Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Classification of the DG
Quantity to be loaded
Proposed stowage
Type of packages
Shipping name that is the correct technical name
Segregation required from other cargo as well as from other DG
MFAG and EmS requirement for the safe handling of the cargo
Any fire hazard as per IMDG
Any temperature/ wetness restriction for the loading of the cargo
UN Numbers and Proper Shipping Names
Dangerous goods are assigned to UN Numbers and Proper Shipping Names
according to their hazard classification and their composition.
Dangerous goods commonly transported are listed in the Dangerous Goods
List. Where an article or substance is specifically listed by name, it should be
identified in transport by the Proper Shipping Name in the Dangerous Goods
List. For dangerous goods not specifically listed by name, generic or not
otherwise specified entries are provided to identify the article or substance in
transport.
Each entry in the Dangerous Goods List is assigned a UN Number. This list
also contains relevant information for each entry, such as hazard class,
subsidiary risk(s) (if any), packing group (where assigned), packing and tank
transport provisions, EmS, segregation and stowage, properties and
observations, etc.
Entries in the Dangerous Goods List are of the following four types:
acetone
ethyl nitrite solution
adhesives
perfumery product
Medical Guide for Ships (IMGS), which is published by the World Health
Organization (WHO), Geneva.
The Maritime Safety Committee adopted this revised text of the Guide in May
1998, for use in association with Amendment 30-00 of the IMDG Code, and will
be further amended as and when, necessary.
Table 1
RESCUE
Rescuers must be adequately protected from exposure before entering a
contaminated area in order to avoid injury.
When a chemical is unidentified, worst-case assumptions concerning toxicity
must be assumed.
ARRIVAL AT SCENE
Upon arrival at the scene, an initial assessment of the situation should be
made and the size of the incident should be determined.
Rescuers must NOT:
Enter a contaminated area without using a pressure-demand self-contained
breathing apparatus and wearing full protective clothing;
Enter an enclosed space unless they are trained members of a rescue team and
follow correct procedures;
Walk through any spilled materials;
Allow unnecessary contamination of equipment;
Attempt to recover shipping papers or manifests from contaminated area unless
adequately protected;
Apply neck and back support before moving casualty if there is any question of
neck or back trauma. Priority. Airway, Breathing, Circulation (A-B-C)
Initial management of Airway, Breathing and Circulation (A-B-C, see table 2) is
all that should be undertaken while there is potential for further injury to the
casualty or to response personnel.
Gross decontamination
If the casualty is contaminated with chemicals, gross decontamination should
be performed.
Cut away or remove all suspected contaminated clothing, including jewellery
and watches.
Brush or wipe off any obvious contamination.
Care should be taken to protect open wounds from contamination.
Every effort should be made by personnel to avoid contact with potentially
contaminated casualties. Rescuers should wear protective clothing, if
necessary.
Cover or wrap casualty to prevent spread of contamination.
Removal of casualties from exclusion zone
Once gross decontamination has been performed, the casualties should be
removed from the exclusion zone.
If casualties can walk, lead them out of the exclusion zone to an area where
decontamination and further evaluation can take place.
If casualties are unable to walk, remove them on stretchers. If stretchers are
unavailable, carefully carry or drag casualties to an area where
decontamination and further evaluation can take place.
DECONTAMINATION
Decontaminate from head down
Take care not to introduce contaminants into open wounds.
Decontaminate exposed wounds and eyes before intact skin areas.
Cover wounds with a waterproof dressing after decontamination.
indicate the packagings (including large packagings) which may be used for the
transport of substances and articles.
A code including the letter P refers to packing instructions for the use of
packagings described in IMDG Chapters 6.1, 6.2 or 6.3
A code including the letter LP refers to packing instructions for the use of large
packagings described in IMDG Chapters 6.6
A code including the letter BP refers to the bulk packagings described in IMDG
Chapters 4.3
When a code including the letters P, LP or BP is not provided, it means that
the substance is not allowed in that type of packaging.
When N/R is included in this column, it means that the substance or article
need not be packaged.
Column 9 Special packing provisions: This column contains alphanumeric
codes, which refer to the relevant special packing provisions specified in 4.1.4.
The special packing provisions indicate the packagings (including large
packagings).
A special packing provisions including the letters PP refers to a special packing
provision applicable to the use of a packing instruction bearing the code P in
4.1.4.1
A special packing provision including the letter L refers to a special packing
provision applicable to a packing instruction bearing the code LP in 4.1.4.3
out the location of all dangerous goods on board, may be used in place of such
a special list or manifest. A copy of one of these documents shall be made
available before departure to the person or organization designated by the port
State authority.
Cargo transport units, including freight containers, shall be loaded, stowed and
secured throughout the voyage in accordance with the Cargo Securing Manual
approved by the Administration. The Cargo Securing Manual shall be drawn up
to a standard at least equivalent to the guidelines developed by the IMO.
The above are as per SOLAS. If the duty officer feels that there is some
discrepancy between the document submitted and the markings on the cargo,
he is to stop loading and inform the Master.
If the packaging is suspect or if the duty officer feels that the packaging looks
worn out or is not sufficient then again he is to stop the loading and inform the
Master.
General fire precautions
The prevention of fire in a cargo of dangerous goods is achieved by practicing
good seamanship, observing in particular the following precautions:
I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
VI.
VIII.
SCBA
Non sparking footwear
Soft brushes and plastic trays to pick up spillage
Emergency procedures:
Wear non sparking footwear when dealing with spillage. Use SCBA and
protective clothing when dealing with a spillage of materials having a
subsidiary class 6.1 and or 8 label. Avoid sources of ignition naked lights,
unprotected light bulbs, electric hand tools, mechanical shock and friction.
Use SCBA and protective clothing when dealing with fire.
Understanding the nature of the precautions that have been laid down under
the EmS (Emergency Schedule) it is important to note that all the above
precautions need to be taken.
Regarding whether water is to be kept available with a charged hose, is
debatable as far as the cargo is concerned however the likelihood of other non
IMDG cargo catching fire does remain as such for the other cargo the fire
mains may be utilized.
Water if warranted by the IMDG code for the particular cargo may be used else
it should not be used unless shipper says it is OK to use water or to cover
spillage on deck with water.
Additionally fire extinguishers CO2 systems should be kept in readiness.
The ship generally loads this type of cargo last some ports have special
anchorages or berths where such cargo is loaded, thus it is necessary to have
the ship ready to leave berth in case of any fire. As such prior loading the ship
should be ready to sail at a short notice.Segregating of dangerous goods
Segregation
General
The provisions of this chapter should apply to all cargo spaces on deck or
under deck of all types of ships and to cargo transport units.
The International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS), 1974, as
amended, requires in regulation 6.1 of part A of chapter VII that incompatible
goods should be segregated from one another.
For the implementation of this requirement, two substances or articles are
considered mutually incompatible when their stowage together may result in
undue hazards in case of leakage or spillage, or any other accident.
The extent of the hazard arising from possible reactions between incompatible
dangerous goods may vary and so the segregation arrangements required
should also vary as appropriate. Such segregation is obtained by maintaining
certain distances between incompatible dangerous goods or by requiring the
presence of one or more steel bulkheads or decks between them, or a
combination thereof. Intervening spaces between such dangerous goods may
be filled with other cargo compatible with the dangerous substances in
question.
The following segregation terms are used throughout this Code:
Away from;
Separated from;
Separated by a complete compartment or hold from;
Separated longitudinally by an intervening complete compartment or hold
from.
The general provisions for segregation between the various classes of dangerous
goods are shown in the
segregation table.
In addition to the general provisions, there may be a need to segregate a
particular substance, material or article from other goods, which could
contribute to its hazard. Particular provisions for segregation are indicated in
the Dangerous Goods List and, in the case of conflicting provisions, always take
precedence over the general provisions.
For example:
In the Dangerous Goods List entry for ACETYLENE, DISSOLVED, class 2.1, UN
1001, the following particular segregation requirement is specified:
separated from chlorine
In the Dangerous Goods List entry for BARIUM CYANIDE, class 6.1, UN 1565,
the following particular
segregation is specified:
separated from acids
Where the Code indicates a single secondary hazard (one subsidiary risk label),
the segregation provisions applicable to that hazard should take precedence
where they are more stringent than those of the primary hazard.
Except for class 1, the segregation provisions for substances, materials or
articles having more than two hazards (2 or more subsidiary risk labels) are
given in the Dangerous Goods List.
In the Dangerous Goods List entry for BROMINE CHLORIDE, class 2.3, UN
2901, subsidiary risks 5.1 and 8, the following particular segregation is
specified:
segregation as for class 5.1 but separated from class 7.
Segregation of packages
Applicability
The provisions of this subsection apply to the segregation of:
packages containing dangerous goods and stowed in the conventional way;
dangerous goods within cargo transport units; and
dangerous goods stowed in the conventional way from those packed in such
cargo transport units.
Segregation of packages containing dangerous goods and stowed in the
conventional way
Definitions of the segregation terms Legend
Reference package - BLUE
Package containing incompatible goods - RED
Deck resistant to fire and liquid BOLD LINE
NOTE. Full vertical lines represent transverse bulkheads between cargo spaces
(compartments or holds) resistant to fire and liquid.
Away from:
Effectively segregated so that the incompatible goods cannot interact
dangerously in the event of an accident but may be transported in the same
compartment or hold or on deck, provided a minimum horizontal separation of
3 metres, projected vertically, is obtained.
Separated from:
In different compartments or holds when stowed under deck. Provided the
intervening deck is resistant to fire and liquid, a vertical separation i.e. in
different compartments, may be accepted as equivalent to this segregation. For
on deck stowage, this segregation means a separation by a distance of sit least
6 metres horizontally.
Securely closed: so closed that dry contents cannot escape during normal
handling; the minimum provisions for any closure.
General provisions for the packing of dangerous goods, other than goods
of classes 2, 6.2 or 7, in packagings, including Intermediate Bulk
Containers (IBCs) and large packagings
Dangerous goods should be packed in good quality packagings, including IBCs
and large packagings, which should be strong enough to withstand the shocks
and loadings normally encountered during transport, including trans-shipment
between cargo transport units and/or warehouses as well as any removal from
a pallet or overpack for subsequent manual or mechanical
handling. Packagings, including IBCs and large packagings, should be
constructed and closed so as to prevent any loss of contents when prepared for
transport, which might be caused under normal conditions of transport, by
vibration, or by changes in temperature, humidity or pressure (resulting from
altitude, for example). No dangerous residue should adhere to the outside of
packages, IBCs and large packagings during transport. These provisions apply,
as appropriate, to new, re-used, reconditioned or remanufactured packagings
and to new and re-used IBCs and large packagings.
Parts of packagings, including IBCs and large packagings, which are in direct
contact with dangerous goods:
.1 should not be affected or significantly weakened by those dangerous goods;
and
.2 should not cause a dangerous effect, such as catalyzing a reaction or
reacting with the dangerous goods.
Dangerous goods should not be packed together in the same outer packaging,
or in large packagings, with dangerous or other goods if they react dangerously
with each other and cause:
.1
.2
.3
.4
.2
.3
.4
.5
Liquids may only be filled into inner packagings which have an appropriate
resistance to internal pressure that may be developed under normal conditions
of transport. Where pressure may develop in a package by the emission of gas
from the contents (as a result of temperature increase or other cause), the
packaging may be fitted with a vent, provided that the gas emitted will not
cause danger on account of its toxicity, its flammability, the quantity released,
etc. The vent should be so designed that, when the packaging is in the attitude
in which it is intended to be transported, leakages of liquid and the penetration
of foreign matter are prevented under normal conditions of transport.
Empty packagings, including IBCs and large packagings, that have contained a
dangerous substance should be treated in the same manner as is required by
this Code for a filled packaging, unless adequate measures have been taken to
nullify any hazard.
Every packaging, including IBCS, intended to contain liquids should
successfully undergo a suitable leak proofness test, and be capable of meeting
the appropriate test level indicated in IMDG code for the various types of IBCs:
.1 before it is first used for transport;
.2 after remanufacturing or reconditioning of any packaging, before it is reused for transport;
.3 after the repair of any IBC, before it is re-used for transport.
For this test, the packaging, or IBC, need not have its closures fitted. The inner
receptacle of a composite packaging or IBC may be tested without the outer
packaging, provided the test results are not affected. This test is not necessary
for inner packagings of combination packagings or large packagings.
Packagings, including IBCS, used for solids which may become liquid at
temperatures likely to be encountered during transport should also be capable
of containing the substance in the liquid state.
Packagings, including IBCS, used for powdery or granular substances should
be sift-proof or should be provided with a liner.
Explosives, self-reactive substances and organic peroxides
Unless specific provision to the contrary is made in this Code, the packagings,
including IBCs and large packagings, used for goods of class 1, self-reactive
substances of class 4.1 and organic peroxides of class 5.2 should comply with
the provisions for the medium danger group (packing group 11).
Use of salvage packagings
Damaged, defective or leaking packages or dangerous goods that have spilled or
leaked may be transported in special salvage packagings. This does not
prevent- the use of a bigger size of packagings of appropriate type and
performance level.
During transport, packagings, including IBCs and large packagings, should be
securely fastened to or contained within the cargo transport unit, so that
lateral or longitudinal movement or impact is prevented and adequate external
support is provided.
PP
for IBCs
Column 8 of the Dangerous Goods List shows for each article or substance the
packing instructions) that should be used. Column 9 indicates the special
packing provisions applicable to specific substances or articles.
Each packing instruction shows, where applicable, the acceptable single and
combination packagings. For combination packagings, the acceptable outer
packagings, inner packagings and, when applicable, the maximum quantity
permitted in each inner or outer packaging are shown. Maximum net mass and
maximum capacity are as defined in chapter 1.2.1.
Where the packing instructions in this chapter authorize the use of a
particular type of outer packaging in a combination packaging (such as 4G),
packagings bearing the same packaging identification code followed by the
letters V, U or W marked in accordance with the provisions of part 6 (such
as 4GV, 4GU or 4GW) may also be used under the same conditions and
limitations applicable to the use of that type of outer packaging according to
the relevant packing instructions. For example, a combination packaging
marked with the packaging code 4GV may be used whenever a combination
packaging marked 4G is authorized, provided the provisions in the relevant
packing instruction regarding types of inner packagings and quantity
limitations are respected.
The capacity of gas cylinders should not exceed 450 litres. The capacity for gas
receptacles should not exceed 1000 litres.
case fumigation is carried out prior loading then the compartment has to be
swept and again inspected for any dead insects and rodents. The fumigant used
should be compatible with the cargo to be carried.
For loading of Rice the fumigation may be carried out twice prior loading and
on completion of discharging.
The inspection for infestation should be very thorough since apart from later
claims, some ports especially in the US, the USDA inspectors would have to
clear the ship for loading and these inspectors are known to be very
thorough.
Shifting of cargo
Certain bulk cargos have a tendency to shift and precautions must be taken to
counteract this tendency. These precautions are dealt with below:
Recommendation are made about the stowage of the cargo:
Weight =
db (3L+B)
tonnes
4.6
where d is the summer load draft
b is average breadth of lower hold
L is length of lower hold
B is the maximum moulded breadth
The height of the cargo pile peak should not exceed:
1.89 x d x S. F. (m3/tonne) metres
Angle of repose
This is the greatest angle from the horizontal to which a substance can be
raised without it shifting. Cargoes most liable to shift are those having a small
angler of repose.
Angle of repose of 35 is taken as being the dividing line for bulk cargoes of
lesser or greater shifting hazard and cargoes having angles of repose of more or
less than this figure are considered separately.
Trimming
In compartments entirely filled with bulk grain the grain shall be trimmed so
as to fill all the spaces between the beams and in the wings and ends. In
compartments partly filled with bulk grain the grain shall be levelled whenever
practicable.
The provision of a shifting boards or longitude bulkheads within 5% of the
vessels moulded breadth from the centre line or two or more longitudinal
bulkheads or shifting boards with a distance between of not more than 60% of
the vessels moulded breadth. In the latter case suitable sized trimming
hatches are to be provided in the wings at intervals of not more than 7.62m.,
the end hatches being not more than 3.66m from transverse bulkheads.
In holds the shifting boards must extend downwards from the deck at least 2.
44m or depth of hold whichever is the greater. In tween decks and in
feeders, unless there is some exemption they must extend from deck to deck. If
the compartment is only partly filled with grain, the shifting boards must
extend from the bottom of the compartment to at 0.6m above the surface of the
bulk grain, however no shifting boards are necessary if the bulk grain does not
occupy more than of the hold or of the hold where there is a shaft tunnel.
The Shifting boards must not be less than 50mm in thickness and are to have
a 80mm housing at the bulkhead. They must be adequately supported by
wood minimum size 250mm x 50mm or metal uprights with a maximum
spacing of 3.96mm and set in 80mm housings top and bottom. The jointing of
50mm shifting boards must overlap by at least 230mm in way of the uprights.
If the uprights are made sufficiently strong and the length is not too great,
shoring or staying may be unnecessary. If wood shores are used they must be
in a single piece securely fixed at each end and heeled against the permanent
structure of the ship, but not directly against the side plating. The angle
between the shore and the horizontal should be kept as small as possible and
must never exceed 45.
The size of the shore is dependent upon its length; a shore over 6.1m in length
would be at least 200m x 150mm. If stays are used they will be fitted
horizontally and will consist of 75mm 6 x 12 galvanised flexible steel wire
rope, secured with 25mm shackles to uprights and frames and fitted with
32mm rigging screws in accessible positions.
If the uprights are not secured at the top, the uppermost shore or stay is to be
not less than 0.46m from the top.
The vertical spacing of the shores or stays is obtained from tables in the rules.
GM
If a GM after correction for FSC of not less than 0.31m is maintained
throughout the voyage in one or two deck ships or 0.36m in other ships
longitudinal bulkheads or shifting boards are not required in the following
positions, (except when linseed in bulk is being carried therein)
Below and within 2.13m of a feeder which contains not less than 5% of the
quantity of grain in the space it feeds, but only in way a hatchway,
In feeders as above provided that the free grain surface will remain within the
feeders throughout the voyage allowing for a sinkage of 2% of the volume of the
compartment fed and a shift of the free grain surface to 12,
In way of the hatchway where the bulk grain has been saucered, provided that
the hatchway is filled with bagged grain or other suitable bagged cargo. The
minimum depth of the bagged cargo in the centre of the saucer to be 1.83m
below the deck level. The grains to be stored tightly up to the deck head in the
other parts of the compartment,
In way of a hatchway in a compartment partly filled with bulk grain.
boards. This latter height is also required when the bulk grain does not occupy
more than 1/3 of the hold or of the hold where there is a shaft tunnel.
The bagged grain shall be carried in sound bags, which shall be securely closed
and well filled. The bags or other suitable cargo shall be supported on suitable
platforms which consist of strong separation cloths with adequate overlapping
or 25mm boards spaced not more that 100mm apart laid on bearers not more
than 1.22m apart.
Feeders are to be fitted to feed compartments entirely filled with bulk grain,
except in deep tanks not over moulded breadth of vessel in case GM c
above.
They are to contain not less than 2% of the quantity of grain carried in the
compartment, which they feed. The boarding may be horizontal or vertical but
must be sufficiently supported by binders, shores or stays as laid down in the
rules. Feeding holes are to be provided about 0.61m apart in coamings, which
extend more that 0.39m below the deck. The diameter of the hole is 50mm or
88mm depending on coaming depth. Feeders are assumed to be capable of
feeding a distance of 7.62m.
If any part of the compartment is more that 7.62m (measured in a fore and aft
line) from the nearest feeder, the grain in the space beyond 7.62m is to be
levelled off at a depth of at least 1.83m below the deck and the space above is
to be filled with bagged grain or suitable cargo.
Loading two different cargoes in the same hold
Very occasionally, different types of grain are loaded into the same hold. The
heavier grain is loaded first and trimmed level over the entire area of the hold.
The surface is covered with separation cloths/ canvas, allowing for ample
overlaps, at least 1m. The cloths are carried well up the sides and ends of the
compartment so that the next grain loaded will force them against the plating
between the frames and stiffeners, it has to be ensured that adequate leeway is
allowed for the separation cloth being taken up the sides and ends of the
compartment, since the lower cargo would settle down during the voyage and if
this leeway is not allowed for the cloth would exert a pull and tear off from the
side moorings. This would result in the cargo being mixed.
The lighter grain should be loaded carefully at first to avoid displacing the
separation cloths. Once the lighter cargo has been leveled off to a height of
0.5m all over the loading may begin at the usual rate, care being taken to see
that it is constantly leveled by adjusting the loading chute inflow direction.
When bulk grain is carried in the tween deck of a two deck ship or in the
upper tween deck of a ship having more than two decks or above deck the
following are to be complied with:
Either the GM shall not be less than that specified in paragraph GM or the
total quantity of bulk grain or other cargo carried in the specified space shall
not exceed 28% by weight of the total cargo below the tween deck.
Partly filled deck area in the above space is not to exceed 93m2,
The spaces which contain bulk grain are to be divided into lengths of not more
than 30.5m by transverse bulkheads, or if not so divided the excess space
beyond 30.5m is to be entirely filled with bagged grain or other suitable cargo.
Vessels having a GM less than that specified in paragraph GM are not
permitted to have more than two holds or compartments partly filled with bulk
grain wherein the overstowing cargo does not fill the space to the deck head.
Feeders are not compartments and so they are exempted from this
requirement.
Double bottom tanks used to meet a stability requirement are to be adequately
subdivided longitudinally unless the width of the tank at its length does not
exceed 60% of the vessels moulded breadth.
The major purpose of the sections of this Code dealing with these cargoes is to
draw the attention of masters and others to the latent risk of cargo shift, and to
describe the precautions deemed necessary to minimize this risk.
Such cargoes may appear to be relatively dry and granular when loaded, but
may contain sufficient moisture as to become fluid under the stimulus of
compaction and the vibration that occurs during a voyage.
In the resulting viscous fluid state, cargo may flow to one side of the ship when
it rolls one way, but not completely return when it rolls the other. Thus, the
ship sways progressively until it reaches a dangerous heel and capsizes.
To prevent subsequent shifting, and also to decrease the effects of oxidation of
material with a predisposition to oxidize, these cargoes should be trimmed
reasonably level on completion of loading, irrespective of the angle of repose.
Before a solid bulk cargo is loaded or unloaded, the master and the terminal
representative shall agree on a plan* which shall ensure that the permissible
forces and moments on the ship are not exceeded during loading or unloading,
and shall include the sequence, quantity and rate of loading or unloading,
taking into consideration the speed of loading or unloading, the number of
pours and the de-ballasting or ballasting capability of the ship. The plan and
any subsequent amendments thereto shall be lodged with the appropriate
authority of the port State.
Bulk cargoes shall be loaded and trimmed reasonably level, as necessary, to
the boundaries of the cargo space so as to minimize the risk of shifting and to
ensure that adequate stability will be maintained throughout the voyage.
When bulk cargoes are carried in tween-decks, the hatchways of such tweendecks shall be closed in those cases where the loading information indicates an
unacceptable level of stress of the bottom structure if the hatchways are left
open. The cargo shall be trimmed reasonably level and shall either extend from
side to side or be secured by additional longitudinal divisions of sufficient
strength. The safe load-carrying capacity of the tween-decks shall be observed
to ensure that the deck-structure is not overloaded.
The master and terminal representative shall ensure that loading and
unloading operations are conducted in accordance with the agreed plan.
If during loading or unloading any of the limits of the ship are exceeded or are
likely to become so if the loading or unloading continues, the master has the
right to suspend operation and the obligation to notify accordingly the
appropriate authority of the port State with which the plan has been lodged.
The master and the terminal representative shall ensure that corrective action
is taken. When unloading cargo, the master and terminal representative shall
ensure that the unloading method does not damage the ships structure.
The master shall ensure that ships personnel continuously monitor cargo
operations. Where possible, the ships draught shall be checked regularly
during loading or unloading to confirm the tonnage figures supplied. Each
draught and tonnage observation shall be recorded in a cargo logbook. If
significant deviations from the agreed plan are detected, cargo or ballast
operations or both shall be adjusted to ensure that the deviations are
corrected.
At a moisture content above that of the transportable moisture limit, shift of
cargo may occur as a result of liquefaction.
Many cargoes may appear to be relatively dry and granular when loaded, but
may contain sufficient moisture as to become fluid under the stimulus of
compaction and the vibration that occurs during a voyage.
In the resulting viscous fluid state, cargo may flow to one side of the ship when
it rolls one way, but not completely return when it rolls the other. Thus, the
ship way progressively reaches a dangerous heel and capsize.
Ships other than specialist suited ones shall carry only those cargoes having a
moisture content that is not in excess of the transportable moisture limit as
defined in this Code.
Specially suited ships
Specially suited ships may carry concentrates having a moisture content in
excess of the transportable moisture limit if the ship possesses a valid
document of approval from her administration, accompanied by such stability
information as her administration may require. The document of approval must
If the master has doubts as regards the appearance of condition of the cargo for
safe shipment, the following auxiliary method may be used on board ship or at
the dockside to perform a check test for approximately determining the
possibility of flow:
Half fill a cylindrical can or similar container (0.5-1 litre capacity) with a
sample of cargo. Take the can in one hand and bring it down sharply from a
height of about 0.2m to strike a hard surface such as a solid table. Repeat the
procedure twenty-five times at one or two second intervals. Examine the
surface for free moisture or fluid conditions. If free moisture or a fluid condition
appears, make arrangements to have additional laboratory tests on the cargo
conducted before it is accepted for loading.
path for air to flow to the smaller coal where the spontaneous heating is most
liable to occur.
Most coal fires in cargo occur at about tween deck level and this is the area
where the greatest attention should be paid to temperature and the restriction
of through ventilation.
hull, and thereby the interior of the tween decks and holds, as cool as possible
is manifest.
The iron decks of ships carrying coal in the tropics can be covered with
dunnage to lessen heating.
Suitable means should be provided for ascertaining from time to time the
temperature of the lower mass of coal, particularly below the hatchways, and
this might be done by means of two pipes leading down to the bottom of the
coal at each hatchway.
The temperature tubes should have closed ends to prevent admission of air into
the cargo. The temperature of the coal at three heights should be taken daily.
Gas from the holds or tween decks space may find its way into shaft, peaks,
chain lockers or similar space unless the bulkheads and casings are
maintained in gas tight conditions.
Naked lights should not be used in holds or other spaces in which gas may
accumulate until the spaces have been well ventilated.
Full use should, when necessary, be made of the breathing apparatus or smoke
helmet and the safety lamp, which form part of the ships statutory fire
appliances.
The employment of the crew in chipping and painting below decks during the
voyage should be avoided. The danger from smoking should be realized and no
oily waste, wood, old rope, sacking etc. should be left below where it can
become ignited by spontaneous heating
On arrival at the port of discharge the hold ventilators should be unplugged
and the lower hold well ventilated before commencing to work cargo.
Coal is frequently loaded from a single tip and earlier it was necessary to drift
the vessel fore and aft so that all holds may be filled. To keep these shifts to a
minimum No.2 was first put under the tip.
After about one third the capacity of the hold was loaded the vessel was shifted
so that No. 3 was loaded to about one third of its capacity. Likewise the
remaining after holds were loaded and then the tip was shifted astern to reach
No. 1, half the capacity was put in, before shifting to No. 2, which was then
filled.
The other after holds were now filled in order excepting the aftermost. The
aftermost hold and the No.1 were now worked so that the vessel would
complete loading in a good trim.
Coal is sometimes graded, when this in so, care should be taken to prevent
undue breakage.
Lowering the first few truckloads into the hold helps as do control of the rate of
tipping down and chute.
Some ports have conveyor belts and an endless bucket system for loading; this
is excellent for graded coal and also keeps the dust down with the ordinary
coal.
Fortunately it is mainly the better coals, which are graded, and in generally
these are not so friable.
Coal will need to be trimmed and its angle of repose is quite high, especially if
large coal is loaded.
There is no danger for coal shifting unless it is the very small stuff known as
mud coal, slurry or duff.
This is very fine coal, almost dust, and if the moisture content is high it
behaves almost like a liquid.
Deck Cargo
Cargo which are normally carried on deck include the following but are not
limited to these and many exceptional cargoes may be carried and also have
been carried in the past.
Dangerous cargo IMDG cargo not permitted on deck
Large packages which due to any size restriction may have to be loaded on to
the deck
The above includes engineering or construction equipment
Odd size package
Where the bulk volume far exceeds the weight of the cargo knocked down
bridges, port equipment not easily liable to weather damage.
Occasionally livestock in limited numbers
Onions or other perishables short voyages with the weather holding
Yachts luxury boats.
Cast iron goods man hole covers pipes.
The list is endless and it all depends on the routes, the trading pattern and the
weather.
The cargo whether on deck or under deck stow has to be stowed well and the
cargo should be prevented from moving and gaining enough momentum to part
lashings and damage the ship structure.
Deck cargo is liable to damage itself fall overboard and thus be lost. However
the misery does not stop here in the act of parting lashing and going overboard
the deck cargo unleashes considerable damage to the ship structure as well as
the crewmembers.
Small apparently insignificant items such as sounding pipes and air pipes are
often torn out and this may endanger the ship from the resulting chances of
flooding lower down compartments.
Crewmembers ordered to lash cargo where the lashings have parted have been
seriously injured and some have lost lives combating the shifting cargo.
The point is to have a good solid stow prevent the cargo from shifting and
gaining momentum with the shift. Since this would part any strong lashing.
The lashing undertaken should be for the worst sea condition that may be
experienced.
Deck cargo loading on top of hatch covers should be carefully planned. All
loading of under deck spaces should have been completed lashing may
continue with portable lights.
The hatch covers should be closed and battened down all side wedges as well
as cross wedges (centre wedges) should have been fitted. With the hatch cover
sealed for sea, the space should then be given out for loading of deck cargo.
The permissible load density of the hatch covers should be checked and
timbers laid to spread the weight of the cargo. The load density of the hatch
covers are given for a new vessel and as the ship ages the load density would
reduce due to fatigue of the metal as well as wear and tear. Thus the utmost
need to spread the weight using timber.
Shoring and toming of the hatch cover from below deck is practically useless
since the hatch cover moves/ slides somewhat with the motion of the ship.
The height of the cargo on the hatch covers as well as that on deck should not
be so high that the view is obstructed from the Navigating Bridge.
The above photographs show the extent of the weight that Ice accumulation
can pose for a ship. The weight on deck may eventually lead a ship to progress
to a condition of angle of loll.
The weight of the ice may be in excess of a hundred tonnes, and thus the
danger of a ship regarding stability.
As with the above any deck cargo for that matter would have a very high KG as
such the GM (F) would be quite small. Especially in the case of GC vessels,
which do not have a very large GM (F) the loading of deck cargo, is bound to
lead to further loss of GM (F). If the ship loads the deck cargo with her own
gear then the ship would during the loading operation have still further low GM
(F) due to the KG of the load being at the top of the derrick/ crane for part of
the loading sequence.
Containers on deck
Containers when they are loaded on deck are subject to the following
consideration barring stability, which would have been planned for.
The load density of the deck
Spreading the load of the container evenly
Chocking the container base to prevent shifting due to rolling or pitching
Lashing the container for the above as well to prevent the container from being
bodily lifted.
Placing the containers in as close a group as possible
Safeguarding the sounding pipes and the air pipes within the periphery of the
container space.
Keeping the fire hose boxes clear as well as the passage leading to them, the
fire hydrants should similarly be kept clear.
No lashing should be taken which would damage or cause to be damaged the
fire lines.
Checking that the leads for the lashing wires are adequate as well as that the
chocking points are well supported
Keeping a passage for crew members to check the lashings during g voyage.
In general the close stow is difficult on GC vessels where the container is
usually loaded between the hatch coaming and the bulwark. So the container
should be loaded as close as possible to the hatch coaming, as well as close to
the Mast House structure. If few containers are being loaded then the shelter
offered by the Mast House structure should be kept in mind.
The load is spread by having the container loaded onto timbers at least 4 x 4.
The timbers should be extended to well beyond the shoe of the container in all
directions to spread the load. Once this is done the chocking of the container is
started. Again heavy timbers are used and the container is first secured to
prevent any lateral and transverse shifting. While selecting chocking points all
heavy framework should be selected. Bulwark stays are not strengthened
enough to be used as chocking points. Hatch coamings may be used and as a
last resort bulwark stays. After the chocking is completed the container is
lashed. The lashing is further to prevent the longitudinal as well as the
transverse shifting. For this the base shoes offer the best lashing points. To
prevent the container being bodily shifted out the lashings are continued to the
top shoes.
All lashing should be separate in the sense that a single lashing wire should
not be passed over a few shoes and then lashed at the final point. Each lashing
should have a turnbuckle or bottle screw incorporated and there should be at
least 60% free thread in them after completion of lashing.
The bottom lashing and the top lashing should not be counted together fore the
purpose of assessing the total number of lashings taken for the container.
The top lashings are for bodily rise and as such should be counted separately.
As a thumb rule, if the SWL of the lashing wire is 2T then to lash the top of a
20T container the number of lashings should be a minimum of 10 (all well
positioned), similarly the bottom should have 10. The bottom lashings may be
reduced depending upon the chocking of the container and the availability of
the lashing point.
Note that a single strong point for lashing should not have more than 2 lashing
wires the preferred would be 1, however it is often impossible to find so many
lashing points.
This shows a container ship lashing; note that the container is loaded onto the
ship shoe slots which are strengthened, the rod lashings are only for the top of
the containers.
Here the bottom shoes are not lashed since the ships sunken shoes and twist
locks effectively chock and lash the bottom of the container.
Stowage and Lashing of Timber deck cargoes as laid down by IMO code of
Safe Practice for Ships Carrying Timber Deck Cargoes
Purpose
This recommendation may not apply to all ships and the master should take
into consideration the stability information obtained from the ships stability
manual.
STOWAGE
General
Before timber deck cargo is loaded on any area of the weather deck:
Hatch covers and other openings to spaces below that area should be securely
closed and battened down;
Air pipes and ventilators should be efficiently protected and check valves or
similar devices should be examined to ascertain their effectiveness against the
entry of water;
Accumulations of ice and snow on such area should be removed; and
It is normally preferable to have all deck lashings, uprights, etc., in position
before loading on that specific area. This will be necessary should a preloading
examination of securing equipment be required in the loading port.
The timber deck cargo should be so stowed that:
Safe and satisfactory access to the crews quarters, pilot boarding access,
machinery spaces and all other areas regularly used in the necessary working
of the ship is provided at all times;
Where relevant, openings that give access to the areas can be properly closed
and secured against the entry of water;
Safety equipment, devices for remote operation of valves and sounding pipes
are left accessible; and
It is compact and will not interfere in any way with the navigation and
necessary working of the ship.
During loading, the timber deck cargo should be kept free of any
accumulations of ice and snow.
Upon completion of loading, and before sailing, a thorough inspection of the
ship should be carried out. Soundings should also be taken to verify that no
structural damage has occurred causing an ingress of water.
On ships provided with, and making use of, their timber load line, the timber
deck cargo should be stowed so as to extend:
.1 over the entire available length of the well or wells between superstructures
and as close as practicable to end bulkheads;
.2 at least to the after end of the aftermost hatchway in the case where there is
no limiting superstructure at the aft end;
.3 athwartships as close as possible to the ship sides, after making due
allowance for obstructions such as guard rails, bulwark stays, uprights, pilot
boarding access, etc., provided any area of broken stowage thus created at the
side of the ship does not exceed a mean of 4% of the breadth; and
.4 to at least the standard height of a superstructure other than a raised
quarterdeck.
The basic principle for the safe carriage of any timber deck cargo is a solid
stowage during all stages of the deck loading. This can only be achieved by
constant supervision by shipboard personnel during the loading process.
SECURING
General
Every lashing should pass over the timber deck cargo and be shackled to eye
plates and adequate for the intended purpose and efficiently attached to the
If wire rope clips are used to make a joint in a wire lashing, the following
conditions should be observed to avoid a significant reduction in strength:
.1 the number and size of rope clips utilized should be in proportion to the
diameter of the wire rope and should not be less than four, each spaced at
intervals of not less than 15 cm;
.2 the saddle portion of the clip should be applied to the live load segment and
the U-bolt to the dead or shortened end segment;
.3 rope clips should be initially tightened so that they visibly penetrate into the
wire rope and subsequently be retightened after the lashing has been stressed.
Greasing the threads of grips, clips, shackles and turnbuckles increases their
holding capacity and prevents corrosion.
Uprights
Uprights should be fitted when required by the nature, height or character of
the timber deck cargo.
When uprights are fitted, they should:
.1 be made of steel or other suitable material of adequate strength, taking into
account the breadth of the deck cargo;
.2 be spaced at intervals not exceeding 3 m;
.3 be fixed to the deck by angles, metal sockets or equally sufficient means; and
.4 if deemed necessary, be further secured by a metal bracket to a strengthened
point, i.e., bulwark, hatch coaming.
Loose or packaged sawn timber
The timber deck cargo should be secured throughout its length by independent
lashings.
The dual continuous wire rope should be led to a winch or other tensioning
device to facilitate further tightening.
Testing, examination and certification
All lashings and components used for the securing of the timber deck cargo
should be tested, marked and certified according to national regulations or an
appropriate standard of an internationally recognized standards institute.
Copies of the appropriate certificate should be kept on board.
No treatments, which could hide defects or reduce mechanical properties or
strength, should be applied after testing.
A visual examination of lashings and components should be made at intervals
not exceeding 12 months.
A visual examination of all securing points on the ship, including those on the
uprights, if fitted, should be performed before loading the timber deck cargo.
Any damage should be satisfactorily repaired.
Lashing plans
One or more lashing plans complying with the recommendations of this Code
should be provided and maintained on board a ship carrying timber deck
cargo.
Personnel Protection And Safety Devices
During the course of the voyage, if there is no convenient passage for the crew
on or below the deck of the ship giving safe means of access from the
accommodation to all parts used in the necessary working of the ship, guard
lines or rails, not more than 330 mm apart vertically, should be provided on
each side of the deck cargo to a height of at least 1 m above the cargo. In
addition, a lifeline, preferably wire rope, set up taut with a tightening device
should be provided as near as practicable to the centreline of the ship. The
stanchion supports to all guard rails or lifelines should be spaced so as to
prevent undue sagging. Where the cargo is uneven, a safe walking surface of
not less than 600 mm in width should be fitted over the cargo and effectively
secured beneath, or adjacent to, the lifeline.
Where uprights are not fitted, a walkway of substantial construction should be
provided having an even walking surface and consisting of two fore and aft sets
of guard lines or rails about 1 m apart, each having a minimum of three
courses of guard lines or rails to a height of not less than 1 m above the
walking surface. Such guard lines or rails should be supported by rigid
stanchions spaced not more than 3 m apart and lines should be set up taut by
tightening device.
As an alternative a lifeline, preferably wire rope may be erected above the
timber deck cargo such that a crewmember equipped with a fall protection
system can hook onto and work about the timber deck cargo. The lifeline
should be:
.1 erected about 2 m above the timber deck cargo as near as practicable to the
centreline of the ship;
.2 stretched sufficiently taut with a tightening device to support a fallen
crewmember without collapse or failure.
Properly constructed ladders, steps or ramps fitted with guard lines or
handrails should be provided from the top of the cargo to the deck, and in
other cases where the cargo is stepped, in order to provide reasonable access.
Action To Be Taken During The Voyage
Tightening of lashings
It is of paramount importance that all lashings be carefully examined and
tightened at the beginning of the voyage as the vibration and working of the
ship will cause the cargo to settle and compact. They should be further
examined at regular intervals during the voyage and tightened as necessary.
Entries of all examinations and adjustments to lashings should be made in the
ships logbook.
Container Cargo
Sea Containers were invented in the mid 1950s by Malcolm McLean, a North
Carolina trucking owner who grew tired of wasting his trucking companys time
with trucks standing idle in line as ships were unloaded bit by bit by
dockworkers.
McLean developed sealed truck trailers and the concept of loading and
unloading the trailer interiors only at the points of origin and destination.
The first ship modified to accept these containers on deck, sailed with 58 of
them from New York to Houston in April 1956. This was the start of McLeans
company, the Sea-Land Corporation.
The Matson Line (Hawaii) put the first fully containerized ship into service in
1960.
The International Standards Organization (ISO) first established container
standards in 1961. The ISO standard is not prescriptive and instead simply
stipulates tests that the containers must pass.
Modern container ships have only one problem when the ship arrives in port,
the object is to unload the containers quickly to get them on to their final
destination and to get the container ships back out to sea fully loaded heading
for the next port.
To accomplish this, container ships are equipped with steel skeletons called
cell guides.
A special lifting fixture is used with remote actuators, which engage the corner
blocks on the top of the container.
A recent survey indicates that port crane operators can execute full crane
cycles to remove and position containers at rates of between 30 and 60 boxes
per hour.
Containers come in two basic sizes 20 Footer and 40 Footer and are
commonly known as TEU (Twenty Equivalent Units) and FEU (Forty Equivalent
Units).
The external body of the container is made of corrugated sheet metal and is not
capable of taking any load. The four corners have shoes and are strengthened
to take in load.
The inside bottom has a wooden ceiling. There are weather-insulted vents
provided to facilitate venting.
The weights marked on the containers are TARE weight and LADEN weight.
TARE weight is the weight of the empty container and is usually 2200KGS for a
TEU, while the LADEN weight may be anything from 20000KGS to 32000KGS
(strengthened steel construction).
The container shoes fitted at the corners are hollow with 5 oval slots to
facilitate the fitting of container fittings as well as for lifting the container
either by using conventional wire slings or by spreaders.
Since the containers are concentrated weights the loading of the same require
special heavy dunnaging to spread the load evenly over the deck if carried as
deck cargo on conventional general cargo ships.
However the carriage of containers are primarily on container ships or on
ships, which have been built to take in general cargo as well as containers to a
limited extent.
Lashing of containers on purpose ships are supplied from reputed lashing
makers and have been tested for the loads they are to lash. Various fittings are
used and all of these are generally carried on board.
Base stacker
Stacker
Twist Lock
Double
Twist Lock
Bar
Side Stack
Bridge Fitting
Rod Lashing
Spacer Stacker
Today a variety of cargo which previously was thought could only be loaded
onto a general cargo ship, is transported on container ships. An example is a
tank, thus small parcels of liquid is carried on container ships.
Lashing of containers is very important since a typical container ship has a low
GM(F), consequently the ship rolls quite a bit and the stresses developed by the
cargo swaying is liable to break the lashings and put the containers into the
sea.
All lashings are to be done following the ships lashing manual. In general the
following is a typical lashing system, others may also be accepted if permitted
by the manual.
Oil Tanker
A tanker is a specialized ship intended for the carriage of bulk liquid cargo. An
Oil tanker again is further divided into 2 basic types, namely Crude Oil Tanker
and Product Oil Tanker.
For both of the above the cargo of oil is carried within the tanks similar to the
holds of other ships, the difference being that the bulkheads are extra
strengthened to take in the load, and the hatch or rather the tank openings are
very small, the sole purpose of having them is for Man Entry and for small
repair work in the dry docks.
The cargo of oil is loaded on to the ships tanks by pipelines, which are fixed on
the ship (permanent structure), the shore pipelines are connected to the ships
pipelines at the manifold on either side of the ship. Note that some special
ships also have manifolds at the bow and at the stern.
The shore pipelines may be connected using flexible steel rimmed rubber hoses
(small ports/ Ship to ship transfers/ SBM) the flexible come in small lengths
are connected to each other to make them long pieces.
The shore pipelines may also be connected with rigid loading arms also called
chiksons, which are remotely controlled and take in the roll of the ship to a
certain extent but the fore and aft movement of the ship has to be kept to a
minimum.
The combined pipeline system of the shore and the ship deliver the oil to the
cargo oil tanks directly via the drop lines. These are as the name suggests
pipelines, which drop to the bottom of the tanks vertically from the pipeline on
deck thus bypassing the pump room.
There are various cross- over valves, which are opened in order to load a group
of tanks.
The shore system starts to pump/ delivers by gravity (some Persian Gulf ports)
at a slow rate, so that any leakages can be detected and to check whether the
right tank is receiving the oil or not, once the shore and the shipside are
satisfied the pumping loading of the cargo is increased. In case of any
subsequent leakages that are detected the ship valves should not be shut
abruptly, rather the shore has to be informed first and then only the ship
valves are to shut, this to prevent pressure surge from bursting the pipelines.
To prevent this surge from affecting the pipelines the cargo valves have set
times at which they close this depends on the size of the valves typically a
550mm valve would shut at about 24 seconds, whereas a 250mm valve would
shut at 6-8 seconds.
After the ship completes her loading the stage is set for the unloading or
discharging operation.
While loading the cargo had by passed the pump room, now however the cargo
from the tanks is allowed to flow to the pump room through the bottom
pipelines. Just within the pumproom and at the pumproom bulkhead are
situated isolation valves known as Bulkhead Master valves, by opening the
valves the oil is led to the pump suction valve and on opening that the oil flows
to the centrifugal pumps. Turbines, which are situated in the Engine Room,
commonly drive these pumps; the shaft penetrates the ER bulkhead and drives
the pump situated at the bottom of the pumproom.
The pump accelerates the flow of the oil into the discharge pipeline and this oil
is thus led on the deck pipelines and to the manifold from where it flow
through the flexible pipeline or the hard loading arm to the shore pipeline
system.
The Pump Room
This is a cofferdam kind of space in fact it is accepted as a cofferdam, which
begins on main deck and ends at the keel.
It may have more than 2 decks, however these decks are not normally solid
decks but are partial decks made of expanded metal, so you are able to see
right to the bottom.
There would be a companionway leading from the top to the next deck and so
on right to the bottom.
At the lowermost deck are situated the Cargo Oil Pumps (COPs). The numbers
of pumps vary in number for crude oil tankers it is normal to have 4 pumps,
three being used at any one time.
For product oil tankers the number of pumps depend on the number of grade
of oil that the ship is capable of carrying.
So if the ship can carry 4 grades of oil then she would be having 4 pumps.
Once the gravity flow to the COPs is not possible the stripped pumps are
started, these pumps are of the reciprocating type and have great capacity to
create partial vacuum to suck out the remaining oil from the tanks. Again on a
product oil tanker the number of stripped pumps would be equal to the
number of grades of oil that it can carry.
Earlier on Crude oil carrier there would be stripper pumps of the reciprocating
type however today largely eductors are used to remove the remaining oil from
the tank. Generally 2 eductors are provided on each crude oil tanker. However
1 stripper pump is always provided to strip the cargo lines of any residual oil
and to pump the same to the shore system.
The pumproom is a hazardous area as such the light fittings are gas tight and
only tanker safety torches are used. The ventilation system is of the exhaust
type and has intakes from all the levels with the intakes being fitted with
closing devices so that if required only a certain level can be evacuated.
Hydrocarbon gases being heavier than air tend to settle at the bottom of the
pumproom as such the main exhaust are always from the bottom level.
The pumproom lighting is devised in such a way that the lights do not come on
unless the ventilation has been started and is kept on for 15 minutes.
Picture shows the main deck layout of a Product tanker (capable of carrying 4
grades of oil):
The above shows the location of the drop valves; drop lines, line master,
bulkhead master and the bottom lines.
Cargo Oil Pumps (COP)
A centrifugal pump, in the pumproom bottom platform. The dark green pipeline
is the discharge line. The pump consists of an impeller which rotates within the
casing. Due to this rotation which is generally about 1000 1700 rpm the oil is
speeded up and this increase in velocity causes the oil to flow out at a great
pressure. These pumps are capable of delivering a very high rate of discharge
(up to 4000 m3/hr). With this type of pump the level of oil has to be above the
pump as such the pump is situated at the bottom of the pump room.
The turbines are driven by superheated steam from the boiler in the ER.
Basically there are three systems of pipelines found on tankers, and the fourth
system being the free flow system found on large crude carriers
Ring Main System
Direct line system
Single line to Single tank system (Chemical/Product ship)
Free Flow system
Ring Main System:
This system is mainly found on crude oil carriers where up to 3 grades of cargo
can be carried as most of the direct pipeline systems is fitted with three direct
lines.
This system is cheaper to construct. The disadvantages over the ring main
system, is that line washing is more difficult, the system has fewer valves which
make pipeline leaks difficult to control, as the system lacks versatility there is
problem with line and valve segregation.
This system provides the vessel to carry as many grades as there are tanks.
The disadvantage is the cost factor having a multitude of pumps on board.
Hydrocarbon Vapours
During the carriage and after the discharge of hydrocarbons, the presence of
hydrocarbon vapour should always be suspected in enclosed spaces for the
following reasons:
Cargo may have leaked into compartments, including pumprooms, cofferdams,
permanent ballast tanks and tanks adjacent to those that have carried cargo.
Cargo residues may remain on the internal surfaces of tanks, even after
cleaning and ventilation.
Sludge and scale in a tank which has been declared gas free may give off
further hydrocarbon vapour if disturbed or subjected to a rise in temperature.
Residues may remain in cargo or ballast pipelines and pumps.
The presence of gas should also be suspected in empty tanks or compartments
if non-volatile cargoes have been loaded into non-gas free tanks or if there is a
common ventilation system which could allow the free passage of vapours from
one tank to another.
Oxygen Deficiency
Lack of oxygen should always be suspected in all enclosed spaces, particularly
if they have contained water, have been subjected to damp or humid
conditions, have contained inert gas or are adjacent to, or connected with,
other inerted tanks.
Other Atmospheric Hazards
These include toxic contaminants such as benzene or hydrogen sulphide,
which could remain in the space as residues from previous cargoes.
ATMOSPHERE TESTS PRIOR TO ENTRY
General
Any decision to enter an enclosed space should only be taken after the
atmosphere within the space has been comprehensively tested from outside the
space with test equipment that has recently been calibrated and checked for
correct operation.
It is essential that all atmosphere testing equipment used is:
Suitable for the test required;
Of an approved type;
Correctly maintained;
Frequently checked against standard samples.
A record should be kept of all maintenance work and calibration tests carried
out and of the period of their validity. Testing should only be carried out by
personnel who have been trained in the use of the equipment and who are
competent to interpret the results correctly.
Care should be taken to obtain a representative cross-section of the
compartment by sampling at several depths and through as many deck
openings as practicable. When tests are being carried out from deck level,
ventilation should be stopped and a minimum period of about 10 minutes
should be allowed to elapse before readings are taken.
Even when tests have shown a tank or compartment to be safe for entry,
pockets of gas should always be suspected. Hence, when descending to the
lower part of a tank or compartment, further atmosphere tests should be
made. Regeneration of hydrocarbon gas should always be considered possible,
even after loose scale has been removed. The use of personal detectors capable
Hydrogen Sulphide
Although a tank which has contained sour crude or sour products will contain
hydrogen sulphide, general practice and experience indicates that, if the tank
is thoroughly washed, the hydrogen sulphide should be eliminated. However,
the atmosphere should be checked for hydrogen sulphide content prior to entry
and entry should be prohibited in the event of any hydrogen sulphide being
detected. Hydrogen sulphide may also be encountered in pumprooms and
appropriate precautions should therefore be taken.
Oxygen Deficiency
Before initial entry is allowed into any enclosed space, which is not in daily use,
the atmosphere should be tested with an oxygen analyzer to check that the
normal oxygen level in air of 21% by volume is present. This is of particular
importance when considering entry into any space, tank or compartment that
has previously been inerted.
Generally nearly all substances have been assigned Permissible Exposure
Limits (PEL) and /or Threshold Limit Values (TLVs). The term Threshold Limit
Value (TLV) is often expressed as a time weighted Average (TWA). The use of
the term Permissible Exposure Limit refers to the maximum exposure to a toxic
substance that is allowed by an appropriate regulatory body.
The PEL is usually expressed as a Time Weighted Average, normally averaged
over an eight-hour period.
Short Term Exposure Limit (STEL), is normally expressed as a maximum
airborne concentration averaged over a 15-minute period.
The values are expressed as parts per million (PPM) by volume of gas in air.
Toxicity can be greatly influenced by the presence of some minor components
Cargo Measurement
Tank quantities are measured by noting the level of the fluid in the tank and
then referring to the tank calibration tables and noting down the quantity
specified against that level.
Thus we take the sounding of a tank water and fuel on all type of ships and
then follow the above practice. Note that prior to referring to the tables the
tank level has to be corrected for error due to trim and list. These corrections
are generally given in the tank calibration tables.
The above method though fine by all are turned upside down on a tanker. A
tanker loads oil and it is not feasible to take a sounding every now and then
besides it is very messy. On tankers therefore instead of sounding the reverse is
measured that is the vacant level to reach the top of the tank or the ullage.
Thus ullage tables are nothing but the sounding table reversed.
Note the following:
The maximum sounding of a tank is 24.35m the maximum ullage is also
24.35m.
When the sounding is 10m the ullage would be 24.35 10 = 14.35m
Thus when a tank is filling up the sounding increases, whereas the ullage
reduces.
Once the liquid level is obtained the same is seen for the quantity (Volume) in
the calibration book.
This is the Gross volume at Natural Temperature GVn (observed temperature
being taken of the liquid at three levels and then averaged)
The sounding of any water which may be present in the tanks is now taken
(some water is usually present in crude oil and also sometimes in product oil).
The calibration tables are again referred and the volume of Free Water is
obtained.
Thus the Net Volume at Natural (NVn) is found by subtracting the water form
the GVn.
Bale Capacity:
This is the cubic capacity of a space when the breadth is taken from the inside
of the cargo battens, the depth from the wooden ceiling to the underside of the
deck beams and the length from the inside of the bulkhead stiffeners or
sparring where fitted.
Grain Capacity:
This is the cubic capacity of a space when the lengths, breadths and the
depths are taken right to the ships side plating. An allowance is usually made
for the volume occupied by frames and beams.
Stowage Factor:
This is the volume occupied by unit weight of cargo. Usually expressed as cubic
metres/ tonne. It does not take into account space, which may be lost due to
broken stowage. However it obtained by multiplying the greatest length by the
greatest breadth with the greatest height.
Example:
A bale of Hessian has the following dimensions: L 1.2 M, B 1.2 M and H
1.5 M. The bale weighs 800 KGS.
The SF then would be obtained by:
Volume: L x B x H = 1.2 x 1.2 x 1.5 = 2.16 CBM
So, 2.16 CBM would weigh 0.8 MT
Or 1 MT of the cargo in bales would occupy 2.7 CBM
Broken Stowage:
Example-103
Given to load No. 1 Lower Hold
Bale capacity 962 m3
Max Height 11.945m
Permissible Load 9.2 t/ m2
Forward Breadth 4.5m
After Breadth 11.5m
Mean Breadth 8m
Length 10.5m
Cargo 150 MT, SF 2.7 m3/t to load only in after half of the hatch space
After breadth 11.5m
Mid Breadth 8m
Mean breadth 9.75m
Length 5.25m
Area of hold as above 51.2 m2
Volume of above 611 m3
Max permissible load on 51.2 m2 9.2 x 51.2 = 471 MT
Since the cargo has a SF of 2.7 m3/t the volume occupied by the cargo would
be:
Volume/ SF
611/ 2.7 = 226 MT
So the after half of the hold would take in 226 MT of the cargo and would
remain within the permissible load density.
Let us now fill up the forward half of the hold with a cargo having a SF of 0.8
m3/t (heavy cargo)
Cargo ?? MT, SF 0.8 m3/t to load in forward half of the hatch space
After breadth 4.5m
Mid Breadth 8m
Mean breadth 6.25m
Length 5.25m
Area of hold as above 32.8 m2
Volume of above 392 m3
Permissible load would be: 32.8 m2 x 9.2 (SF) = 302 MT
operation together with the duty officer keeping an alert watch on the working
of the same.
Cargo blocks are maintained during the voyage, but due to various reasons
especially with bush bearings sheaves, the bearing may burn out. Prior
breakdown however the block would give an indication by a shrill metallic
sound, the crew and duty officer on deck is to be alert on deck and the moment
a noise is heard the cargo work is to be stopped and the cause investigated.
After each shift of cargo handling when the stevedores take a break all the
cargo gear is to be examined for any wear and tear, if required the defective
items are to be replaced. If new blocks are being put to use, they should be
greased before fitting them. The test certificates and the cargo-rigging plan
should be checked to see that the correct item is being fitted. Often a cargo
block breaks down and on examining it is seen that it had a SWL 5T marked on
it. Instantly a 5T block is brought from the store and fitted, it could be that the
block that had been fitted earlier was of a lesser SWL so it is always better to
check the rigging plan.
The handling of the cargo gear also needs to be supervised and any extreme
rough handling should be stopped. Where the gyn fall wire rubs against the
hatch coaming or gunwale suitable padding should be place.
The derricks should be properly rigged and the preventer wire should, if it has
been rigged properly, stretch when the load is in between the two derricks (in
case of union purchase). With no load the preventer should be with some slack.
The cargo hook should have a locking clip to prevent the sling from slipping out
of the hook.
Cargo handling areas should be cordoned off so that no person is found
walking or standing under a cargo load. Free passage may be used of the nonworking side of the cargo hatch.
A helmet is no safety for a load if it falls helmets are satisfactory if some loose
small objects fall.
For heavy individual loads a swinging derrick is often used either a single
derrick is used where the guy ropes are removed and other winch wires (also
called steam guys) are used to control the movement of the derrick.
A number of other types of rigging have over the years been tried out some with
great success and some with little.
Jumbo derricks were derricks attached to a Mast and could lift as the name
suggests heavy loads, the forward Jumbo derrick was generally for extra heavy
loads while the aft derrick was for slightly lesser loads. In preparing for
operation the Jumbo derricks required four winches 1 for topping the derrick,
one for lifting the load and two for swinging the derrick. As such prior using
the Jumbo derrick was rigged and the lashings were then removed. The rigging
entailed that four light derricks were inoperable since their winches were
requisitioned, so efficient planning on the part of the chief officer was required.
Stulken derricks had a single boom but the rigging was such that a single
operator could control the movement of the derrick, another advantage was
that these derricks could service two adjacent holds by being capable of being
plumbed for either hold.
Velle derricks (with Thomson rig) were also very popular for ships, which often
loaded heavy loads such as containers; in this the control again was unified
into a single man operation.
The above derricks were however very difficult to rig if the wire had to be
changed, and often the crew would spend an entire day rigging one derrick.
Cargo cranes are used on many ships and especially on bulk cargo carriers.
These may be light cranes for general cargo ships or heavy-duty cranes for
lifting huge grabs or containers.
Ships, which have slots for containers but also load general cargo, are often
fitted with cranes with SWL up to 40 tonnes. If a single crane is incapable of
being used to lift such heavy containers then two cranes are twinned to
handle the load. The control is unified and both the cranes work in tandem.
Hatch Covers
Hatch covers especially the Macgregor rolling hath covers should be opened by
a responsible person and after opening the hatch covers should be locked to
prevent their rolling and closing on their own due to excessive trim.
The lights are to be checked in the afternoon and should be rigged and in place
by sunset. The lights should be switched when there is adequate light in the
hold in the morning and should be un-rigged and stored neatly.
They should be switched on only after the gangs come for the work and should
be promptly switched off once all have left the hold. Often the cargo lights are
not removed and the hatch covers are closed especially when closing due to
rain. This is fraught with danger, for the lead is cut and the cluster light falls
into the hold, the bulbs are hot and may cause a fire, also the cut lead has
power in it and may cause a short circuit for the system or may electrocute any
person close by.
An experienced crew should supervise the rigging of cargo lights since if
loading jute or other flammable cargo the distance off from the cargo should be
maintained. Also the shore people may tend to drag a light inside the hold to
facilitate loading, this should be supervised.
The electric cord should never lift the lights rather the ropes attached for the
same should be used.
In holds where fixed lighting is available the light fittings should be inspected
prior switching on and then only the lights are to be switched on. Water
seepage especially during rain may cause short circuits and may eventually
lead to fires.
All lights should be switched off when no longer required.
Corrosion:
Wire rope can be corroded by:
The action of damp on the wires from which the gaivanising has worn off, if
this occurs to the inner wires first it causes rust to fall out of the rope and is
therefore easily detected;
The action of fumes and funnel gases, which attack the outside wires, the
effect then becomes visible on inspection;
Contact with acid, which soaks into the heart and attacks the inside wires; this
is not necessarily noticeable on the outside of the rope, and can be the cause of
parting without warning.
Lack of lubrication is a frequent cause of corrosion. When a wire rope is under
tension it stretches and becomes thinner, and during this process the
individual wires are compressed and friction is set up; the fibre heart and cores
are also compressed, releasing oil to overcome the friction. A wire rope of
outwardly good appearance, but with a dry powdery heart or core, has -not
been properly maintained and should be treated with caution.
Effect of Extreme Cold:
When subjected to extreme cold a wire rope may become brittle and lose its
flexibility, and an apparently sound rope may part without warning. The
brittleness is not permanent and the rope will regain its resilience in a normal
temperature, but the potential danger should be remembered when working
wires in very cold climates.
Testing of Steel Wire Rope
The wire from which the rope is to be made is tested before manufacture of the
rope to ensure it complies with the relevant Standards with regard to tensile
from practical experience for various types of ropes at speeds not exceeding
60m per minute are 20 times the diameters of the ropes. For each increase in
speed of 30m per minute, 5% must be added to these figures; this will give a
rope a reasonable life, but it is emphasized that its life will be greatly increased
if still larger sheaves are used. Similarly, if a smaller sheave than that
recommended has to be accepted it will shorten the life of the rope, and on no
account should a sheave be used that is more than 20% smaller than that
determined by reference to the above criteria.
Use of Correct Sheave:
The life of a rope used for hoisting can also be considerably shortened by using
the wrong type of sheave. The groove in the sheave must fit and support the
rope as it travels round the sheave, otherwise there will be increased internal
friction and external wear. Figure below shows a sheave with too wide a groove,
which results in a flattening of the rope and considerable distortion and
internal friction.
Figure below shows a sheave with too narrow a groove, which results in the
rope not being supported, the wires of the strands being subjected to
considerable wear, and friction being set up between the rope and the sides of
the groove.
The groove of the correct sheave should be shaped in cross-section to the true
arc of a circle for a distance equal to one-third of the circumference of the rope,
and the radius of the groove should be between 5 and 10% greater than the
specified radius of the rope.
Cargo Blocks
Union Purchase derricks with 1 set of individual side guys and a centre
guy.
While parking the derrick, the control over the side guys should be especially
good since with a slight swing the boom is liable to damage other structures.
The derricks should not be lowered or topped if the ship is rolling as this would
make controlling the derrick very difficult.
The end rope of the controlling side guys should be held after a full turn on the
rams horn and there should be adequate clear slack. In case of an emergency
the next turns should be put on quickly
If a rams horn is not available then other suitable points may be used, however
railing are not to be used.
Derricks are secured either on a horizontal crutch (light derricks) or vertically
with clamping to the mast.
Prior to lowering the derrick the following are to be inspected and if any are
found wanting they are to be made good:
The crutch post and the bracket at the base are to be inspected
The grommet attached to the eye pad (for the gynfall wire) is to be inspected
The crutch wood sheathing is to be checked if damaged then a canvas packing
may be made in lieu
After the derrick is parked, the crutch clamp is to be fitted and the locking
arrangement fixed. There should be no play.
The side guys are to be tightened and fixed on either side, the extra rope of the
guys being neatly coiled onto pallets or slung on railings and tied as a whole
the rope should be covered by a canvas cover
The gynfall wire hook is to be hooked to the grommet and the wire tightened
(just).
The topping wire should not have any weight, but neither should it be slack
The heel of the derrick should be covered with canvas and so should be the
gynfall and the heel block
The preventer wire should be coiled and placed on a pallet
Types of Slings in common use:
Beside those mentioned there are various other slings in use.
Plate sling: Normally the hinges clamp hangs loose, but once fitted on to the
plate and the wire pulled up, the clamps hold the plate very firmly.
Open rope sling: This is used for various types of delicate cargo. Not good for
heavy weights.
Canvas sling: Used for lifting small bags of rice and other cereals, the canvas is
useful for collecting any spillage that may be caused.
Snotter: This is used for various cargos. It is the most versatile form of sling.
Has been used even for container loading, by attaching hook/ shackles to one
end and using for such snotters.
Pallet:
This is unitized cargo on a wooden pallet (the bottom double tier of wood). Such
cargo may be handles using wore slings but the more safe and common is to
use nylon straps or rope slings.
If the cargo is loaded on to the ship and the pallet retains the nylon strap then
it is termed as pre-slung cargo. The strap is returned to the ship after
discharging the cargo.
Hook Handling:
Bales are soft cargo and they liable to be damaged by hooks, which penetrate
the surface and go deep inside.
Bales especially of hessian, bagged cargo and other such cargo are rendered
useless if the hooks punch holes into them.
Such cargo have a label saying use no hooks.
However many port workers use the same hooks to handle these cargo
The preferred hooks for such cargoes are shown below.
These contain about 3 rows of small raised metal pieces that good at gripping
but do not damage the cargo.
Some bagged cargo come with ears protruding from the four corners of the
bags, these ears are material of the bag and facilitate the handling of the
cargo.
The advantages of this is that the pallet (now referred to the whole) is easily
moved and stored by forklifts.
Much manual labour is not required. These types of pallets may be stacked
more than one high, though genially 2 high.
Ease of lashing and faster loading is the essential advantages. However a lot of
broken stowage occurs if the hold dimensions are not square. Thus these type
of cargo were unsuitable in old ships which had a tunnel in the after holds and
the bilges were rounded.
Since these cargo came with their own wooden pallets the dunnaging cost was
also saved.
After the development of unitized cargo, to speed up further the handling
process the cargo pallets were pre-slung with nylon straps.
Thus a trailer arriving on the jetty had the pallets neatly arranged and with
their own slings. All it took from the shore labour was for a person to hook on
the slings. Once on board the slings were not returned but the pallets was
stowed with the sling. At the discharging port the forklift brought the pallet top
the hatch square and aging the pallet was lifted out with the same sling. On
completion of discharge if no cargo was being loaded on the ship the slings
were brought back on the ship. The slings were the property of the ship and a
strict tally was maintained. The slings were made of nylon straps in various
colours and were certified as to the SWL.
With the advent and popularization of containers pre-slung cargo system died
out. Unitized cargo is still existent and containers are loaded with unitized
cargo.
The above is a Velle derrick. This type of derrick is a swinging derrick and is
capable of lifting heavy weight and may be found on container-oriented vessels
(GC as well as container cargo).
The rig is one of the most complicated. On a ship the crew has to be very well
experienced to rig up this derrick. The length of the wire is also of special
length and may be of 250 280 metres.
There are 3 winches in operation; the 2 extreme winches have separate barrels,
which turn in the opposite direction. The extreme winches share 2 wires, 1 wire
starts at 1 winch and ends on the other. The same is for the other wire.
The gynfall wire is on a single centre winch. The controls are usually joystick
control 1 for the swinging and the other for the lifting. Thus the extreme
winches control the swinging as well as the topping/ lowering action and are
controlled by a single control joystick.
This is a rare rigging plan and the author has taken great pains to personally
draw it out while serving on a ship rigged with 22T Velle derricks.
Use of Forklifts:
The precautions prior lowering and using forklifts inside the holds:
The forklift should not have any oil leakages
The height of the hold should be considered while lowering a tall forklift
The weight of the forklift together with the cargo should not exceed the load
density of the hold
The forklift should not be emitting profuse quantities of smoke
Adequate fire fighting arrangements should be inside the hold for any fire of the
forklift
Jute and other flammable cargo should be kept away from any ingress of oil
from any leaking forklift
The driver should not drive the forklift rashly
Adequate lighting should be ensured
Saw dust and sand should be kept stand by for any unforeseen oil leaks.
Cargo Care
Inspection of Holds prior Loading:
All holds should be inspected prior commencing loading this may be done while
the ship is enroute or just after completion of discharging and prior loading at
the same port.
A thorough cleaning of the hold is undertaken; the bilges are cleaned and tried
out with an amount of water. If required the hold is hosed down and the water
pumped to holding tanks.
This ensures that there is no refuse lying within the holds and that the bilges
after loading would if necessary be capable of being pumped out.
The bilges if with offensive smell have to be sweetened.
This is again a necessity to prevent any food cargo from being tainted.
All other lines in the hold are to be pressed up and checked for leaks. Air pipes
and sounding pipes passing through the hold spaces are to be checked up with
a head of water.
The above ensures that ingress of water into the hold is minimized.
The hold bottom has to be inspected for any dents in the plating.
Some DBs may be dedicated for fuel oil/ ballast as such this would give a fair
idea if the plates have set in or if their appears to be a deep indentation/
All spar dunnage at the ship sides are to be fitted and the frames at the sides
have to be inspected.
This is done so that if bale cargo is loaded the shipside steel does not come in
contact with the cargo.
The used lashing material has to be removed including all temporary eyes,
which had been made.
And if this is not done then the same eyes may be inadvertently be used for
new lashing lashing wires are for one use only and the risk of parted lashing
arises by using old lashings.
Use of Dunnage
There are basically a few reasons why dunnage is so necessary on general
cargo ships while loading general cargo.
Of prime importance is to keep the cargo away from the steel bottom of the
hold. The steel bottom condenses the moisture in the air and these droplets of
moisture over a period of time can damage cargo. This is known as ship sweat.
And only by dunnage can the cargo be safeguarded against this. Good
ventilation certainly helps but some amount of sweat is ever present.
The second reason why dunnage is spread about on the holds is to bring about
some amount of frictional resistance between the cargo and the steel bottom.
Thus lashing becomes easier. Another factor is the dunnage helps in spreading
the cargo weight evenly.
In the event of small ingress of water the dunnage helps in channeling the
water into the bilge wells, if this were not prevented then any accidental ingress
of water would be absorbed or retained in pools by the cargo.
If the hold bottom is dirty due to stain and hard coating of earlier cargo and
hosing down is not possible then a double layer of dunnage would prevent the
cargo in coming into contact with the stain.
In general holds are laid with double dunnage while tween decks are layered
with single dunnage.
The size of the dunnage may vary but usually they are about 6 X 1 X 6 feet.
These are laid about 6 to 10 apart, though the gaps may again vary
depending upon the nature of the cargo. The bottom tier of the hold dunnaging
may be laid in the fore and aft direction and the top tier in the athwart ship
direction. At the aft of the hold a clearing of two feet is laid with the bottom tier
in the athwart ship direction. This helps in the water/ condensation from
trickling to aft and then subsequently finding the bilge well.
Tween deck dunnaging is of one tier exceptionally may be two tiers and it
really doesnt make much difference if the dunnage is laid out in the fore and
aft direction or in the athwart ship direction.
For heavy cargo where spreading the weight takes precedence over other
hazards, the dunnage or timber used is generally 4 X 4 X 6 feet (they may be
also of stouter variety).
These heavy timbers are laid out in the fore and aft direction in order that the
load is spread on as many frame spaces as possible.
Dunnaging also forms a very important factor when ventilation is of primary
concern especially when loading a consignment of Rice. Extra channels are
created within the bagged cargo to allow good ventilation. Together with double
dunnaging being provided between stacks of 4-6 bags. If this is not done then
the cargo sweat that may be generated is not removed and condenses on the
cargo itself allowing the cargo to rot.
Dunnage is used primarily for the protection of the cargo from sweat related
damage and consequently it is used so that the cargo does not get too closely
packed thereby obstructing to the flow of air.
Special cargoes use more dunnage where air channels have to be kept so that
the airflow is not hampered. Rice is one such cargo.
Advantage of dunnaging is also from the fact that it spreads the weight of the
cargo evenly all across the tank top or tween deck top, but this advantage is a
side benefit, the main reason is protection from sweat. And to some extent from
heat from the boiler spaces in the engine room.
Dunnage is thus primarily for the prevention of sweat damage to cargo.
The structure of the ship is made of steel, this steel being a good conductor of
heat cools down faster than wood as such the temperature of the steel may fall
below the dew point of the air within the compartment leading to sweat.
However if this steel can be prevented from coming into contact with the cargo
by a layer of wood, which being a poor conductor of heat does not cool down so
drastically, then the effect of the sweat coming into contact with the cargo and
thus damaging the same may be limited.
If despite precautions being taken, sweating does occur, the damage caused
may be minimized by adequate dunnaging of the boundaries of the
compartment.
The permanent dunnage of the ships side is known as SPAR Ceiling or CARGO
BATTENS. It consists of timber about 150mm x 50mm fitted over the side
frames. It is usually fitted horizontally into cleats on the frames. There is a
vertical distance of not more than 230mm between the battens. On some ships
the spars are fitted vertically and this gives better protection to the cargo as
well as it suffers less damage and is thus more long lasting. Spar ceiling may
also be fitted on the bulkheads at the ends of the compartment; this is
especially the case where the bulkhead is the engine room bulkhead.
The tank top should be covered with a double layer of dunnage. The bottom
layer is usually 100mm x 50mm or 150mm x 50mm spaced about 300mm
apart and laid athwart ships to ensure free drainage to the bilges. If the ship
has only bilge wells then it is preferable to lay the dunnage in the fore and aft
direction.
The upper layer consists of 25mm boards about 150mm in width laid at right
angles to the bottom layer, about 150mm - 300mm apart.
Occasionally burlap/Hessian is laid over the dunnage - this improves the
appearance of the hold but restricts air circulation through the cargo,
A permanent wooden ceiling more than 65mm thick is often laid on the tank
top in the square of the hatch; this is to protect the tank top and does not
replace the dunnaging.
A similar arrangement of dunnage will be found in the tween decks, although
double dunnaging is not so commonly found here. Care should be taken to
have a good layer of dunnage at the ships side over the stringer plate, as water
tends to accumulate there.
Secondhand timber is frequently used for dunnage. It should always be
inspected to ensure that it is free of stains, odour, nails and large splinters.
New timber also has its drawbacks; it should be free of resin and should not
have a strong smell of new wood.
The top of the cargo is protected by a covering (especially under the stringer
plate) by matting, wood dunnage or some sort of waterproof paper, or plastic
sheets.
Single Fore and Aft dunnaging the most common dunnaging:
Contamination of Cargo
Cargoes -which taint easily, e.g. tea, flour, sugar, should be kept well away from
strong smells. If a pungent (strong smelling) cargo e.g. cloves, cinnamon has
been carried previously, deodorizing of the compartment will be necessary.
Dirty Cargoes should never be carried in the same compartment as clean
cargoes.
A very general classification for dirty cargoes could include paints and oils,
steelwork, animal products other than foodstuffs. Similarly a general
classification of clean cargo could include food products and manufactured
vegetable products e.g. clothing. Naturally there will be exceptions to both of
the above groups.
Reasons for a general inspection of holds
All holds should be inspected prior commencing loading this may be done while
the ship is enroute or just after completion of discharging and prior loading at
the same port.
A thorough cleaning of the hold is undertaken; the bilges are cleaned and tried
out with an amount of water. If required the hold is hosed down and the water
pumped to holding tanks.
This ensures that there is no refuse lying within the holds and that the bilges
after loading would if necessary be capable of being pumped out.
The bilges if with offensive smell have to be sweetened.
This is again a necessity to prevent any food cargo from being tainted.
All other lines in the hold are to be pressed up and checked for leaks. Air pipes
and sounding pipes passing through the hold spaces are to be checked up with
a head of water.
The above ensures that ingress of water into the hold is minimized.
The hold bottom has to be inspected for any dents in the plating.
Some DBs may be dedicated for fuel oil/ ballast as such this inspection would
give a fair idea if the plates have set in or if their appears to be a deep
indentation.
All spar dunnage at the ship sides are to be fitted and the frames at the sides
have to be inspected.
This is done so that if bale cargo is loaded the shipside steel does not come in
contact with the cargo.
The used lashing material has to be removed including all temporary eyes,
which had been made.
And if this is not done then the same eyes may be inadvertently be used for
new lashing - lashing wires are for one use only and the risk of parted lashing
arises by using old lashings.
and fast rule the principle is to ensure that cargoes destined for a particular
port or consignee is delivered accordingly.
Failure to do this at the time of loading would create chaos at the discharging
port, with short landings residual cargo, since the excess cargo that would
remain would not be permitted to be discharged in a subsequent port without
creating more paperwork and expenditure. In fact cases have arisen where
ships have been arrested for landing cargo not destined for that port customs
take a very strict view of this in many parts of the world.
Thus it is of paramount importance to ensure that cargoes are efficiently
separated and marked so that to an un-initiated the cargo discharge may
proceed smoothly.
Port markings may be made by different means for different cargoes, the
following are some of the few:
Hessian separation strips, in various colours used to encircle the parcel
Shoring, blocking and securing the later port cargo, since this would have to be
done in any case at the discharging port.
Paper sheets
Lashing ropes with coloured strips of cloth wrapped around the jointsturnbuckles/ shackles/ bulldog clips.
Different cargo used as a separation between two similar cargoes.
Water based colours used as port marking or consignee marking this method
though is used more often for consignee marking.
Where bare steel cargo is loaded oil based paint is also sometimes used, since
the others may not be suitable due to partial rusting of the plates as well that
hessian strips are in-efficient for these cargoes.
Valuable Cargo
Valuable cargo such as Banknotes or mail earlier used to be carried on general
cargo ships in special lockers. If such lockers were not available then some
dedicated space, which could be effectively secured, was made available. Newer
ships do not have such allotted spaces and today most cargoes of such nature
is shipped in containers.
Personal effects are also shipped and unless stated as very valuable is loaded
in ordinary holds and are quickly over stowed with other cargo. As long as the
over stowage is incomplete the hold is strictly watched and the watchman is
done away with once the cargo is over stowed and the entrance to the hold is
locked.
All mail and personal effects are tallied on board by shore staff as well by a
ships staff, the results are then verified. In case of any dispute the authorities
are informed before a general protest is made.
Ventilation
On general cargo ships one of the largest number of cargo claims is made for
goods, which, have been damaged in transit. Barring breakages and handling
damage the most common damage is caused by sweat.
SWEAT is formed when the water vapour in the air condenses out into water
droplets when the air is cooled below its dew point.
The water droplets may be deposited onto the ships structure known as ships
sweat or on to the cargo known as cargo sweat.
Ships sweat may run down, and may also drip onto the cargo.
Cargo sweat occurs when the cargo is cold and the incoming air is warm. Cargo
sweat that is formed may be absorbed by the cargo or if steel may run down
after rusting the cargo.
To avoid sweat and its effects it is imperative that wet and dry bulb
temperatures of the air entering and the air contained in the cargo
compartment are taken at frequent intervals (once a watch).
If the temperature of the outside air is less than the dew point of the air
already in the compartment, sweating will occur.
This gives rise to ship sweat and is most usually found on voyages from warm
places to colder places. Especially in winter, on voyages
from Singapore to Northern China.
Similarly if the temperature of the air in the compartment (or the cargo) is
lower than the dew point of the incoming air sweating will again occur.
This gives rise to cargo sweat and usually occurs on voyage from cold to
warmer places. Especially in winter, on voyages from Northern
China to Singapore.
If the latter of the foregoing conditions is encountered ventilation from the
outside air should be stopped until more favourable conditions obtain.
It should be noted that indiscriminate ventilation often does more harm than
no ventilation whatsoever.
It should also be noted that variation in the angles of the ventilators from the
wind cause very different rates of airflow within the compartment.
The angle, which the ships course makes with the wind, also affects the flow of
air.
In general the greatest airflow occurs when the lee ventilators are trimmed on
the wind and the weather ventilators are trimmed away from the wind.
Showing air circulation with lee vents on the wind and weather vents off.
This is THROUGH VENTILATION.
If the dew point temperature of the air in the hold can be kept below the
temperature of the ships structure (decks, sides and bulkheads) and the cargo,
there will be no danger of sweat forming.
This condition cannot always be achieved without some means of mechanically
circulating and drying the air in the hold.
With mechanical ventilation baffle plates are fitted in the hold and tween deck
ventilators, so that air can be prevented from the outside when conditions are
unfavourable. At these times the air in the hold is re-circulated and, if
necessary, it can be dried by passing it through a de- humidifying unit.
It must be emphasized that the best results can only be obtained from these
systems when air temperatures and dew points are carefully observed and the
makers instructions followed implicitly.
The adequate ventilation of container cargoes poses many problems and
experiments have been made with portable ventilation units fitted into the
individual containers. However, it would appear the most common practice is
to give through ventilation for the container compartments and hope that the
ventilator grilles on the side of the containers give the correct flow air over the
contents. It may be pointed out that vastly different types of cargo may be
loaded in adjacent containers in the cell stowage and in most cases the ships
personnel are unaware of the contents of individual containers.
Refrigerated cargo
The cleanliness of cargo compartments for the transport of refrigerated
foodstuffs is more important than for any other cargoes. Failure to clean
properly can result in mould growth and rotting of fruit and vegetables. Spaces
are swept down and all loose dirt removed. Any remaining residues of previous
cargoes will have to be scraped or washed off. After cleaning, the spaces are
sprayed with a mild disinfectant such as weak sodium hypochlorite solution,
which also helps to remove odours. Alternatively, an ozoniser may be used for
the same purpose, especially after the carriage of a strong-smelling cargo like
oranges.
Holds and lockers are then cooled to carriage temperature. It is essential that
any dunnage to be used is placed in the space before pre-cooling, since the use
of warm dunnage could cause considerable damage. It is common practice to
have holds and refrigerating machinery inspected by an independent surveyor
to certify that the ship is in a fit condition for the carriage of the intended
cargo.
The cargo should be inspected ashore by the ships officers before loading to
see that it is in good condition and has been properly pre-cooled where that is
required. A sample of the cargo should be thoroughly inspected for signs of
mould or other damage and its temperature checked by inserting a steel-tipped
thermometer into the product. A record of the inspection and temperatures
recorded should be kept. Similar random inspections of the cargo should be
made during the loading. Any damaged products or carcasses which have
thawed should be rejected or loaded separately. They could cause spoiling of
the remainder of the cargo which was in good condition.
The carriage temperatures are stipulated by the shipper of the goods and
should be adhered to as closely as possible. Temperatures are taken and
recorded at frequent regular intervals and entered in a log-book. Many ships
are also equipped with thermographs, which provide a continuous record of
compartment temperatures. In the event of claims for cargo damage, the
records and thermograph charts will be required as evidence that the correct
temperatures were maintained.
In general cargo ships with a limited amount of refrigerated space it is usual to
arrange, as far as possible, for the refrigerated cargo to be loaded last and at its
destination to be discharged first.
with the cold air circulation system, air ducts should be cleaned, this is
particularly important if a dusty cargo has been carried previously.
Any fat or grease spots on the deck should be scraped up.
The insulation should be inspected and any repairs necessary to it or to the
sparring, which is attached to it, must be effected.
Thermometers should, be made ready and, where fitted, thermometer pipes
should be erected.
Any ventilators leading to the compartment must be plugged. Air change plugs
should also be in position.
Dunnage must be pre-cooled before use. In most-trades the dunnage will be
laid before the loading commences.
If the compartment is fitted with gratings, these will have been scrubbed before
being laid down.
When chilled meat is to be carried, the requisite number of meat bars, hooks
and chain will have to be placed in the compartment for pre-cooling.
The hook and chains should be sterilized (this is usually done ashore).
When the compartment has been prepared it will be cooled to the loading
temperature. It will then be ready for the surveyor to carry out a loading port
survey. In most cases this is in essential before any cargo is loaded.
When the cargo has been loaded the portable brine-pipes will be fitted in the.
square of the hatch. Afterwards the insulated plug hatches must be shipped
and fitted as tightly as possible.
It is frequently necessary to paste paper over the joints to keep the hatch as
airtight as possible. In extreme cases the joints may have to be caulked and
pitched. In the latter case, the greatest. care must be taken when opening up
as pitch and oakum falling onto carcass meat can stain it.
When general cargo or frozen cargo at a different temperature is being carried
in the deck above, a layer of sawdust is often put over the hatches and deck to
absorb any condensation.
Occasionally it may be necessary to load cargo through a tween deck which
contains refrigerated cargo. The refrigeration should be stopped whilst the
hatches are open, otherwise an undue amount of frost may form. If this forms
on brine pipes it will act as insulation and prevent further cooling.
Refrigerated containers with their own built in cooling units are to be inspected
as thoroughly as for chambers above that is if they are being stuffed on
board, this is extremely rare. In general the containers are pre-cooled ashore
and then are stuffed at the providers place or in the dock from refrigerated
trucks. The inspections are done by shore surveyors.
Prior loading all the ships power points for these containers are to be tested
and logged down.
While receiving the containers the containers are to be inspected for any dents
or gashes on the body and the temperature card (circular) is to be noted.
The temperature is to be noted, however the temperature may a bit high on
loading and it comes down after the ships power is switched on. The
temperature graph is to be monitored and any sign of heating up is to be
prevented. Some units have drawings to do some sort of emergency
arrangements if the unit fails during the voyage.
The graph card needs to be renewed once the time scale gets over and these are
kept as spare on board and are to be replaced by fresh cards, the filled in cards
are to be kept with the cargo/ chief officer for handing them ashore prior
discharging.
Temperature records are vital in both the methods of carriage. Temperatures
are to be recorded at least three times a day and all the points provided and the
same is to be recorded, if automatic recorders are provided then the visual
sightings also should be used for checking.
For containers too the same procedure is to be followed, visual sightings are
recorded together with the automatic recording.
All records are to be kept safely are to be handed over (copies) to the shore
authorities after discharging. These records are vital in case there are claims
about the cargo and the temperature records are the only proof the ship has to
refute the claims.
Prior loading the cargo in pallets are to be inspected (non containerized) by
ships officer together with the surveyor. Often the cargo is brought to the jetty
and the packages may show signs of softening (thaw) these are to be rejected.
Also depending on the shippers agreeing the temperature probes (which may
puncture the cases) may be inserted to note the temperature, this however may
not be allowed since they apparently damage the cases (paper hardboard). Any
staining of the cases again is to be investigated and rejected if necessary. Reefer
cargo is loaded last and discharged first. All cargo is tallied on board and
ashore since some are liable for pilferage shrimps as such.
Oxygen deficiency caused by, for example, oxidation (rusting) of bare steel
surfaces, the presence of inert gas or microbial activity.
Hydrocarbon Vapours
During the carriage and after the discharge of hydrocarbons, the presence of
hydrocarbon vapour should always be suspected in enclosed spaces for the
following reasons:
Cargo may have leaked into compartments, including pumprooms, cofferdams,
permanent ballast tanks and tanks adjacent to those that have carried cargo.
Cargo residues may remain on the internal surfaces of tanks, even after
cleaning and ventilation.
Sludge and scale in a tank which has been declared gas free may give off
further hydrocarbon vapour if disturbed or subjected to a rise in temperature.
Residues may remain in cargo or ballast pipelines and pumps.
The presence of gas should also be suspected in empty tanks or compartments
if non-volatile cargoes have been loaded into non-gas free tanks or if there is a
common ventilation system which could allow the free passage of vapours from
one tank to another.
Oxygen Deficiency
Lack of oxygen should always be suspected in all enclosed spaces, particularly
if they have contained water, have been subjected to damp or humid
conditions, have contained inert gas or are adjacent to, or connected with,
other inerted tanks.
Even when tests have shown a tank or compartment to be safe for entry,
pockets of gas should always be suspected. Hence, when descending to the
lower part of a tank or compartment, further atmosphere tests should be
made. Regeneration of hydrocarbon gas should always be considered possible,
even after loose scale has been removed. The use of personal detectors capable
of continuously monitoring the oxygen content of the atmosphere, the presence
of hydrocarbon vapour and, if appropriate, toxic vapour is strongly
recommended. These instruments will detect any deterioration in the quality of
the atmosphere and can provide an audible alarm to warn of the change in
conditions.
While personnel remain in a tank or compartment, ventilation should be
continuous and frequent atmosphere tests should be undertaken. In particular,
tests should always be made before each daily commencement of work or after
any interruption or break in the work.
Sufficient samples should be drawn to ensure that the resulting readings are
representative of the condition of the entire space.
Hydrocarbon Vapours
To be considered safe for entry, whether for inspection, cold work or hot work, a
reading of not more than 1% LFL must be obtained on suitable monitoring
equipment.
Benzene
Checks for benzene vapour should be made prior to entering any compartment
in which a cargo that may have contained benzene has recently been carried.
Entry should not be permitted without appropriate personal protective
equipment if statutory or recommended Permissible Exposure Limits (PELs)
are likely to be exceeded. Tests for benzene vapours can only be undertaken
using appropriate detector equipment, such as that utilizing detector tubes.
Detector equipment should be provided on board all vessels likely to carry
cargoes in which benzene may be present.
Hydrogen Sulphide
Although a tank which has contained sour crude or sour products will contain
hydrogen sulphide, general practice and experience indicates that, if the tank
is thoroughly washed, the hydrogen sulphide should be eliminated. However,
the atmosphere should be checked for hydrogen sulphide content prior to entry
and entry should be prohibited in the event of any hydrogen sulphide being
detected. Hydrogen sulphide may also be encountered in pumprooms and
appropriate precautions should therefore be taken.
Oxygen Deficiency
Before initial entry is allowed into any enclosed space, which is not in daily use,
the atmosphere should be tested with an oxygen analyzer to check that the
normal oxygen level in air of 21% by volume is present. This is of particular
importance when considering entry into any space, tank or compartment that
has previously been inerted.
Generally nearly all substances have been assigned Permissible Exposure
Limits (PEL) and /or Threshold Limit Values (TLVs). The term Threshold Limit
Value (TLV) is often expressed as a time weighted Average (TWA). The use of
the term Permissible Exposure Limit refers to the maximum exposure to a toxic
substance that is allowed by an appropriate regulatory body.
The PEL is usually expressed as a Time Weighted Average, normally averaged
over an eight-hour period.