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)
NETWORK FUNDAMENTALS ( COMPLEX NUMBERS & FORMULA COLLECTION)
PERSONAL REMARK :

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NETWORK FUNDAMENTALS ( COMPLEX NUMBERS & FORMULA COLLECTION)
,

COMPLEX NUMBERS

PERSONAL REMARK :

The complex numbers are an extension of ordinary numbers and are

an integral part of the modern number system. Complex numbers,
particularly imaginary numbers, sometimes seem mysterious and
unreal.

The ability to manipulate complex numbers is very handy in circuit

analysis and in electrical engineering in general. Complex numbers
are particularly useful in the analysis of ac circuits. Again, although
calculators and computer software packages are now available to
manipulate complex numbers, it is still advisable for a student to be
familiar with how to handle them by hand.
A Historical Note

Among early people the number system consisted only of natural

numbers (positive integers) needed to express the number of children,
cattle, and quivers of arrows. These people had no need for fractions.
Whoever heard of two and one-half children or three and one-fourth
cows !

However, with the advant of agriculture, people needed to measure

continuously varying quantities, such as the length of a field and the
weight of a quantity of butter. The number system, therefore, was
extended to incilude fractions. The ancient Egyptians and Babylonians
knew how to handle fractions, but Pythagoras discovered that some
numbers (like the diagonal of a unit square) could not be expressed
as a whole number or a fraction. Pythagoras, a number mystic, who
regarded numbers as the essence and principle of all things in the
universe, was so appalled at his discovery that he swore his followers
to secrecy and imposed a death penalty for divulging this secret.
Thse numbers, however, were included in the number system by the
time of de'cartes, and they are now known as irrational numbers.

Number system was once again broadened (generalized) to include

negative numbers. The acceptance of negative numbers made it
possible to solve equtions such as x + 5 = 0, which had no solution
before. Yet for equations such as x2 + 1 = 0, leading to x2 = 1, the
solution could not be found in the real number system. It was therefore
necessary to define a completely new kind of number with its square
equal to 1. During the time of de'cartes and Newton, imaginary (or
complex) numbers came to be accepted as part of the number system,
but they were still Electrical engineers use the notation j instead of i
to avoid confusion with the notation often used for electrical current.
Thus, j2 = 1 and

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j
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This notation allows us to determine the square root of any negative
number. For example,

PERSONAL REMARK :

4 2 j

When imaginary numbers are included in the number system, the

resulting numbers are called complex numbers.
,

Origins of Complex Numbers

Ironically (and contrary to popular belief), it was not the solution of a
quadratic equation, such as x2 + 1 = 0, but a cubic equation with real
roots that made imaginary numbers plausible and acceptable to early
mathematicians. They could dismiss V 1 as pure nonsense when it
appeared as a solution to x2 + 1 = 0 because this equation has no real
solution. But in 1545, Gerolalmo Cardano of Milan published Ars
Magna (The Great Art), the most important atgebraic work of the
Renaissance. In this book he gave a method of solving a general
cubic equation in which a root of a negative number appeared in a
intermediate step. According to his method, the solution to a thirdorder equation, x3 + ax + b = 0 is given by
x=3 b

b2 a 3
b2 a 3 + 3 b

2
4 27
4 27

For example, to find a solution of x3 + 6x 20 = 0, we substitute

a = 6, b = 20 in the foregoing equation to obtain
x = 3 10 + 3 10 = 3 10 108 3 0.392
= 3 10 10.392 0.732 =

20 . 392 0.732 = 2.732 0.732

We can readily verify that 2 is indeed a solution of x3 + 6x 20 = 0.

In 1799 the German mathematician Karl Friedrich Gauss, at the ripe

age of 22, proved the fundamental theorem of algebra, namely that
every algebraic equation in one unknown has a root in the form of a
complex number. He showed that every equation of the nth order
has exactly n solutions (roots), no more and no less. Gauss was also
one of the first to give a coherent account of complex numbers and
to interpret them as points in a complex plane. It is he who introduced
the term "complex numbers" and paved the way for their general
and systematic use. The number system was once again broadened
or generalized to include imaginary numbers. Ordinary (or real)
numbers became a special case of generalized (or complex) numbers.

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The utility of complex numbers can be understood readily

PERSONAL REMARK :

by an analogy ,with two neighboring countries X and Y, as

illustrated in Figure 1. If we want to travel from City a to City b
(both in Country X), the shortest route is through Country Y, although
the journey begins and ends in Country X. We may if we desire,
perform this journey by an alternate route that lies exclusively in X,
but this alternate route is longer. In mathematics we have a similar
situation with real numbers (Country X) and complex numbers
(Country Y). All real-world problems must start with real
numbers, and all the final results must also be in real numbers.
But the derivation of results is considerably simplified by using
complex numbers as an intermediary. It is also possible to solve
any real-world problem by an alternate method, using real numbers
exclusively, but such procedures would increase the work needlessly.
Country
X

Al t e r n

t
rec
Di
ute
ro

Country
Y

t e ro u t e

Figure 1 : Use of complex numbers can reduce the work.

Representations of Complex Numbers
Method-1: A complex number z may be written in rectangular form
as z = x + jy
where j =

.... (i)

; x is the real part of z while y is the imaginary part of

z; that is, x = Re (z), y = Im (z)

.... (ii)

The complex number z is shown plotted in the complex plane in

figure 1. Since j =

1
=j
j

j2 = 1

j3 = j . j2 = j

j 4 = j 2, j 2 = 1

j5 = j . j4 = j

jn+4 = jn

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Im
z

jy
r

Re

Figure 1: Graphical representation

of a complex number.

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Method-2 : A second way of representing the complex number z is

PERSONAL REMARK :

by specifying its magnitude r and angle it makes with the real axis,
as shown in figure 1. This is known as the polar form. It is given by
z = |z| = r
where r =
or

....(iii)

x 2 y 2 , tan 1

y
x

....(iv)

x = r cos , y = r sin

....(v)

that is , z = x + jy = r = r cos + jr sin

....(vi)

In converting from rectangular to polar form using equation

(iv) & (v), we must exercise care in determining the correct value of
. These are the four possibilities :

y st
(1 Quadrant)
x

z = x + jy, tan1

z = x + jy, 180 tan1

z = x jy, 180 + tan1

z = x jy, 360 tan1

y nd
(2 Quadrant)
x
y rd
(3 Quadrant)
x

y th
(4 Quadrant)
x

Note : Assuming that x and y are positive.

Method 3 : The third way of representing the complex z is the
exponential form: z = rej

....(vii)

This is almost the same as the polar form, because we use the same
magnitude r and the angle .
The three forms of representing a complex number are summarized
as follows.
Points to be Remember

z = x + jy, (where, x = r cos , y = r sin Rectangular form

z = r , (where, r =

z = rej, (where, r = x 2 y 2 , tan1

x 2 y 2 , tan1

y
Polar form
x

y
) Exponential form
x

Ex.1 Express the following complex numbers in polar and exponential

form :
(a) z1 = 6 + j8, (b) z2 = 6 j8, (c) z3 = 6 + j8, (d) z4 = 6 j8.
Sol. Notice that we have deliberately chosen these complex numbers to
fall in the four quadrats, as shown in figure 2.
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NETWORK FUNDAMENTALS ( COMPLEX NUMBERS & FORMULA COLLECTION)
Im
j8
j6
j4
3
j2

z3
r3
4

8 6 4 2
r4
z4

(a)

j2
j4
j6
j8

PERSONAL REMARK :

z1

r1
1
2 4 6
2
r2

8 Re

z2

For z1 = 6 + j8 (1st quadrant),

r1 =

6 2 82 = 10,

tan1

= 53.13

Hence, the polar form is 10 53.13 and the exponential form

is 10ej53.13
(b)

For z2 = 6 j8 (4th quadrant),

r2 =

6 2 (8) 2 = 10,

360 tan1

= 306.87

so that the polar form is 10 306.87 and the exponential form }

is 10ej306.87. The angle may also be taken as 53.13, as shown in
figure 2, so that the polar form becomes 10 53.13 and the
exponential form becomes 10ej53.13.
(c)

For z3 = 6 + j8 (2nd quadrant),

r3 =

( 6) 2 8 2 = 10,

180 tan1

= 126.87

Hence, the polar form is 10 126.87 and the exponential form

is 10ej126.87.
(d)

For z4 = 6 j8 (3rd quadrant),

r4 =

( 6) 2 ( 8) 2 = 10, 180 + tan1

= 233.13

so that the polar form is 10 233.13 and the exponential form is

10e j233.13.
Ex.2. Convert the following complex numbers to polar and
exponential forms :
(a) z1 = 3 j4, (b) z2 = 5 + j 12, (c) z3 = 3 j9, (d) z4 = 7 + j.
Sol. (a) 5 306.9, 5ej306.9, (b) 13 67.38, 13ej67.38,
(a) 9.487 251.6, 9.487ej251.6, (b) 7.071 171.9, 7.071ej171.9,
Ex.3. Convert the following complex numbers into rectangular
form : (a) 210 (b) 40 305 (c) 10e j30 (d) 50 e j/2
(a)

12 60 = 12 cos ( 60) + j 12 sin ( 60) = 6 j 10.39

Note that = 60 is the same as = 360 60 = 300.

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(b)
(c)
(d)

50 285 = 50 cos 285 j50 sin 285 = 12.94 + j 48.3

8e

j10

20e

PERSONAL REMARK :

= 8 cos 10 + j8 sin 10 = 7.878 + j 1.389

j/3

= 20 cos (/ 3) + j 20 sin ( / 3) = 10 j 17.32

Ex.4 Find the rectangular form of the following complex numbers :

(a)

8 210, (a)

40 305, (c)

10ej30, (d)

50ej.

Answer : (a) 6.928 + j4 (b) 22.94 j32.77 (c) 8.66 j5 (d) j50
Mathematical Operations
Two complex numbers z1 = x1 + jy1 and z2 = x2 + jy2 are equal if and
only if their real parts are equal and their imaginary parts are
equal. x1 = x2 and y1 = y2

The complex conjugate of the complex number z = x + jy is

z* = x jy = r = rej

Thus the complex conjugate of a complex number is found by replacing

every j by j.

Given two complex numbers z1 = x1 + j y1 = r1 and z2 = x2 +

j y2 = r2 2, their sum is , z1 + z2 = (x1 + x2) + j (y1 + y2)
and their difference is, z1 z2 = (x1 x2) + j (y1 y2)

While it is more convenient to perform addition and subtraction of

complex numbers in rectangular form, the product and quotient of
the two complex numbers are best done in polar or exponential form.
For their product, z1 z2 = r1 r2 1 + 1
Alternatively, using the rectangular form,
z1 z2 = (x1 + j y1) (x2 + j y2) = (x1 x2 y1 y2) + j (x1 y2 + x2 y1)
For their quotient,

z1 r1

1 2
z 2 r2

Alternatively, using the rectangular form, z1 x1 j y1

z2 x 2 j y2
We rationalize the denominatory by multiplying both the numerator
and denominator by z*2.
z1
(x jy1 ) (x 2 jy 2 )
x x y1 y 2
x y x1 y 2
1
1 22
j 2 21
2
z 2 x 2 jy 2 ) (x 2 jy 2 )
x 2 y2
x 2 y 22

Ex.1 If A = 2 + j5, B = 4 j6, find : (a) A* (A + B) (b) (A + B)/

(AB).
So.

(a) If A = 2 + j5, then A* = 2 j5 and

A + B = (2 + 4) + j (5 6) = 6 j
So that A* (A + B) = (2 j5) (6 j) = 12 j2 j30 5 = 7 j 32

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(b)

Similarly, A B = (2 4) + j (5 + 6) = 2 + j 11

AB
6 j
(6 j) (2 j 11)

AB
2 j11 ( j 11) ( 2 j 11)

Hence,

12 j66 j2 11

Ex.

PERSONAL REMARK :

()

23 j64
0.184 j 0.512

j (3 j4)*
(2 j 5) (8e j10 )
3 Evaluate (a)
(b)
j4 2 40
(1 j6) (2 j) 2

Sol. (a) Since there are terms in polar and exponential forms, it may be
best to express all terms in polar form :

22 52 tan1 5/2 = 5.385 68.2

2 + j5 =

(2 + j5) (8 ej10) = (5.385 68.2) (8 10) = 43.08 78.2

2 + j4 + 2 40 = 2 + j4 + 2 cos ( 40) + j2 sin ( 40)
= 3.532 + j2.714 = 4.454 37.54
j 10
Thus, (2 j5) (8 e ) 43.08 78.2 9.672 40.66
2 j4 2 40
. 37.54

(b)

We can evaluate this in rectangular form, since all terms are

in that form. But j (3 j4)* = j (3 + j4) = 4 + j3

(2 + j)2 = 4 + j4 1 = 3 + j4
(1 + j6) (2 + j)2 = (1 + j6) (3 + j4) = 3 4 j + j 18 24
= 27 + j 14
Hence, =

j (3 j4)*
( j6) (2 j)

4 j3
( 4 j3) ( 27 j 14)

27 j14
27 2 142

108 j56 j 81 42
0.1622 j 0.027

Ex.4 Evaluate these complex fractions :

(a)

6 30 j 5 3
j 2e j45

(b)

( j7) (3 j2)*

*
( j6) (3 70 )

Answer: (a) 1.213 237.4, (b) 2.759 287.6

Euler's Formula
Euler's formula is an important result in complex variables. We
derive it from the series expansion of ex, cos , and sin. We know
that
ex = 1 + x +

x 2 x3 x 4

+ .....
! 3! !

....(1)

Replacing x by j gives
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NETWORK FUNDAMENTALS ( COMPLEX NUMBERS & FORMULA COLLECTION)
ej = 1 + j

Also, cos = 1

+ ....
2!
3! 4 !

....(2)

PERSONAL REMARK :

+ ....
2! 4! 6!

sin =
....
3! 5! 7 !

....(3)

So that, cos + j sin = 1 + j j j ...

2!
3! 4 !
5!

...(4)

Comparing equations. (2) and (4), we conclude that

ej = cos + j sin

....(5)

This is known as Euler's formula. The exponential form of

representing a complex number is based on Euler's formula. From
equation (5), notice that cos = Re (ej), & sin = Im (ej) ....(6)
and that |ej| =

cos 2 sin 2 = 1

Replacing by in Eq. (5) gives

e j = cos j sin

.... (7)

Adding equation (5) and (7) yields

cos =

1 (e j e j )
2
2

.... (8)

Substracting equation (6) from equation (5) yields

sin =

1
(ej ej)
2j

.... (9)

Useful Identities

The following identities are useful in dealing with complex numbers.

If z = x + jy = r , then

zz* = x2 + y2 = r2

z x jy re

j/

r /2

zn = (x + jy)n = rn n = rn ej = rn (cos n + j sin n)

z1/n = (x + jy)1/n = r1/n /n + 2k/n

k = 0, 1, 2, ........., n 1

e j = 1

e j2 = 1

e j/2 = j

e j/2 = j
Re (e(+j)t) = Re (et ejt) = et cos t

Im (e(+j)t) = Re (et ejt) = et sin t

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NETWORK FUNDAMENTALS ( COMPLEX NUMBERS & FORMULA COLLECTION)
Ex.1 If A = 6 + j8, find: (a)

4
A , (b) A .

PERSONAL REMARK :

Sol. (a) First, convert A to polar form :

r=

62 82 = 10, tan1 = 53.13. A = 10 53.13

Then,
(b)

A 10 53.13 2 = 3.162 26.56

Since A = 10 53.13,

Therefore, A4 = r4 4 = 104 4 53.13 = 10,000 212.52

MATHEMATICAL FORMULAS
Quadratic Formula
The roots of the quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 are
b b2 4ac
x1, x2 =
2a

Trigonometric Identities

sin ( x) = sin x

cos ( x) = cos x

sec x =

,
cos x

cos x =

sin x

tan x =

sin x
,
cos x

cot x =

tan x

sin (x 90) = cos x

cos (x 90) = sin x

sin (x 180) = sin x

cos (x 180) = cos x

cos2 x + sin2 x = 1

a
b
c

sin A sin B sin C

(law of sines)

a2 = b2 + c2 2 bc cos A

(law of cosines)

1
(A B)
ab
2

1
tan (A B) a b
2

(law of tangents)

tan

sin (x y) = sin x cos y cos x sin y

cos (x y) = cos x cos y sin x sin y

tan (x y) =

2 sin x sin y = cos (x y) cos (x + y)

2 sin x cos y = sin (x + y) + sin (x y)

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tan x tan y
tan x tan y

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NETWORK FUNDAMENTALS ( COMPLEX NUMBERS & FORMULA COLLECTION)

2 cos x cos y = cos (x + y) + cos (x y)

sin 2x = 2 sin x cos x

cos 2x = cos2 x sin2 x = 2 cos2 x 1 = 1 2 sin2 x

tan 2x =

sin2 x =

(1 cos 2x)

cos2 x =

(1 + cos 2x)

K1 cos x K2 sin x =

ejx = cos x + j sin x (Euler's formula)

e jx e jx
cos x =
2j

sin x =

PERSONAL REMARK :

tan x
1 tan 2 x

K2

K12 K 22 cos x tan 1

K1

e jx e jx
2j

Hyperbolic Functions

sinh x =

x x
(e e )

cosh x =

x
(e ex)

tanh x =

sinh x
cosh x

coth x =

1
tanh x

csch x =

1
sinh x

sech x =

1
cosh x

sinh (x y) = sinh x cosh y cosh x sinh y

cosh (x y) cosh x chsh y sinh x sinh y

Derivatives
If U = U (x), V = V(x), and a = constant,

d
dU
(a U) a
dx
dx

d
dV
dU
(U V) U
V
dx
dx
dx

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NETWORK FUNDAMENTALS ( COMPLEX NUMBERS & FORMULA COLLECTION)
V

PERSONAL REMARK :

dU
dV
U
dx
dx
2
V

d U

dx V

d
( Un) = na Un1
dx a

d
dU
(aU) = aU In a
dx
dx

d
dU
(eU) = eU
dx
dx

d
dU
(sin U) = cos U
dx
dx

d
dU
(cos U) = sin U
dx
dx
Indefinite Integrals

If U = U(x), V = V(x), and a = constant,

a dx ax C

U dv UV V dU (integration by parts)
U n 1
C, n 1
n 1

U n dU

dU
In U C
U

a U dU

ax

dx

aU
C, a > 0, a 1
In a

1 ax
e C
a
e ax

xe ax dx

x 2e ax dx

a2
e ax
a

(ax 1) + C

(a2 x2 2ax + 2) + C

In x dx x In x x C

sin ax dx a cos ax C

cos ax dx

sin

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ax dx

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1
sin ax C
a
x sin 2ax

C
2
4a
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PERSONAL REMARK :

x sin 2ax

C
2
4a

cos

x sin ax dx a 2 (sin ax ax cos ax) C

x cos ax dx a 2 (cos ax ax sin ax) C

ax dx

sin ax dx

cos ax dx

1
a

(2 ax sin ax 2 cos ax a 2 x 2 cos ax) C

1
a

(2ax cos ax 2 sin ax a 2 x 2 sin ax) C

e ax

eax sin bx dx

e ax cos bx dx

sin ax sin bx dx

sin (a b) x sin (a b) x

C, a 2 b 2
(a b)
2 (a b)

sin ax cos bx dx

cos (a b) x cos (a b) x

C, a 2 b 2
(a b)
2 (a b)

cos ax cos bx dx

sin (a b) x sin (a b) x

C, a 2 b 2
(a b)
2 (a b)

a2 x2

dx

x 2 dx

e ax
a 2 b2

a2 x2

(a 2 x 2 )

dx

(a cos bx + b sin bx) + C

1
x
tan 1 C
a
a

x a tan 1

(a sin bx b cos bx) + C

a 2 b2

x
C
a

1 x
1
x
tan 1 C
2
2
2
a
a
2a x a

Definite Integrals
In m and n are integers,

sin ax dx 0

cos ax dx 0

NEW DELHI
8860637779

LUCKNOW
9919526958

AGRA
ALLAHABAD
9793424360
9919751941

PATNA
9534284412

NOIDA
8860637779

BHOPAL
9838004479

GORAKHPUR KANPUR
JAIPUR
9793424360
9838004494 9838004497

13

TECHGURU PUBLICATIONS (A Unit of TECHGURU EDUCATIONALS Pvt. Ltd.)

NETWORK FUNDAMENTALS ( COMPLEX NUMBERS & FORMULA COLLECTION)

sin 2 ax dx

cos 2 ax dx

cos mx cos nx dx 0, m n
0

0,

sin mx cos nx dx
2m
,
2
m n2

m n even
m n odd

0,
sin mx sin nx dx
,

sin mx sin nx dx

sin mx sin nx dx

PERSONAL REMARK :

mn
mn

a 0
2,

sin ax
dx 0,
a 0
x

, a 0
2

L' Hopital's Rule

If f (0) = 0 h (0), then lim
x 0

f(x)
f (x)
lim
x 0 h (x)
h(x)

where the prime indicates differentiation.

NEW DELHI
8860637779

LUCKNOW
9919526958

AGRA
ALLAHABAD
9793424360
9919751941

PATNA
9534284412

NOIDA
8860637779

BHOPAL
9838004479

GORAKHPUR KANPUR
JAIPUR
9793424360
9838004494 9838004497

14