs. If John is a high performer, we then conclude that
he is highly proficient in his job.
Induction:
Induction, on the other hand, is a process where we observe certain phenomena and on this basis
arrive at conclusions. In other words, in induction we logically establish a general proposition
based on observed facts. By induction, we usually develop theories. For instance, we see that the
production processes are the prime features of factories or manufacturing plants. We therefore
conclude that factories exist for production purposes.
Both the deductive and the inductive processes are applied in scientific investigations. Theories
based on deduction and induction helps us to understand, explain, and/or predict business
phenomena.

The Scientific Process:

identification of problem
area

implicatio
ns

information
search

data result
interpretation

hypothesis
formation

data
results

research
design

data
collection

Types of research:

a) - Quantitative Business Research:

Quantitative business research can be defined as business research that addresses research
objectives through empirical assessments that involve numerical measurement and analysis
approaches.
Research techniques that seek to quantify data and, typically, apply some form of statistical
analysis. Quantitative research methods were originally developed in the natural sciences to
study natural phenomena. Examples of quantitative methods now well accepted in the social
sciences include survey methods, laboratory experiments, formal methods (e.g. econometrics)
and numerical methods such as mathematical modeling. All quantitative researchers emphasize
numbers more than anything else. That is, the numbers come to represent values and levels of
theoretical constructs and concepts and the interpretation of the numbers is viewed as strong
scientific evidence of how a phenomenon works. Most quantitative researchers use statistical
tools and packages to analyze their data. Quantitative research is quite appropriate when a
research objective involves a managerial action standard. The quantitative approach, with proper
sampling, allows for the measurement of many subjects' reactions to a set of questions. Because
each question has a limited set of answers, the results can be compared and analyzed statistically;
they also can be generalized to a larger population within known limits of error.
b) - Qualitative Business Research:
Qualitative business research is research that addresses business objectives through techniques
that allow the researcher to provide elaborate interpretations of market phenomena without
depending on numerical measurement.
An unstructured, primarily exploratory design based on small samples, intended to provide
insight and understanding. Its focus is on discovering true inner meanings and new insights.
Qualitative research is very widely applied in practice. It is more researcher-dependent in that the
researcher must extract meaning from unstructured responses, such as text from a recorded
interview or a collage representing the meaning of some experience, such as skateboarding. The
researcher interprets the data to extract its meaning and converts it to information.
Qualitative research methods are designed to help researchers understand people and what they
say and do. They are designed to help researchers understand the social and cultural contexts
within which people live. One of the key benefits of qualitative research is that it allows a
researcher to see and understand the context within which decisions and actions take place. It is
often the case that human decisions and actions can only be understood in context it is the
context that helps to explain why someone acted as they did. And this context (or multiple
contexts) is best understood by talking to people.
The following list represents common situations that often call for qualitative research:
1. When it is difficult to develop specific and actionable problem statements or research
objectives. For instance, if after several interviews with the research client the researcher still
cant determine exactly what needs to be measured, then qualitative research approaches may
help with problem definition. Qualitative research is often useful to gain further insight and
crystallize the research problem.
2. When the research objective is to develop an understanding of some phenomena in great detail
and in much depth. Qualitative research tools are aimed at discovering the primary themes

indicating human motivations and the documentation of activities is usually very complete.
Often qualitative research provides richer information than quantitative approaches.
3. When the research objective is to learn how a phenomena occurs in its natural setting or to
learn how to express some concept in colloquial terms. For example, how do consumers actually
use a product? Or, exactly how does the accounting department process invoices? While a survey
can probably ask many useful questions, observing a product in use or watching the invoice
process will usually be more insightful. Qualitative research produces many product and process
improvement ideas.
4. When some behavior the researcher is studying is particularly context dependentmeaning
the reasons something is liked or some behavior is performed depend very much on the
particular situation surrounding the event. Understanding why Vans are liked is probably difficult
to determine correctly outside the skating environment.
5. When a fresh approach to studying some problem is needed. This is particularly the case when
quantitative research has yielded less than satisfying results. Qualitative tools can yield unique
insights, many of which may lead the organization in new directions. Each of these describes a
scenario that may require an exploratory orientation.
Social surveys and experiments are frequently viewed as prime examples of quantitative research
and are evaluated against the strengths and weaknesses of statistical, quantitative research
methods and analysis. Case studies, on the other hand, are often seen as prime examples of
qualitative research which adopts an interpretive approach to data, studies `things' within their
context and considers the subjective meanings that people bring to their situation
Comparison between Qualitative and Quantitative Research:
Research Aspect
Common purpose

Approach
Data collection Approach
Researcher independence

Samples
Most Often Used

Qualitative research
Quantitative research
Discover ideas used in Test hypotheses or specific
Exploratory research with research questions
general research objects
Observe and interpret
Measure and test
Unstructured, free form
Structured response,
categories provided
Researcher
is
intimately Researcher
uninvolved
involved,
results
are observer, results are objective
subjective
Small samples, often in Large samples to produce
natural settings
generalizable results
Exploratory research designs
Descriptive and causal research
designs
Generates hypotheses
Test hypotheses

Research Design
Burns and Grove defined a research design as a blueprint for conducting a study with maximum
control over factors that may interfere with the validity of the findings. Parahoo describes a

research design as a plan that describes how, when and where data are to be collected and
analyzed. Polit et al (2001:167) define a research design as the researchers overall for
answering the research question or testing the research hypothesis.
Social research needs a design or a structure before data collection or analysis can commence. A
research design is not just a work plan. A work plan details what has to be done to complete the
project but the work plan will flow from the project's research design. The function of a research
design is to ensure that the evidence obtained enables us to answer the initial question as
unambiguously as possible. Obtaining relevant evidence entails specifying the type of evidence
needed to answer the research question, to test a theory, to evaluate a programme or to accurately
describe some phenomenon.

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Fig.1. Types of research design

Conclusive Design:
The objective of conclusive research is to describe specific phenomena, to test specific
hypotheses and examine specific relationships. This requires that the information needed is
clearly specified. Conclusive research is typically more formal and structured than exploratory
research. It is based on large, representative samples, and the data obtained are subjected to
quantitative analysis.
Uses of Conclusive Design:
1 To describe the characteristics of relevant groups, such as consumers, salespeople,
organizations, or market areas.
2 To estimate the percentage in a specified population exhibiting a certain form of behavior.
3 To count the frequency of events, especially in the patterns of consumer behavior.
4 To measure marketing phenomena to represent larger populations or target markets.
5 To be able to integrate findings from different sources in a consistent manner, especially in the
use of marketing information systems and decision support systems.
6 To determine the perceptions of product or service characteristics.

7 To compare findings over time that allow changes in the phenomena to be measured.
8 To measure marketing phenomena in a consistent and universal manner.
9 To determine the degree to which marketing variables are associated.
10 To make specific predictions.
a-Descriptive research:
As the name implies, the major objective of descriptive research is to describe something,
usually market characteristics or functions. A major difference between exploratory and
descriptive research is that descriptive research is characterized by the prior formulation of
specific research questions and hypotheses. Thus, the information needed is clearly defined. As a
result, descriptive research is pre-planned and structured. It is typically based on large
representative samples. A descriptive research design specifies the methods for selecting the
sources of information and for collecting data from those sources. A descriptive study is
undertaken in order to ascertain and be able to describe the characteristics of the variables of
interest in a situation.
Examples of descriptive studies in marketing research are as follows:
Market studies describing the size of the market, buying power of the consumers, availability
of distributors, and consumer profiles
Market share studies determining the proportion of total sales received by a company and its
competitors
Sales analysis studies describing sales by geographic region, product line, type of the account
and size of the account
The major purpose of descriptive research is to describe characteristics of objects, people,
groups, organizations, or environments. In other words, descriptive research tries to paint a
picture of a given situation by addressing who, what, when, where, and how questions.
Unlike exploratory research, descriptive studies are conducted after the researcher has gained a
firm grasp of the situation being studied. This understanding, which may have been developed in
part from exploratory research, directs the study toward specific issues.
Accuracy is critically important in descriptive research. If a descriptive study incorrectly
estimates a universitys demand for its MBA offering by even a few students, it can mean the
difference between the program sustaining itself or being a drain on already scarce resources.
For instance, if a cohort group of 25 students is predicted, but only 15 students actually sign up,
the program will likely not generate enough revenue to sustain itself. Therefore, it is easy to see
that descriptive research forecasting sales revenue and costs or describing consumer attitudes,
satisfaction, and commitment must be accurate or decision making will suffer.
Cross-sectional designs:
The cross-sectional study is the most frequently used descriptive design in marketing research.
Cross-sectional designs involve the collection of information from any given sample of
population elements only once. They may be either single cross sectional or multiple crosssectional..

In single cross-sectional designs, only one sample of respondents is drawn from the target
population, and information is obtained from this sample only once. These designs are also
called sample survey research designs. A study in which data are gathered just once, perhaps
over a period of days or weeks or months, in order to answer a research question are called oneshot or cross-sectional studies.
In multiple cross-sectional designs, there are two or more samples of respondents, and
information from each sample is obtained only once. Often, information from different samples
is obtained at different times.
Longitudinal designs
In longitudinal designs, a fixed sample (or samples) of population elements is measured
repeatedly. A longitudinal design differs from a cross-sectional design in that the sample or
samples remain the same over time. In other words, the same people are studied over time. In
contrast to the typical cross-sectional design, which gives a snapshot of the variables of interest
at a single point in time, a longitudinal study provides a series of pictures. These pictures give
an in-depth view of the situation and the changes that take place over time. Often, the term panel
is used interchangeably with the term longitudinal design. A panel consists of a sample of
respondents, generally households, who have agreed to provide information at specified intervals
over an extended period. Panels are maintained by syndicated firms, and panel members are
compensated for their participation with gifts, coupons, information or cash. Data obtained from
panels may provide information on market shares that are based on an extended period of time.
Such data may also allow the researcher to examine changes in market share over time.
b-Causal research:
Causal research is used to obtain evidence of cause-and-effect (causal) relationships. Marketing
managers continually make decisions based on assumed causal relationships.
Causal research is appropriate for the following purposes:
1- To understand which variables are the cause (independent variables) and which variables are
the effect (dependent variables) of marketing phenomena.
2- To determine the nature of the relationship between the causal variables and the effect to be
predicted.
3- To test hypotheses.
Like descriptive research, causal research requires a planned and structured design. Although
descriptive research can determine the degree of association between variables, it is not
appropriate for examining causal relationships. Such an examination requires a causal design, in
which the causal or independent variables are manipulated in a relatively controlled
environment. Such an environment is one in which the other variables that may affect the
dependent variable are controlled or checked as much as possible. The effect of this manipulation
on one or more dependent variables is then measured to infer causality. The main method of
causal research is experimentation.
If a decision maker knows what causes important outcomes like sales, stock price, and employee
satisfaction, then he or she can shape firm decisions in a positive way. Causal inferences are very
powerful because they lead to greater control. Causal research seeks to identify cause and-

effect relationships. When something causes an effect, it means it brings it about or makes it
happen. The effect is the outcome. Rain causes grass to get wet. Rain is the cause and wet grass
is the effect.
Causality
Ideally, managers want to know how a change in one event will change another event of interest.
As an example, how will implementing a new employee training program change job
performance? Causal research attempts to establish that when we do one thing, another thing will
follow. A causal inference is just such a conclusion. While we use the term cause frequently in
our everyday language, scientifically establishing something as a cause is not so easy. A causal
inference can only be supported when very specific evidence exists. Three critical pieces of
causal evidence are:
1-Temporal Sequence:
Temporal sequence deals with the time order of events. In other words, having an appropriate
causal order of events, or temporal sequence, is one criterion for causality. Simply put, the cause
must occur before the effect. It would be difficult for a restaurant manager to blame a decrease in
sales on a new chef if the drop in sales occurred before the new chef arrived. If a change in the
CEO causes a change in stock prices, the CEO change must occur before the change in stock
values.
1-Concomitant Variation
Concomitant variation occurs when two events co vary or correlate, meaning they vary
systematically. In causal terms, concomitant variation means that when a change in the cause
occurs, a change in the outcome also is observed. A correlation coefficient, is often used to
represent concomitant variation. Causality cannot possibly exist when there is no systematic
variation between the variables. For example, if a retail store never changes its employees
vacation policy, then the vacation policy cannot possibly be responsible for a change in
employee satisfaction. There is no correlation between the two events. On the other hand, if two
events vary together, one event may be causing the other. If a university increases its number of
online MBA course offerings and experiences a decrease in enrollment in its traditional in-class
MBA offerings, the online course offerings may be causing the decrease. But the systematic
variation alone doesnt guarantee it.
3-Nonspurious Association:
Nonspurious association means any covariation between a cause and an effect is true, rather than
due to some other variable. A spurious association is one that is not true. Often, a causal
inference cannot be made even though the other two conditions exist because both the cause and
effect have some common cause; that is, both may be influenced by a third variable. For
instance, there is a strong, positive correlation between ice cream purchases and murder rates
as ice cream purchases increase, so do murder rates. When ice cream sales decline, murder rates
also drop. Do people become murderers after eating ice cream? Should we outlaw the sale of ice
cream? This would be silly because the concomitant variation observed between ice cream
consumption and murder rates is spurious. A third variable is actually important here. People

purchase more ice cream when the weather is hot. People are also more active and likely to
commit a violent crime when it is hot. The weather, being associated with both may actually
cause
both.
Establishing evidence of nonspuriousness can be difficult. If a researcher finds a third variable
that is related to both the cause and effect, which causes a significant drop in the correlation
between the cause and effect, then a causal inference becomes difficult to support. Although the
researcher would like to rule out the possibility of any alternative causes, it is impossible to
observe the effect of every variable on the correlation between the cause and effect. Therefore,
the researcher must use logic, or a theory, to identify the most likely third variables that would
relate significantly to both the cause and effect. The researcher must control for these variables in
some way. In addition, the researcher should use theory to make sure the assumed cause-and
effect relationship truly makes sense.
Causal research should do all of the following:
1. Establish the appropriate causal order or sequence of events
2. Measure the concomitant variation between the presumed cause and the presumed effect
3. Examine the possibility of spuriousness by considering the presence of alternative plausible
causal factors
DEGREES OF CAUSALITY
In everyday language, we often use the word cause in an absolute sense. For example, a
warning label used on cigarette packages claims smoking causes cancer. Is this true in an
absolute sense?
1-Absolute causality
Absolute causality means the cause is necessary and sufficient to bring about the effect. Thus, if
we find only one smoker who does not eventually get cancer, the claim is false. Although this is
a very strong inference, it is impractical to think that we can establish absolute causality in the
behavioral sciences. Although managers may like to be able to draw absolute conclusions, they
can often make very good decisions based on less powerful inferences.

2-Conditional causality
Conditional causality means that a cause is necessary but not sufficient to bring about an effect.
This is a weaker causal inference. One way to think about conditional causality is that the cause
can bring about the effect, but it cannot do so alone. If other conditions are right, the cause can
bring about the effect. We know there are other medical factors that contribute to cancer. For
instance, genetics, lifestyle, and diet are also plausible causes of cancer. Thus, if one smokes and
has a genetic disposition, diet, and lifestyle that promote cancer, smoking could be considered a
conditional cause of cancer. However, if we can find someone who has contracted cancer and
never
smoked,
the
causal
inference
would
be
proven
wrong.
3-Contributory causality

Contributory causality is the weakest form of causality, but it is still a useful concept. A cause
need be neither necessary nor sufficient to bring about an effect. However, causal evidence can
be established using the three factors discussed. For any outcome, there may be multiple causes.
So, an event can be a contributory cause of something so long as the introduction of the other
possible causes does not eliminate the correlation between it and the effect. Smoking then can be
a contributory cause of cancer so long as the introduction of other possible causes does not cause
both smoking and cancer.
Exploratory research
An exploratory study is undertaken when not much is known about the situation at hand, or no
information is available on how similar problems or research issues have been solved in the past.
In such cases, extensive preliminary work needs to be done to gain familiarity with the
phenomena in the situation, and understand what is occurring, before we develop a model and set
up a rigorous design for comprehensive investigation.
In essence, exploratory studies are undertaken to better comprehend the nature of the problem
since very few studies might have been conducted in that area. Extensive interviews with many
people might have to be undertaken to get a handle on the situation and understand the
phenomena. More rigorous research could then proceed.
Exploratory research is conducted to clarify ambiguous situations or discover potential business
opportunities. As the name implies, exploratory research is not intended to provide conclusive
evidence from which to determine a particular course of action. In this sense, exploratory
research is not an end unto itself. Usually exploratory research is a first step, conducted with the
expectation that additional research will be needed to provide more conclusive evidence.
Exploratory research is often used to guide and refine these subsequent research efforts. For
example, rushing into detailed surveys before it is clear exactly what decisions need to be made
can waste time, money, and effort by providing irrelevant information. This is a common mistake
in business research programs.
Exploratory research can be used to help identify and clarify the decisions that need to be made.
These preliminary research activities can narrow the scope of the research topic and help
transform ambiguous problems into well-defined ones that yield specific research objectives. By
investigating any existing studies on the subject, talking with knowledgeable individuals and
informally investigating the situation, the researcher can progressively sharpen the focus of the
research. After such exploration, the researcher should know exactly which data to collect during
the formal phases of the project and how to conduct the project. Because the purpose of
exploratory research is to gain insights and discover new ideas, researchers may use considerable
creativity and flexibility. Some companies perform exploratory research routinely as part of
environmental scanning. If the conclusions made during this stage suggest business
opportunities, the researcher is in a position to begin planning a formal, quantitative research
project. Exploratory research is meaningful in any situation where the researcher does not have
enough understanding to proceed with the research project. Exploratory research is characterized
by flexibility and versatility with respect to the methods, because formal research protocols and
procedures are not employed. It rarely involves structured questionnaires, large samples and
probability sampling plans. Rather, researchers are alert to new ideas and insights as they
proceed. Once a new idea or insight is discovered, they may redirect their exploration in that
direction. That new direction is pursued until its possibilities are exhausted or another direction is
found. For this reason, the focus of the investigation may shift constantly as new insights are

discovered. Thus, the creativity and ingenuity of the researcher play a major role in exploratory
research.

Uses of exploratory research design:

1 To obtain some background information where absolutely nothing is known about the problem
area.
2 To define problem areas fully and to formulate hypotheses for further investigation and/or
quantification.
3 Concept identification and exploration in the development of new product or forms of
marketing communications
4 During a preliminary screening process such as in new product development, in order to reduce
a large number of possible projects to a smaller number of probable ones.
5 To identify relevant or salient behavior patterns, beliefs, opinions, attitudes, motivations, etc.
and to develop structures of these constructs.
6 To develop an understanding of the structure of beliefs and attitudes in order to aid the
interpretation of data structures in multivariate data analyses.
7 To explore the reasons that lie behind the statistical differences between groups that may
emerge from secondary data or surveys.
8 To explore sensitive or personally embarrassing issues from the respondents and/or the
interviewers perspective.
9 To explore issues that respondents may hold deeply, that are difficult for them to rationalize
and they may find difficult to articulate.
10 To data-mine or explore quantitative data to reveal hitherto unknown connections between
different measured variables.
Qurat-ul-Ain
Roll # 142109
MBA 3.5 yrs (3rd semester)

Types of research:
a) - Quantitative Business Research:
Quantitative business research can be defined as business research that addresses research
objectives through empirical assessments that involve numerical measurement and analysis
approaches.
Research techniques that seek to quantify data and, typically, apply some form of statistical
analysis. Quantitative research methods were originally developed in the natural sciences to
study natural phenomena. Examples of quantitative methods now well accepted in the social
sciences include survey methods, laboratory experiments, formal methods (e.g. econometrics)
and numerical methods such as mathematical modeling. All quantitative researchers emphasize
numbers more than anything else. That is, the numbers come to represent values and levels of
theoretical constructs and concepts and the interpretation of the numbers is viewed as strong

scientific evidence of how a phenomenon works. Most quantitative researchers use statistical
tools and packages to analyze their data. Quantitative research is quite appropriate when a
research objective involves a managerial action standard. The quantitative approach, with proper
sampling, allows for the measurement of many subjects' reactions to a set of questions. Because
each question has a limited set of answers, the results can be compared and analyzed statistically;
they also can be generalized to a larger population within known limits of error.
b) - Qualitative Business Research:
Qualitative business research is research that addresses business objectives through techniques
that allow the researcher to provide elaborate interpretations of market phenomena without
depending on numerical measurement.
An unstructured, primarily exploratory design based on small samples, intended to provide
insight and understanding. Its focus is on discovering true inner meanings and new insights.
Qualitative research is very widely applied in practice. It is more researcher-dependent in that the
researcher must extract meaning from unstructured responses, such as text from a recorded
interview or a collage representing the meaning of some experience, such as skateboarding. The
researcher interprets the data to extract its meaning and converts it to information.
Qualitative research methods are designed to help researchers understand people and what they
say and do. They are designed to help researchers understand the social and cultural contexts
within which people live. One of the key benefits of qualitative research is that it allows a
researcher to see and understand the context within which decisions and actions take place. It is
often the case that human decisions and actions can only be understood in context it is the
context that helps to explain why someone acted as they did. And this context (or multiple
contexts) is best understood by talking to people.
The following list represents common situations that often call for qualitative research:
1. When it is difficult to develop specific and actionable problem statements or research
objectives. For instance, if after several interviews with the research client the researcher still
cant determine exactly what needs to be measured, then qualitative research approaches may
help with problem definition. Qualitative research is often useful to gain further insight and
crystallize the research problem.
2. When the research objective is to develop an understanding of some phenomena in great detail
and in much depth. Qualitative research tools are aimed at discovering the primary themes
indicating human motivations and the documentation of activities is usually very complete.
Often qualitative research provides richer information than quantitative approaches.
3. When the research objective is to learn how a phenomena occurs in its natural setting or to
learn how to express some concept in colloquial terms. For example, how do consumers actually
use a product? Or, exactly how does the accounting department process invoices? While a survey
can probably ask many useful questions, observing a product in use or watching the invoice
process will usually be more insightful. Qualitative research produces many product and process
improvement ideas.
4. When some behavior the researcher is studying is particularly context dependentmeaning
the reasons something is liked or some behavior is performed depend very much on the
particular situation surrounding the event. Understanding why Vans are liked is probably difficult
to determine correctly outside the skating environment.
5. When a fresh approach to studying some problem is needed. This is particularly the case when
quantitative research has yielded less than satisfying results. Qualitative tools can yield unique

insights, many of which may lead the organization in new directions. Each of these describes a
scenario that may require an exploratory orientation.
Social surveys and experiments are frequently viewed as prime examples of quantitative research
and are evaluated against the strengths and weaknesses of statistical, quantitative research
methods and analysis. Case studies, on the other hand, are often seen as prime examples of
qualitative research which adopts an interpretive approach to data, studies `things' within their
context and considers the subjective meanings that people bring to their situation
Comparison between Qualitative and Quantitative Research:
Research Aspect
Common purpose

Approach
Data collection Approach
Researcher independence

Samples
Most Often Used

Qualitative research
Quantitative research
Discover ideas used in Test hypotheses or specific
Exploratory research with research questions
general research objects
Observe and interpret
Measure and test
Unstructured, free form
Structured response,
categories provided
Researcher
is
intimately Researcher
uninvolved
involved,
results
are observer, results are objective
subjective
Small samples, often in Large samples to produce
natural settings
generalizable results
Exploratory research designs
Descriptive and causal research
designs
Generates hypotheses
Test hypotheses

Research Design
Burns and Grove defined a research design as a blueprint for conducting a study with maximum
control over factors that may interfere with the validity of the findings. Parahoo describes a
research design as a plan that describes how, when and where data are to be collected and
analyzed. Polit et al (2001:167) define a research design as the researchers overall for
answering the research question or testing the research hypothesis.
Social research needs a design or a structure before data collection or analysis can commence. A
research design is not just a work plan. A work plan details what has to be done to complete the
project but the work plan will flow from the project's research design. The function of a research
design is to ensure that the evidence obtained enables us to answer the initial question as
unambiguously as possible. Obtaining relevant evidence entails specifying the type of evidence
needed to answer the research question, to test a theory, to evaluate a programme or to accurately
describe some phenomenon.

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Fig.1. Types of research design

Conclusive Design:
The objective of conclusive research is to describe specific phenomena, to test specific
hypotheses and examine specific relationships. This requires that the information needed is
clearly specified. Conclusive research is typically more formal and structured than exploratory
research. It is based on large, representative samples, and the data obtained are subjected to
quantitative analysis.
Uses of Conclusive Design:
1 To describe the characteristics of relevant groups, such as consumers, salespeople,
organizations, or market areas.
2 To estimate the percentage in a specified population exhibiting a certain form of behavior.
3 To count the frequency of events, especially in the patterns of consumer behavior.
4 To measure marketing phenomena to represent larger populations or target markets.
5 To be able to integrate findings from different sources in a consistent manner, especially in the
use of marketing information systems and decision support systems.
6 To determine the perceptions of product or service characteristics.
7 To compare findings over time that allow changes in the phenomena to be measured.
8 To measure marketing phenomena in a consistent and universal manner.
9 To determine the degree to which marketing variables are associated.
10 To make specific predictions.
a-Descriptive research:
As the name implies, the major objective of descriptive research is to describe something,
usually market characteristics or functions. A major difference between exploratory and
descriptive research is that descriptive research is characterized by the prior formulation of
specific research questions and hypotheses. Thus, the information needed is clearly defined. As a
result, descriptive research is pre-planned and structured. It is typically based on large
representative samples. A descriptive research design specifies the methods for selecting the
sources of information and for collecting data from those sources. A descriptive study is

undertaken in order to ascertain and be able to describe the characteristics of the variables of
interest in a situation.
Examples of descriptive studies in marketing research are as follows:
Market studies describing the size of the market, buying power of the consumers, availability
of distributors, and consumer profiles
Market share studies determining the proportion of total sales received by a company and its
competitors
Sales analysis studies describing sales by geographic region, product line, type of the account
and size of the account
The major purpose of descriptive research is to describe characteristics of objects, people,
groups, organizations, or environments. In other words, descriptive research tries to paint a
picture of a given situation by addressing who, what, when, where, and how questions.
Unlike exploratory research, descriptive studies are conducted after the researcher has gained a
firm grasp of the situation being studied. This understanding, which may have been developed in
part from exploratory research, directs the study toward specific issues.
Accuracy is critically important in descriptive research. If a descriptive study incorrectly
estimates a universitys demand for its MBA offering by even a few students, it can mean the
difference between the program sustaining itself or being a drain on already scarce resources.
For instance, if a cohort group of 25 students is predicted, but only 15 students actually sign up,
the program will likely not generate enough revenue to sustain itself. Therefore, it is easy to see
that descriptive research forecasting sales revenue and costs or describing consumer attitudes,
satisfaction, and commitment must be accurate or decision making will suffer.
Cross-sectional designs:
The cross-sectional study is the most frequently used descriptive design in marketing research.
Cross-sectional designs involve the collection of information from any given sample of
population elements only once. They may be either single cross sectional or multiple crosssectional..
In single cross-sectional designs, only one sample of respondents is drawn from the target
population, and information is obtained from this sample only once. These designs are also
called sample survey research designs. A study in which data are gathered just once, perhaps
over a period of days or weeks or months, in order to answer a research question are called oneshot or cross-sectional studies.
In multiple cross-sectional designs, there are two or more samples of respondents, and
information from each sample is obtained only once. Often, information from different samples
is obtained at different times.
Longitudinal designs
In longitudinal designs, a fixed sample (or samples) of population elements is measured
repeatedly. A longitudinal design differs from a cross-sectional design in that the sample or
samples remain the same over time. In other words, the same people are studied over time. In
contrast to the typical cross-sectional design, which gives a snapshot of the variables of interest
at a single point in time, a longitudinal study provides a series of pictures. These pictures give

an in-depth view of the situation and the changes that take place over time. Often, the term panel
is used interchangeably with the term longitudinal design. A panel consists of a sample of
respondents, generally households, who have agreed to provide information at specified intervals
over an extended period. Panels are maintained by syndicated firms, and panel members are
compensated for their participation with gifts, coupons, information or cash. Data obtained from
panels may provide information on market shares that are based on an extended period of time.
Such data may also allow the researcher to examine changes in market share over time.
b-Causal research:
Causal research is used to obtain evidence of cause-and-effect (causal) relationships. Marketing
managers continually make decisions based on assumed causal relationships.
Causal research is appropriate for the following purposes:
1- To understand which variables are the cause (independent variables) and which variables are
the effect (dependent variables) of marketing phenomena.
2- To determine the nature of the relationship between the causal variables and the effect to be
predicted.
3- To test hypotheses.
Like descriptive research, causal research requires a planned and structured design. Although
descriptive research can determine the degree of association between variables, it is not
appropriate for examining causal relationships. Such an examination requires a causal design, in
which the causal or independent variables are manipulated in a relatively controlled
environment. Such an environment is one in which the other variables that may affect the
dependent variable are controlled or checked as much as possible. The effect of this manipulation
on one or more dependent variables is then measured to infer causality. The main method of
causal research is experimentation.
If a decision maker knows what causes important outcomes like sales, stock price, and employee
satisfaction, then he or she can shape firm decisions in a positive way. Causal inferences are very
powerful because they lead to greater control. Causal research seeks to identify cause andeffect relationships. When something causes an effect, it means it brings it about or makes it
happen. The effect is the outcome. Rain causes grass to get wet. Rain is the cause and wet grass
is the effect.
Causality
Ideally, managers want to know how a change in one event will change another event of interest.
As an example, how will implementing a new employee training program change job
performance? Causal research attempts to establish that when we do one thing, another thing will
follow. A causal inference is just such a conclusion. While we use the term cause frequently in
our everyday language, scientifically establishing something as a cause is not so easy. A causal
inference can only be supported when very specific evidence exists. Three critical pieces of
causal evidence are:
1-Temporal Sequence:

Temporal sequence deals with the time order of events. In other words, having an appropriate
causal order of events, or temporal sequence, is one criterion for causality. Simply put, the cause
must occur before the effect. It would be difficult for a restaurant manager to blame a decrease in
sales on a new chef if the drop in sales occurred before the new chef arrived. If a change in the
CEO causes a change in stock prices, the CEO change must occur before the change in stock
values.
1-Concomitant Variation
Concomitant variation occurs when two events co vary or correlate, meaning they vary
systematically. In causal terms, concomitant variation means that when a change in the cause
occurs, a change in the outcome also is observed. A correlation coefficient, is often used to
represent concomitant variation. Causality cannot possibly exist when there is no systematic
variation between the variables. For example, if a retail store never changes its employees
vacation policy, then the vacation policy cannot possibly be responsible for a change in
employee satisfaction. There is no correlation between the two events. On the other hand, if two
events vary together, one event may be causing the other. If a university increases its number of
online MBA course offerings and experiences a decrease in enrollment in its traditional in-class
MBA offerings, the online course offerings may be causing the decrease. But the systematic
variation alone doesnt guarantee it.
3-Nonspurious Association:
Nonspurious association means any covariation between a cause and an effect is true, rather than
due to some other variable. A spurious association is one that is not true. Often, a causal
inference cannot be made even though the other two conditions exist because both the cause and
effect have some common cause; that is, both may be influenced by a third variable. For
instance, there is a strong, positive correlation between ice cream purchases and murder rates
as ice cream purchases increase, so do murder rates. When ice cream sales decline, murder rates
also drop. Do people become murderers after eating ice cream? Should we outlaw the sale of ice
cream? This would be silly because the concomitant variation observed between ice cream
consumption and murder rates is spurious. A third variable is actually important here. People
purchase more ice cream when the weather is hot. People are also more active and likely to
commit a violent crime when it is hot. The weather, being associated with both may actually
cause
both.
Establishing evidence of nonspuriousness can be difficult. If a researcher finds a third variable
that is related to both the cause and effect, which causes a significant drop in the correlation
between the cause and effect, then a causal inference becomes difficult to support. Although the
researcher would like to rule out the possibility of any alternative causes, it is impossible to
observe the effect of every variable on the correlation between the cause and effect. Therefore,
the researcher must use logic, or a theory, to identify the most likely third variables that would
relate significantly to both the cause and effect. The researcher must control for these variables in
some way. In addition, the researcher should use theory to make sure the assumed cause-and
effect relationship truly makes sense.
Causal research should do all of the following:

1. Establish the appropriate causal order or sequence of events

2. Measure the concomitant variation between the presumed cause and the presumed effect
3. Examine the possibility of spuriousness by considering the presence of alternative plausible
causal factors
DEGREES OF CAUSALITY
In everyday language, we often use the word cause in an absolute sense. For example, a
warning label used on cigarette packages claims smoking causes cancer. Is this true in an
absolute sense?
1-Absolute causality
Absolute causality means the cause is necessary and sufficient to bring about the effect. Thus, if
we find only one smoker who does not eventually get cancer, the claim is false. Although this is
a very strong inference, it is impractical to think that we can establish absolute causality in the
behavioral sciences. Although managers may like to be able to draw absolute conclusions, they
can often make very good decisions based on less powerful inferences.

2-Conditional causality
Conditional causality means that a cause is necessary but not sufficient to bring about an effect.
This is a weaker causal inference. One way to think about conditional causality is that the cause
can bring about the effect, but it cannot do so alone. If other conditions are right, the cause can
bring about the effect. We know there are other medical factors that contribute to cancer. For
instance, genetics, lifestyle, and diet are also plausible causes of cancer. Thus, if one smokes and
has a genetic disposition, diet, and lifestyle that promote cancer, smoking could be considered a
conditional cause of cancer. However, if we can find someone who has contracted cancer and
never
smoked,
the
causal
inference
would
be
proven
wrong.
3-Contributory causality
Contributory causality is the weakest form of causality, but it is still a useful concept. A cause
need be neither necessary nor sufficient to bring about an effect. However, causal evidence can
be established using the three factors discussed. For any outcome, there may be multiple causes.
So, an event can be a contributory cause of something so long as the introduction of the other
possible causes does not eliminate the correlation between it and the effect. Smoking then can be
a contributory cause of cancer so long as the introduction of other possible causes does not cause
both smoking and cancer.
Exploratory research
An exploratory study is undertaken when not much is known about the situation at hand, or no
information is available on how similar problems or research issues have been solved in the past.
In such cases, extensive preliminary work needs to be done to gain familiarity with the
phenomena in the situation, and understand what is occurring, before we develop a model and set
up a rigorous design for comprehensive investigation.

In essence, exploratory studies are undertaken to better comprehend the nature of the problem
since very few studies might have been conducted in that area. Extensive interviews with many
people might have to be undertaken to get a handle on the situation and understand the
phenomena. More rigorous research could then proceed.
Exploratory research is conducted to clarify ambiguous situations or discover potential business
opportunities. As the name implies, exploratory research is not intended to provide conclusive
evidence from which to determine a particular course of action. In this sense, exploratory
research is not an end unto itself. Usually exploratory research is a first step, conducted with the
expectation that additional research will be needed to provide more conclusive evidence.
Exploratory research is often used to guide and refine these subsequent research efforts. For
example, rushing into detailed surveys before it is clear exactly what decisions need to be made
can waste time, money, and effort by providing irrelevant information. This is a common mistake
in business research programs.
Exploratory research can be used to help identify and clarify the decisions that need to be made.
These preliminary research activities can narrow the scope of the research topic and help
transform ambiguous problems into well-defined ones that yield specific research objectives. By
investigating any existing studies on the subject, talking with knowledgeable individuals and
informally investigating the situation, the researcher can progressively sharpen the focus of the
research. After such exploration, the researcher should know exactly which data to collect during
the formal phases of the project and how to conduct the project. Because the purpose of
exploratory research is to gain insights and discover new ideas, researchers may use considerable
creativity and flexibility. Some companies perform exploratory research routinely as part of
environmental scanning. If the conclusions made during this stage suggest business
opportunities, the researcher is in a position to begin planning a formal, quantitative research
project. Exploratory research is meaningful in any situation where the researcher does not have
enough understanding to proceed with the research project. Exploratory research is characterized
by flexibility and versatility with respect to the methods, because formal research protocols and
procedures are not employed. It rarely involves structured questionnaires, large samples and
probability sampling plans. Rather, researchers are alert to new ideas and insights as they
proceed. Once a new idea or insight is discovered, they may redirect their exploration in that
direction. That new direction is pursued until its possibilities are exhausted or another direction is
found. For this reason, the focus of the investigation may shift constantly as new insights are
discovered. Thus, the creativity and ingenuity of the researcher play a major role in exploratory
research.

Uses of exploratory research design:

1 To obtain some background information where absolutely nothing is known about the problem
area.
2 To define problem areas fully and to formulate hypotheses for further investigation and/or
quantification.
3 Concept identification and exploration in the development of new product or forms of
marketing communications
4 During a preliminary screening process such as in new product development, in order to reduce
a large number of possible projects to a smaller number of probable ones.

5 To identify relevant or salient behavior patterns, beliefs, opinions, attitudes, motivations, etc.
and to develop structures of these constructs.
6 To develop an understanding of the structure of beliefs and attitudes in order to aid the
interpretation of data structures in multivariate data analyses.
7 To explore the reasons that lie behind the statistical differences between groups that may
emerge from secondary data or surveys.
8 To explore sensitive or personally embarrassing issues from the respondents and/or the
interviewers perspective.
9 To explore issues that respondents may hold deeply, that are difficult for them to rationalize
and they may find difficult to articulate.
10 To data-mine or explore quantitative data to reveal hitherto unknown connections between
different measured variables.
PROBLEM:
A problem occurs when there is a difference between the current conditions and a more
preferable set of conditions. In other words, a gap exists between the way things are now and a
way that things could be better.
The gap can come about in a number of ways
1. Business performance is worse than expected business performance. For instance, sales,
profits, and margins could be below targets set by management. This is a very typical type of
problem analysis. Think of all the new products that fail to meet their targeted goals. Trend
analysis would also be included in this type of problem. Management is constantly monitoring
key performance variables. Previous performance usually provides a benchmark forming
expectations. Sales, for example, are generally expected to increase a certain percentage each
year. When sales fall below this expectation, or particularly when they fall below the previous
years sales, management usually recognizes that they have a potential problem on their hands.
2. Actual business performance is less than possible business performance. Realization of this
gap first requires that management have some idea of what is possible. This may form a research
problem in and of itself. Opportunity-seeking often falls into this type of problem-definition
process. Many American and European Union companies have redefined what possible sales
levels are based upon the expansion of free markets around the world. Chinas Civil Aviation
Administration has relaxed requirements opening the Chinese air travel market to private airlines
Suddenly, the possible market size for air travel has increased significantly, creating
opportunities for growth.
3. Expected business performance is greater than possible business performance. Sometimes,
management has unrealistic views of possible performance levelseither too high or too low.
One key problem with new product introductions involves identifying realistic possibilities for
sales. While you may have heard the old adage that 90 percent of all new products fail, how
many of the failures had a realistic sales ceiling? In other words, did the company know the
possible size of the market? In this case, the problem is not with the product but with the plan.
Some product failures may actually have been successful if management had a more accurate

idea of the total market potential. Management can close this gap through decision making.
Researchers help managers make decisions by providing relevant input.
Broad Problem area:
Broad problem area refers to the entire situation where one sees a possible need for research and
problem solving. The specific issues that need to be researched within this situation may not be
identified at this stage.

Problem Definition:
Problem definition is a broad statement of the general problem and identification of the specific
components of the marketing research problem. The general rule to be followed in defining the
research problem is that the definition should:
1- allow the researcher to obtain all the information needed to address the marketing decision
problem;
2- guide the researcher in proceeding with the project.
Researchers make two common errors in problem definition. The first arises when the research
problem is defined too broadly. A broad definition does not provide clear guidelines for the
subsequent steps involved in the project. Some examples of excessively broad marketing
research problem definitions are: developing a marketing strategy for a brand, improving the
competitive position of the firm, or improving the companys image. These are not specific
enough to suggest an approach to the problem or a research design. The second type of error is
just the opposite: the marketing research problem is defined too narrowly. A narrow focus may
preclude consideration of some courses of action, particularly those that are innovative and not
obvious
Problem Identification
Broad problem area refers to the entire situation where one sees a possible need for research and
problem solving. The specific issues that need to be researched within this situation may not be
identified at this stage. Such issues might pertain to
(1) Problems currently existing in an organizational setting that needs to be solved,
(2) Areas that a manager believes need to be improved in the organization,
(3) A conceptual or theoretical issue that needs to be tightened up for the basic researcher to
understand certain phenomena, and

(4) Some research questions that a basic researcher wants to answer empirically.