1.

Introduction

1.1 Background:
1.1.1 Freeform structures:
There has always been an exciting trend of transparent freeform architecture
which allows architects to make organic forms close to nature. Constant
development of software programs has made it possible to easily generate desired
freeform shapes. The 3-dimensional (3D) designing tools and numerical tools have
simplified the steps of producing such complex surfaces which involve defining
parameters, geometry algorithms and logic. But the construction of these complex
structures in reality can be challenging and can involve risk factors such as cost of
manufacturing and buildability issues. The freeform shape generated using
software programs are geometrically processed by dismantling the surface into
discrete parts and individual panels so that regular elements and standardized
building components can be used to build the structure in reality. If the surface is
not processed this way, then the construction components required to build the
surface need to be bent or twisted to assume the intended shape which may in turn
rule out the functionality of the building envelope. Therefore, the complex
freeform design is rationalized so that the surface can be divided into a fine mesh
in such a way that standard parts can be used in the construction. After
rationalizing the complex design, a geometry is defined which is the closest
interpretation of the main design, but consists of straight segments in place of
curves. Some notable examples are mentioned as follows:
a. Zlote Tarasy Warsaw

Fig 1 Main entrance at the ground level, approaching from the station
[17]
The structure is a freeform roof which encloses the central shopping area in
Warsaw, Poland. The area of the surface is 10,200m 2 consisting of several spheres,
with convex and concave transitions. The form was discretized into triangular
mesh, and the mesh design was fine-tuned so that the roof appears as a uniform
mesh with constant sized members. The fine-tuning resulted in the development of
continuous triangulated grid structure of hollow rectangular steel sections which
were 200mm deep and 100mm wide. Their thickness varied from 5mm to 17.5mm
depending on the forces in the member.

Fig 2 System Geometry [15]

The steel members intersect at every six armed node which is star shaped.
Each arm of the node bisects the angle between the two adjucent steel members as
shown in Fig 4. Although the standardization of glass panel size, member length

and node geometry was attempted, only a small level of standardisation was
achievable and had negligible advantage in terms of cost. The node was the most
complex part of the mesh design as it had to transfer unique combination of axial
forces, shear forces and bending moments from one side of itself to the other.

Fig 3 Node Visualisation [17]

position [17]

Fig 4 Visualisation of node in

To achieve a smooth flow, a high degree of twisting of some steel members

was required. As a result, eccentric offsets were made which resulted in a complex
three dimensional form for each node. Automated cutting process was used to
fabricate each node. A new equipment was developed to do so. The roof mesh was
designed to be erected on scaffolding where props were used to hold each node in
position. But once the props were removed, the roof would deflect under the steel
and glazing self-weight. Therefore a new zero geometry of the node was calculated
in order to hold the roof at a higher level, so that once the props are removed, the
roof would assume the originally intended geometry.

b) British Museum
The Great Court at the British Museum, London is a good example of freeform
structure. The area of the roof at the Great Court is around 6000m 2 with the
circular Old Reading Room in the middle of the Great Court. It has a dome shaped
geometry which is particularly optimized to fit the constraints of the existing
museum building from which it derives support. To develop the net geometry, a
special form-finding process was used by structural engineers. The maximum
possible glass panel with respect to size and weight of the steel support structures
dimension was the determining factor of the nets geometry.

Fig 5 The Great Court from the outside

inside

Fig 6 The Great court roof from the

The net is made of 4878 welded hollow edge section members and 1566
nodes which are all unique depending on their offset position from the Reading
Room. Also, all of the 3312 glazing units are of different sizes. The boundary of
the structure is a ring beam that rests on the existing stone wall of the surrounding
building.

Fig 7 System Geometry

In order to connect all different members and transform forces and bending
moments, a node similar to a star shape was developed. The node was cut out of
steel plates that were up to 200mm thick and the ends of the steel members were
fabricated to fit in the recess of the nodes.

Fig 8 Close up of one of the joints

Fig 9 Node Fabrication [15]

Fig 8 shows the close up view of one of the nodes which were used. Fig 11 shows
the fabrication process of a node.
High performance insulated glass panels are installed directly to the steel
members. All computer modeling data could be applied to the fabrication process
without human intervention.

c) Myzeil Shopping Mall

Another example of freeform structure is the Myzeil shopping mall in Frankfurt.
The building agglomeration is covered wiith 13,500m2 triangulated glass/steel roof
and rhombus shaped faade.

Fig 10 Myzeil Shopping Mall

The initially intended shape of the structure according to the architectural vision
can be seen in fig-11.

Fig-11 Original Geometry [19]

The initial geometry had to be optimized based on the structural requirements

which resulted in a slightly modified geometry as can be seen in fig-12.

Fig 12 Optimized shape [19]

The shape obtained after optimizing the design as seen in Fig-12 was transformed
into a structural grid by the use of 3D modeling software. Initially, the grids
produced were irregular. Therefore, scripted tools were used to define the
orientation of members in such a way that they would satisfy aesthetic as well as
structural elements.

Fig-13 Interior view of autogenerated mesh(left) and result with scripted tools
(right) [19]

The resulting average member length was 2.30m and the connection between the
members were defined by 6-member nodes which was star shaped. The node to
which the beam members are welded was burned out of a thick steel plate. The
thickness of the plates was adapted to different loading condition.
The structure was supported by scaffolding during erection which allowed to
adjust the position of nodes according to required tolerances.

Fig-14 Nodal connector of Myzeil

1.1.2 The need for customization
From the above examples, we can conclude when the structure assumes an
irregular geometry, standard and readily available elements cannot be used
effectively due to the complexity of the shape. In all of the above examples,
customized nodes were needed at the connection of steel members. These nodes
differed from each other in terms of dimension, shape and orientation depending
on their position on the structure. Therefore, mass customization was necessary in
each of the projects. But if the structures mentioned above had a regular geometry,
then the nodes required at the connections would have similar dimensions in which
case they could be standardized and mass produced. But due to the complexity in
the geometry, each node was unique and had to be manufactured based on the
particular project.

1.2 Motivation
The use of Point Fixed Glazing system has shown to increase the transparency of
the glass structure as the glass panes are held only at a few points unlike the edge
support provided by the frames. The point fixed glazing can also cover very large
areas without the need for interference of slab edges and columns for support
which is another reason for the increase in transparency. There can be huge
advantage when such a structure is used to cover large areas like atriums,
exhibition halls, canopies etc. where light and transparency are quite important
factors. There could also be a possibility of using doubly curved panels as the
support is offered at points unlike the edge support and thus bending or twisting of
frame will not be necessary. In this case, the surface would have a much closer
resemblance to the original design. But when the Point fixed systems are used in a
free form structure, there could be a need for customization of the components
used in the system due to the complexity of the surface. The standard available
components of the point fixed systems may not be suitable to be applied to the
panels in the freeform structure. Therefore, there is a need for customization of the
point fixing systems according to the shape of the structure. And to manufacture
these customized components by traditional methods will be tedious and thus there
is a need for investigating other manufacturing methods which will be more
feasible in the case of mass customization. And as there has been tremendous
development in the field of additive manufacturing, the solution to the
customization problem could be solved. A research conducted at Loughborough
university titled Development in Construction-Scale Additive Manufacturing
Processes clearly shows us the relationship between unit cost per production and
the number of parts produced, for the case of AM and Injection Molding.

Fig-15 Diagram of cost-case for Additive Manufacturing [3]

The comparison in Fig-15 clearly shows that, in the case of injection molding, a
component that needs to be manufactured in lesser quantities will cost more than a
standard component that is used more frequently and thus can be mass produced.
This can also be true in the case of customizing Spider Brackets which are used
with the Point Fixing systems as they are manufactured by Lost-wax casting
process which involves injection molding.
This master thesis will investigate on how a change in shape of a Spider Bracket
can occur when used in a freeform structure, possible disadvantages of
traditionally manufacturing the Spider brackets, and explore the potential of AM
techniques to produce the Spider Brackets.

1.3 Hypothesis and sub-questions

The difficulty in mass producing customized components can be reduced,
when the right manufacturing technique is used.
In order to confirm this hypothesis, this master thesis will investigate and answer
relevant sub-questions in the subsequent chapters.
Chapter 2:
What are the components of a Point fixed glazing system?

 How can a possible change in the shape of a spider bracket occur when used
in an irregular structure?
Chapter 3:
How is a spider bracket traditionally manufactured?
How can the conventional manufacturing procedure prove to be a
disadvantage when mass customization of the spider brackets is required?
Chapter 4:
What is Additive Manufacturing?
How is Additive Manufacturing categorized based on technology used?
How is Additive Manufacturing categorized based on application levels?
Which is the best way to use Additive manufacturing to produce the spider
brackets?

2.0 Application of Point Fixed System to a freeform

structure
2.1 Point Fixed Glazing System
Point Fixed Glazing system is a glass fixing system which bears the load of
the glass pane from several points by means of some steel elements in order to
maximize transparency [4]. The glass panes are fixed to the steel support structure
by means of bolts. The bolts provide structural support to the glazing panels unlike
the continuous edge support provided by conventional frames. The bolts penetrate
the cylindrical bore holes that are made on the pane it in place. The bolted fixings
are generally located towards the corner of the glazing panels, but can also be
located at the intermediate points in case of large panels. This type of fixing system
is suitable to be used for large glass areas where there is no interference of slab
edges to the view.
An example of the frameless point fixed glazing can be seen in the new faade of
the Mediaset building in Milan as shown in fig-15, and fig-16 shows the framed
glass curtain wall of the Bauhaus building in Dessau designed by Walter Gropius.

Fig-16

Fig-17

There are many types of Point Fixed Glazing Systems which consist of four main
basic components as follows:
a)
b)
c)
d)

Glazing Panels
Bolted Fixings
Glazing support attachments
Main Support structure

Fig-18 shows a typical bolted glass fixing arrangement [5].

Fig 18
These components are discussed briefly in the following sub-chapters.
2.1.1 Glazing Panels
As a safety measure, the most commonly used glass panels in the Point
Fixed Glazing systems are toughened glass or laminated glass. The reason to use
safety glass panels is due to the high stress concentrations caused by the point
supports. The stress tends to be greater at the mid pane or mid edge stress due to
in-plane loads like self-weight of the panel, and out of plane loads like wind load.
The stresses at the holes or the deflection of the glass pane are often considered as
main factors when the thickness of the glass is decided. The joints between the
glass panes are made watertight by the use of sealants like silicone.

2.1.2 Bolts
Bolts act as connection devices which transfer the loads from the glass panel
to the glazing support structure, usually by bearing. They provide support to the
glass panes by transferring the self-weight of panes to the glazing support
structure. The basic types of bolted fixings available are listed as follows:
a) Fixed Bolts:

These types of fixings transfer both the in-plane loads and out of plane loads
directly through bolt and glass interface. These fixings rely on the inherent
strength of the glass panes, and will not allow for rotation under out of plane
loads, which results in transfer of varying amount of moment into the glass.
The fixing can be either countersunk or straight. However, the countersunk
bolts allow the bolt head to be in the same line as that of the outer surface of
the glazing. Fig 19 shows the fixed countersunk bolt and glass connection
[5].

Fig-19 Fixed countersunk bolt fixing [5]

Fig-20 Fixed ball joint for countersunk glass holes (Faraone R92) [22]

Fig-21 Fixed ball joint for straight glass holes (Faraone R93) [22]
The above Fig-20 and Fig-21 are the examples of the fixed bolts produced
by the Italian company named Faraone. As mentioned, the joint R92 shown
in Fig-20 is a fixed joint for countersunk glass holes, and the joint R93
shown in Fig-21 is a fixed joint for straight glass holes.
b) Articulated Bolt Fixings:
These types of bolts have a spherical bearing surface which is able to
accommodate rotation of the fixing to glazing support structures. The head
of the fixing can rotate freely on its stem. The bolt assures no bending load
is applied to the glass, unlike the fixed bolts. Due to this property, these bolts
can be used with large glass panes to be fixed with flexible support systems
like cables. Fig-22 shows the fixing of the articulated bolt to the glass [5].

Fig-22 Articulated Bolt Fixing [5]

Fig-23 Articulated ball joint for countersunk glass holes (Faraone R10) [22]

Fig-24 Articulated ball joint for straight glass holes (Faraone R20) [22]
Above Fig-23 and Fig-24 are examples of the articulated bolts produced by
the Italian company named Faraone. As mentioned, the joint R10 is an
articulated joint for countersunk glassholes, and the joint R20 is an
articulated joint for straight glass holes.

2.1.3 Support Structure

Support structures transfer loads from the glazing support attachments to the
building structure. There is a wide variety of support structures used like
a) Base supported steelwork which involve simple posts or trusses
b) Cable systems where entirely tension elements are used such as rods and
wires
c) Glass fins where a thick glass panel made of several glass panes laminated
to each other is used as a support.

Fig-25 Edinburgh Festival Theatre faade system (left) and its element detain
(right)
(Use of truss support system) [4]

Fig-26 Atria Mall Mumbai glazing system (left) and its faade detailss (right)
(Use of cable support structure) [4]

Fig-27 Glass Faade of the history museum, Luxemburg(left) and its faade details
(right) [4]
(Use of Glass fin support system)
2.1.4 Glazing Support Attachments
The glazing support attachment provides mechanical support to the glazing
panels and transfer loads to the main support system. They also provide relative
adjustment of the panels in position. The structural function of the glazing support
attachment is to transfer applied loads like wind, snow etc. acting on the glass
panels to the support structure and also resist the moments due to internal forces.
Glazing support attachments can be of many forms like angle brackets, Spiders,
Pin brackets and clamping devices. However, the most common types of Glazing
support attachments are the spider brackets.
2.1.4.1 Spider Brackets
A spider bracket is usually a four arm fitting system which supports four
glass panes at adjacent corners on the glazing grid and ties them back to the
support structure. Spider brackets can also be of one, two or three arms depending
on the number panels it is required to support.

Fig-28 Single Bracket Spider [5]

Fig-25 shows a general arrangement of a single bracket spider. Generally spider
brackets are manufactured as cast components. These spider brackets cannot be
manufactured economically to a high degree of accuracy, and thus, tolerances must
be provided. Slight movement of the panels must be allowed in order to avoid
additional stresses that can occur as a result of thermal expansion of the panels.
The weight of vertical or sloping glazing is carried by one set of arms of the
spiders. To allow the movement of the bolted joints in one direction, horizontally
slotted holes are provided at these arms. On the opposite set of arms, slightly
oversized slots are provided to allow movement in two directions. If at all the
glazing is horizontal, then oversized slots are provided at all the arms as the spiders
need not support vertical weight of the glass. As shown in fig 2.10, the arms of the
spiders marked as A are provided with oversized holes, and the arms of the spider
marked as B are provided with horizontally slotted holes.

Fig-29 Spider Bracket (Faraone 220) [22]

Fig-26 shows the spider bracket 220 manufactured by Faraone Srl. As shown in the
figure, the oversized slots are provided on the top two arms, and the horizontal
slots are provided in the bottom arms.
2.1.4.2 Design Considerations for Spider Brackets
The following factors should be considered during the design of spider
attachments:
a) Even though the glazing panels are manufactured to a high degree of
accuracy, the same cannot be done with the support structure. Therefore,
there will generally be a tolerance of 5mm for the position of the support
structure where the spider brackets are connected. Inaccuracies occurring in
the position of holes in glass, manufacturing of the brackets and the
installation position of glazing panels are adjusted by providing tolerances at
the slots of spider arms where bolts are connected. At these same points,
provision is made for thermal movements.
b) Provision is made at the slots so that the bolts can move freely relative to the
brackets so that stresses resulting from thermal expansion of panels can be
avoided.
c) The spiders must transfer the self-weight of the panels to the support
structure along with the applied loads which result during construction and
in service.
2.2 Generation of Spider Bracket design for an irregular structure:
When a point fixed glazing system is applied in an irregular structure, some
changes could occur in the size and orientation of the components used to support
the glass. This part of the study focuses on how the form of a Spider Fixing can
change when applied to an irregular structure. The base design for the spider
bracket used in this study is borrowed from the design on the spider 300K
manufactured by Faraone Srl. The 300K spider bracket is a four-arm fitting system
which is made of AISI 316 stainless steel by Lost-wax Casting method. The

bracket is fixed to the support structure using suitable fittings which allow depth
adjustment and therefore compensate any possible dimensional differences and
thus assure perfect coplanarity of different glazing panels.
P

Fig-30 Basic dimensions of Faraone 300K spider bracket

As it can be seen in Fig-30, the slots marked as P and Q have circular slots which
are slightly oversized to allow movement in two directions. The slots marked as R
and S are provided with horizontal slots so that they can support the weight of
vertical or sloping glazing, while allowing horizontal movement.
In order to generate the spider design for an irregular glass structure, the following
conditions were followed:
a) The guide for a spider glazing system supported on a steel tube structure
provided by Faraone SRL was used as a reference.

Tubular stainless steel support

structure

Galvanized steel accessory for fixing spider

on Metallic structure

Four arm 316 stainless steel

polished spider
Articulated ball joint
Glazing

Fig-31 Technical drawing of Faraone 220 spider glazing system

b) A four paneled glazing structure was generated using grasshopper plugin for
Rhinoceros.

Fig-32 Four paneled glazing generated in grasshopper plugin for Rhinoceros

c) A spider bracket was generated so as to hold the four glass panels in the
middle. The basic dimensions of the spider were based on the dimensions of
300K spider fixing by Faraone.

Fig 33

Fig 34

Fig 35
d) The spider bracket is assumed to be fixed to a steel tube structure by means
of a steel accessory as shown in Fig-36.

Fig-36

The slots at the end of the spider arms are oriented in such a way that they
face the part of the glass which they have to support.

e) An algorithm is generated in such a way that when the point 1 which is the
point of meeting of all the four panels(fig) can be moved in Z-direction
while the points 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9 remain in the same position. Three
different positions of point 1, and the shape of the spider bracket obtained
due to these three positions were considered for this study. The three
orientations as follows:
Orientation 1:

Fig-37 Orientation 1 of spider bracket

Fig-38 Orientation 2 of Spider Bracket

Fig-39 Orientation 3 of Spider Bracket

f) When all the points remain on the same plane, then the spider will assume
the standard shape which can be called as a standard orientation and is
shown in the below figure:

1
6

9
8
7

Fig-40 Normal Orientation

g) A bounding box is created around the different spider brackets obtained

along with the normal orientation so that the dimensions across the X, Y and
Z direction can be measured. The dimensions indicated in the following
figures are in millimeters.

Fig-41 Normal Orientation

Fig-42 Orientation 1

Fig-43 Orientation 2

Fig-44 Orientation 3

2.3 Comparison of the dimesnions

Using the bounding box, the dimensions along the principal axes of the
different orientations of the Spider brackets obtained in section 2.2 are compared
with the normal orientation of the Spider bracket in the following table.
Orientation
Normal Orientation
Orientation 1
Orientation 2
Orientation 3

X-dimension
(mm)
352.0
341.7
311.8
358.3

Y-dimension
(mm)
352.0
345.4
315.1
354.8

Z-dimension
(mm)
50.0
87.1
69.2
199.5

In the above comparison, we can clearly see the possible differences in dimensions
among the different orientation of spider brackets resulting due to the change in the
surface geometry of glass. In the following chapter, the traditional way of
manufacturing of the above spiders will be discussed. In all the following chapters,
the terms Orientation 1, Orientation 2, Orientation 3 and Normal Orientation will
be used to refer to the above spider brackets mentioned in Table-1.

3.0 Manufacturing the Customized Spider Brackets by

Conventional Method
3.1 Introduction
The traditional method that is used to manufacture the spider fitting by
Faraone Srl is the Lost-wax casting method [22]. The casting method in general
exploits the property of liquid metal as it flows and assumes the shape of a
prepared container, and then solidifies upon cooling. The technique involves
melting the material and heating it to a proper temperature and then pouring it into
a cavity or mold which will hold it in the desired shape till the metal cools down
and solidifies. The casting process can be categorized into two subgroups namely,
a. Expendable Mold process
b. Multiple-use mold process
The expendable mold process is a casting process where a new mold must be
created for each casting, whereas the multiple use mold process employs a
permanent reusable mold.
3.2 Lost-wax casting method
The lost-wax casting method which is also termed as Investment Casting
belongs to the Expandable Mold process. This process uses molds which are made
up of ceramic material which can withstand the higher melting temperatures of
metals. Metals that are more frequently cast using this method are iron, steel,
stainless steel, aluminum alloys, brass, bronze and other copper alloys, magnesium
alloys, certain zinc alloys and nickel-based super alloys [21]. The lost wax casting
involves the following steps as mentioned in [21]:
1. Producing a master pattern: A modified replica of the desired product is
made from metal, wood, plastic or some easily worked material.
2. Producing a master die from the master pattern: The master die is generally
produced using a low melting point metal. If the die is to be produced by
steel, then it is often machined and thus the step 1 is skipped.
3. Producing Wax patterns: To produce the patterns, wax is poured into the
master die or sometimes injected into the master die and allowed to harden.
To assist the removal of the hardened wax, release agents like silicone sprays
are used. If thin and complex surfaces are to be produced, then polystyrene

plastic is used instead of wax as it possesses higher strength and greater

durability.
4. Assembling the wax pattern into a common wax spine: Using heated tools
and melted wax, a number of wax patterns are attached to a central sprue and
runner system to create a pattern cluster or a tree.
5. Coating the cluster or tree with a thin layer of investment casting material:
In this step, the wax pattern is dipped into a watery slurry of finely ground
refractory material (a material which can retain its strength at higher
temperature [23]). A thin but very smooth layer of investment material is
deposited onto the wax pattern, ensuring a smooth surface and good detain
in final product.
6. Forming additional investment around the coated cluster: Once the initial
layer is dried, the cluster is dipped again, but this time the wet ceramic is
coated with a layer of sand or coarse refractory. After drying, this process is
repeated until the desired thickness of the investment coating is achieved
(typically 5mm to 15mm).
7. Allowing the investment to harden.
8. Removing the wax pattern from the mold by melting or dissolving: The
molds or trees are placed upside down in an oven where the wax is melt and
run down.
9. Heating the mold in preparation for pouring: When the mold is heated to
550C to 1100C, the complete removal of the wax can be ensured. The
heating also cures the mold and gives it additional strength and allows the
molten metal to retain its heat and thus flow more easily into thin sections.
10.Pouring the molten metal: The molten metal is poured into the cavity
generally by gravity pouring. If complex sections are involved, the mold
filling is assisted by positive air pressure or some form of centrifugal
process.
11.Removing the solidified casting from the mold: Once the metal is solidified,
the mold is broken using techniques like mechanical chipping or vibration,
high pressure water jet or sand blasting.

Fig-45 Basic Steps involved in the Lost-Wax Casting process [a]

The investment casting process tends to be rather expensive compared to other
casting methods. The high cost of dies to make the wax patterns has traditionally
limited investment casting to large production quantities. However, many steps
involved in the investment casting can be easily automated, and also extremely
complex shapes can be cast as a single piece.

3.3 Producing the spider brackets using the Lost-wax casting process
In this section, the manufacturing of the 3 orientations of the spider brackets
obtained in the section 2.2 along with the normal orientation of the spider is
discussed based on the steps mentioned in the section 3.2.
1. In order to produce the wax pattern of the spider brackets, a master die is
produced using preferably a low melting point metal. This can be done by
machining, or by deriving it from a master pattern, which is the replica of
the Spider bracket to be manufactured. The following figures show the 3D
models of the master die for the different orientations of spider brackets
created using the software Inventor by Autodesk.

Fig-46 Mold pattern for the normal orientation of spider created using
Autodesk Inventor

Fig-47 Mold pattern for Orientation 1 of the spider created using Autodesk
Inventor

Fig-48 Mold pattern for Orientation 2 of the spider created using Autodesk
Inventor

Fig-49 Mold pattern for Orientation 3 of the spider created using Autodesk
Inventor
2. Wax pattern of the different orientations of spider brackets are produced by
injecting wax into the master dies. The generated wax pattern is fixed to a
sprue and runner system pattern using heated tools. The sprue is a channel
which will funnel the molten metal into the runner which will in turn guide
the molten metal into the cavity of mold.

Fig-50 Wax patterns of Spider brackets rendered in Rhinoceros

3. The wax assembly is dipped into a slurry of refractory material. In order to

strengthen the slurry, it is also coated with a layer of refractory sand and
allowed to dry. The process is repeated until the desired thickness of the
ceramic layer is achieved.

4.
Fig-51 The wax pattern after being coated with refractory material and sand
(rendered in Rhinoceros)
4. Once the investment hardens, the ceramic covered wax assembly is kept
upside down in an oven and the wax is allowed to melt and run out. Thus the
ceramic mold is created whose cavity is in the shape of the spider bracket
required to be manufactured.

Fig-52 The investment mold after the wax is melted out (rendered in
Rhinoceros)
5. The ceramic mold is heated to a certain temperature so that the cracking of
the ceramic mold when coming into contact with molten metal is prevented.
The molten metal is then poured into the cavity and allowed to cool and
harden at room temperature.

Fig-53

6. Once the metal is solidified, the ceramic mold is broken off using techniques
like mechanical chipping or vibration, high pressure water jet or sand
blasting.

Fig-54

7. The sprue and runner system which is attached to the cast metal is sawed off
and machining may be required to eliminate any irregularities. The spider
brackets are then polished so that a shiny surface can be obtained.

Fig-55

3.4 Mass Customization Problem

In the section 3.3, it is shown how a spider bracket is conventionally manufactured.
The lost-wax casting method is an ideal solution in the case of the manufacturing
the Normal Orientation of the spider bracket as it is a standard component and it is
needed to be manufactured in huge numbers every year. The master die created for
the normal orientation can be used again and again to produce numerous wax
patters which in turn are used to produce the metal spider brackets. But when this
method is used to produce the customized spider brackets namely the Orientation
1, 2 and 3, there is a need to produce new master dies which can be time
consuming. Another important fact is that based on the geometrical complexity of
the surface on which the spider brackets are to be used, there might be a need to
manufacture large number of customized spider brackets which may be unique in
dimension. This calls for a need to manufacture huge number of dies just to
produce a single spider bracket, because the non-standard spider brackets are
project specific and cannot be used in other projects. Not only is this time
consuming, but also leads to wastage on material and energy used to produce the
dies. Therefore, to eliminate this inconvenience, the potential of Additive
Manufacturing Techniques to produce the customized spider brackets will be
investigated in the further chapters.

4.0 Potential of Additive Manufacturing to manufacture the customized spider

brackets
4.1 Introduction
Additive Manufacturing (AM) is a process by which 3D objects are built by
adding layer-upon-layer of material, unlike the subtractive manufacturing
technology like traditional machining. The solid model which is generated in the
Computer-aided Design (CAD) software is converted to a format which is
recognized by AM machine, which is generally an STL file. The STL file is then
transferred to the AM machine where the product is built by adding the material
layer-by-layer. The AM process is generally a single step procedure regardless of
the complexity of the part to be built, unlike other manufacturing technologies
which require multiple and iterative stages to be carried out. The sequence in
which the AM process is carried out is explained briefly in the following section.
4.2 The AM process sequence
The principle of Additive Manufacturing is based on virtual 3D CAD data,
where the data set is sliced according to a given layer thickness and thus
approximating the freeform surface by a sequence of contoured layers of even
thickness [2]. Each layer is then produced according to the sequence, where each
produced layer is bonded to the previous layer. The process continues till the entire
product is fabricated. The process sequence of AM can be categorized into 8 steps
as mentioned in [1] which are generally appropriate to all AM technologies.
1. Conceptualization and CAD: In this step, a software model that fully
describes the external surface geometry is created using professional CAD
solid modeling software, which requires the output to be 3D solid or a
surface representation.
2. Conversion to STL: The 3D model created is converted into STL file format
which is generally accepted by nearly every AM technology. Nearly every
CAD system can output STL. This works by approximating the surfaces of
the model with a series of triangular facets and forms the basis for
calculation of slices.

3. Transfer to AM machine and STL file manipulation: The STL file which
describes the part is transferred to the AM machine, where some general
manipulation of the file is made so that it is of the correct size, position and
orientation for building.
4. Machine setup: AM machine is properly set up to the build process with
settings relating to build parameters like material constraints, energy source,
layer thickness, timings etc.
5. Build: This is mainly an automated process which the machine can carry on
without supervision. Superficial monitoring of the machine is needed to
ensure no errors occur.
6. Removal and Cleanup: The part is separated from the build platform.
Depending on the AM process used, removal of excess building part
surrounding the material or removal of support structures is required.
7. Post-Processing: This step involves stages of finishing the parts for
application purposes. Depending on the AM process used, this step may
involve abrasive finishing, infiltration, surface coating etc.
8. Application: The part is ready for use.
4.3 Process based Categorization
The categorization of different AM technologies is based on the different
methods by which a solid layer is generated and how the adjacent layers are filed
and bonded to form a part. The AM machines differ from each other on how each
layer is made, how they are merged and what material is processed. Different
physical effects are used to generate layers and bond them to the adjacent layer.
Based on these physical effects, the AM methods can be categorized as follows:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Polymerization
Binder Jetting
Material Extrusion
Powder bed fusion
Sheet Lamination
Direct Energy Deposition

Brief explanations about the above processes are discussed in the following
chapters.
4.3.1 Polymerization

This method uses the selective solidification of liquid monomer resin by

Ultra-Violet (UV) radiation. This method can be classified into two subcategories.
a) Laser-Stereolithography: This method creates parts by local polymerization
of initially liquid monomers. The setup consists of a reservoir which
contains the liquid photopolymer resin and a UV laser scanner-unit which is
mounted on the top which generates the x-y contour. The setup also contains
a build platform fixed on an elevator like device which allows its movement
in the z-direction. The initial position of the build platform is at the top of
the resin reservoir from where it is lowered. The laser beam does the
contouring and solidification of each layer as well as bonding to the
preceding layer. The motion of the laser beam is controlled by the slice data.
Once a layer is solidified, the build platform is lowered by one-layer
thickness. The process may require supports, which limits the orientation of
the part in the build chamber. After the build, the part is cleaned and post
cured.

Fig-56 VAT Polymerization process [20]

b) Material Jetting: In this method, objects are created in a similar method to a
2-dimensional inkjet printer. The curable material is directly applied to the
build platform by printhead using thermal or piezoelectric method. The
added material is simultaneously solidified by UV light. The process is
repeated by adding further layers on the top of the others until the entire
object is fabricated. The required support structures are generated by a
second set of nozzles which are later washed out.

Fig-57 Material Jetting Process [20]

4.3.2 Powder Binding process:
This method involves bonding of powder particles layer by layer by
injecting a liquid binder on the top area of the powder bed. This process is also
referred to as 3 Dimensional printing. This method uses two materials; a powder
based material and a binder. The binder which is in the liquid form acts as an
adhesive between the powder layers. The powder material is spread over the build
platform using roller. A plotter device with printhead is mounted on the top which
travels over the build area and deposits the binder on the top of the powder
according to the contour. The build platform is then lowered by the layer thickness
and another layer of the powder is spread. The process is repeated until the entire
object is made. The part may need infiltration using wax or epoxy resin to obtain
durability.

Fig-58 Binder Jetting process [20]

4.3.3 Material Extrusion:
This method is called Fused Deposition Modeling. The setup consists of
heated build chamber equipped with an extrusion head and a build platform. The
extrusion head provides material deposition in the x-y direction according to the
contour. The build material is a pre-fabricated filament that is wound up and stored
in a cartridge from which it is continuously fed to the extrusion head. Once the
cross sectional area of the part is deposited, the build platform moves down by one
layer thickness and the following layer is added. The process continues till the
entire part is built. The required support structure is built by a second nozzle. In
some cases, the same nozzle generates a weaker support structure wherever
required. The layers are fused together upon deposition as the material is in melted
state.

Fig-59 Material Extrusion [20]

4.3.4 Powder Bed Fusion:

This method involves selective melting and re-solidification of powders. Sintering
processes which use plastics as materials do not require bases or support, but
metals use bases and supports to prevent warping. In this method, a layer of
powder is spread on the build platform, and then a laser or electron beam fuses the
first layer according to the contour data. The build platform is then lowered, and

another layer of powder is spread. This process is continued till the part iss built
completely. This method can be classified into the following categories:
a) Selective Laser Sintering: This process requires a temperature controlled
build chamber with a laser source. The temperature of the build chamber is
usually a few degrees lower than the melting point of the material which
reduces the dependency of laser to fuse layers together. The laser beam
contours each layer, and a roller spreads new material on the previous layer.
Whenever the beam touches the surface of the powder particles, they are
molten. The material solidifies due to thermal conductivity into the
surrounding powder, and thus a solid layer is achieved. The chamber is often
filled with nitrogen to maximize oxidation and end quality of model. Models
require cool down to ensure quality of fusion. Plastics or metals are used as
materials. The process of sintering metals is called Direct Metal Laser
Sintering (DMLS), where a wiper system is used to deposit metal powder
instead of rollers. Metal parts require mechanical removal from base and off
the support from the parts.

Fig-60 Laser Sintering Process [20]

b) Selective Laser Melting: This is basically a sintering process but
comparatively faster. This process was developed for metal parts that need to
be dense. The process uses roller blade to spread layers of powder. The laser
melts the material completely which produces a local melt pool that results

in a fully dense part after re-solidification. Shielding gas is used in the build
chamber to handle inflammable materials like Titanium or Magnesium. Built
in Auxiliary heating devices help prevent warping and distortion of parts.
c) Electron Beam Melting: In this process, the melting of the layers is achieved
by electron beam instead of laser. A completely sealed construction is
needed as the processing requires vacuum. The electron beam penetrates
very deep and the setup allows a very high scan speed. This process allows
high quality finish which makes it suitable for manufacture of high standard
parts used in aeroplanes and medical applications. The process also provides
models with very good strength properties due to an even temperature
distribution during fusion (Chua et al., 2010). The post processing involves
removing of excess powder and further cleaning and CNC work.

Fig-61 Electron Beam Melting Process [20]

4.3.5 Sheet Lamination:
Sheet Lamination process involves cutting contours out of prefabricated foils or
sheets of even layer thickness, and then bonding on the top by another layer.
Materials that could be used with this process include paper, plastic, metal
ceramics. Laser, knife or a milling machine is used as a cutting device to cut the
foils or sheets according to the contour data. The bonding with the adjacent layer is
done by glue in case of paper or plastic, and ultrasonic welding in case of metal
sheets. The material is positioned on the cutting bed and is bonded in place over
the previous layer. The required shape is cut out from the layer using laser or knife.
The next layer is then added. The process is continued till the part is completed.
This process ensures a fast build.

Fig-62 Sheet Lamination process [20]

4.3.6 Direct Energy Deposition:
Direct Energy Deposition is a complex printing process which is commonly used
to repair or add additional material to existing components [1]. The machine
consists of a nozzle mounted on a multi axis arm, which deposits melted material
onto the specified surface, where it solidifies. The nozzle can move in multiple
direction due to 4 and 5 axis machines, and the material is melted upon deposition
with a laser beam or electron beam.

Fig-63 Direct Energy Deposition process [20]

4.4 The Materials

Additive Manufacturing allows three categories of materials that can be used:
Polymers, metals and ceramics, although polymers are the most commonly used.
Sintering of plastics and metals are widely used standard processes. The other
materials also include papers and polymer adhesive sheets which are used for
Lamination manufacturing. The different types of materials presently in use which
come under the three main categories can be listed as follows.
Polymers

ABS (Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene)

PLA (Polylactide)
PC (Polycarbonate)
Polyamide (Nylon)
Nylon 12
Glass filled nylon
Epoxy resin
Wax
Photopolymer resins
Metals
Maraging steel 1.2709
Titanium alloys
Stainless steel alloys
Aluminum alloys
Gold and Silver
Ceramics
Silica/Glass
Porcelain
Silicon-Carbide
Table-2 Categorization of materials available for Additive Manufacturing

4.5 Application Based Categorization:

The different AM processes discussed in chapter 4.3 are not exclusively linked to a
certain application. Based on the requirements of the product to be manufactured,
the best suitable AM process can be identified. This also doesnt mean that AM
should always be used to directly manufacture the end product. As mentioned in
[2], there is a difference between the terms Technology and Application.
Application means using the technology in such a way that we can benefit from it.
AM must be applied in such a way that maximum benefit from the technology can
be achieved. The application levels in which AM is currently used is as follows:

PROTOTYPING

TOOLING

MANUFACTURING

Production of a preliminary model for

demonstration purposes, which is
used as a part of development
process

Production of certain parts like dies,

molds that will aid the manufacture of
final parts

Production of final parts which

meets the specifications
allocated to it during the product
development process

Based on the application levels, AM processes can be further categorized

into Direct processes and Indirect processes. Although all AM processes are
Direct processes, which involve directly converting the digital process model into
a physical object, there are some procedures which are termed as Indirect
processes. In an Indirect process, AM parts are generally used as masters to
produce the actual product by another manufacturing procedure.

AM Processes

Direct
Processes

Rapid Prototyping

Rapid Manufacturing

Rapid Tooling

Indirect Processes

Indirect Prototyping

Indirect Manufacturing

Indirect
Tooling

4.5.1 Direct Processes

As it can be seen in fig[], Direct processes can be further categorized into the
following three processes:
a) Rapid Prototyping: Rapid Prototyping is the application of AM processes to
produce prototypes, samples, models or mock-ups. They can be parts that
represent a 3D image which can be used to get a spatial impression so that
the general appearance and the proportions can be judged. They can also be
functional prototypes which are used to check and verify certain isolated
features and make production decision for a later product.
b) Rapid Manufacturing: All AM processes that produce final products or even
final parts that can be later assembled to produce the final product come
under Rapid Manufacturing. A part produced by AM process can be termed

as a final part if it shows all the characteristics and functions allocated to it

during the product development process.
c) Rapid Tooling: This AM process involved the production of final parts that
are used as cores, cavities or inserts for tools, dies and molds. But it is
important to note that Rapid tooling which comes under the Direct
Processes is not used to manufacture the entire tool but the components
which are used within a traditional tool making process.
4.5.2 Indirect Processes
Although geometrically exact physical representation of a part can be produced by
Direct Processes, the part may possess certain restrictions in terms of material
availability, material properties etc. It is also worthy to mention that if a product
needs to be produced in series, AM can be rather expensive as it shows no cost
reduction with an increase in production volume [2]. These disadvantages are
overcome by using AM parts as master models which are used to produce the final
parts by a subsequent copying process. The processes where AM technology is
used to produce master models which in turn are used to produce final parts using
traditional manufacturing methods are termed as Indirect Processes. Indirect
Processes are further categorized into the following:
a) Indirect Prototyping: This type of prototyping is used to improve the
properties of an AM part according to the designers requirement, when an
AM part itself is not capable to do so. For example, when a prototype of a
product is to be produced, but the limited on materials available for use with
AM process may not be able to achieve the particular property which is to be
possessed by the prototype. In this case, AM is used to manufacture the
exact shape of the required prototype, but by using a different material
which is later used as a master pattern for a subsequent casting process, by
which the final intended prototypes can be manufactured possessing the
desired properties.
b) Indirect Tooling: Like Indirect prototyping, indirect tooling is used to
produce AM patterns which are used as masters to produce tools or molds
from which final parts are derived. But the tool is not directly manufactured
by AM. For example, to manufacture a mold pattern, instead of milling the
metal, the AM mold pattern is placed between a metal bounding box where

epoxy is filled which will in turn assume the required shape after hardening.
The AM pattern is then removed.
c) Indirect Manufacturing: Indirect Manufacturing is a method where AM
patterns are directly used to produce Mold patterns from which the final
parts can be cast.
4.6 Selection of AM technology to manufacture customized spider brackets
As mentioned in section 4.5, AM technology can not only be used to directly
produce parts and prototypes but also can be used indirectly to assist the traditional
manufacturing processes. The traditional method of manufacturing the spider
brackets can be compared with the application based categorization of AM to
investigate on which categories can be used to manufacture the spider brackets.
The step by step lost wax casting of spiders is compared with the applicable AM
technologies as follows.
Steps involved in Lost-Wax casting of Comparable AM processes
Spider Brackets
Production of Master Die
Direct Tooling
Production of Wax Pattern
Indirect Manufacturing
Production of Ceramic Mold
Direct Tooling
Production of final Spider Brackets
Direct Manufacturing
4.6.1 Production of Master die using Direct Tooling:
a. How can it be done?
b. Does it have an advantage compared to traditional process?
4.6.2 Production of Wax pattern by Indirect Manufacturing:
a. How can it be done?
b. Does it have an advantage over traditional process?
4.6.3 Production of Ceramic mold by Direct tooling:
a. How can it be done?
b. Does it have an advantage over traditional process?
4.6.4 Production of spiders by Direct Manufacturing:
a. How can it be done?
b. Does it have an advantage over traditional process?
4.6.5 Comparison of all the above methods