ZOO302

CHAPTER 3: THE NUCLEUS

contains the code for cells enzymes and other

proteins
command center of cell, contains molecular
machinery to replicate DNA and synthesize RNA

Components of the Nucleus

lightly stained nuclei with much euchromatin

and few heterochromatic clumps (more DNA
surface for transcription of RNA)
dark
stained
nuclei
with
condensed
heterochromatin (tightly coiled DNA that is less
accessible for transcription)
layer beneath nuclear envelope: few genes of
chromosomal domains
deep in the nucleus: domains with many active
genes

nuclear envelope (mass of DNA and associated

proteins called chromatin) and nucleolus
Barr body sex chromatin more prominent in female
(specialized subdomain)
as mass of heterochromatin
Nuclear Envelope
It is one of the two X chromosome
forms selectively permeable barier between This X represents facultative heterochromatin
nucleus and cytoplasm
and tightly coiled at mitosis
has two concentric membranes by a narrow Male: uncoiled X so no sex chromatin
Perinuclear space (continuous with RER)
a. Facultative Heterochromatin specific
nuclear lamina (organized meshwork of proteins
chemical modifications of chromatin proteins
associated with inner nuclear membrane)
with variability in cells
b. Constitutive heterochromatin also modified
lamins (class of intermediate proteins that bind
but they remain on same sites such as
membrane proteins with chromatin of nondividing
centromere
cells)
Nuclear pore complexes (bridge the outer and Histones basic proteins that packaged DNA in
inner nuclear membranes)
chromatin
Nucleoporins (core proteins of a nuclear pore
Nucleosome structural unit of DNA and histones with
complex, eightfold symmetry)
o regulate macromolecules not transported by 8 small (2 of each H2A, H2B, H3, and H4) with 150
base pairs wrapped around DNA
simple diffusion
o 3 to 4K channels for 1K macromolecules per H1- larger, associated with both wrapped DNA and
second
surface of the core
o shipped out of nucleus: ribosomal units and
Chromatid each long DNA double helix with its
other RNA associated proteins
associated proteins
o inbound traffic: chromatin proteins, ribosomal
Chromosome 2 chromatids after DNA replication
proteins, transcription factors and enzymes
o transport proteins (importins, exportins) held together by cohesion proteins
transferred to RER with energy of GTP or Autosomes each of these pairs contains one
guanosine 5-triphosphate with GTPases for chromosome derived from the mother or the father
directionality
Homologous members of each chromosomal pairs
Chromatin
from different parents that contain alleles of same
consists of DNA and its attendant proteins in genes
largely uncoiled state
Diploid most tissues, contain pairs of chromosomes,
Two types distinguished by light and electron 2n with n as the number of unique chromosomes in
species and 23 in humans
microscope:
a. Heterochromatin appears in coarse electron- Haploid half of diploid with each pair having been
dense material as intensely basophilic clumps in separated during meiosis ex. Sperm cells and mature
oocytes
light microscope
b. Euchromatin finely dispersed granular material Colchicine disrupt microtubules in cultured cells
and stained basophilic areas in light microscope
arrested in mitotic metaphase
o dispersed euchromatin: regions of DNA
undergoing active transcription and prominent Karyotype produced after processing and staining in
which chromosomal regions or bands are analyzed
in metabolically active cells
lightly stained nuclei (more active in protein Nucleolus
synthesis)

spherical, basophilic subdomain of nuclei in cells,

actively making proteins
basophilia: due to presence of densely
concentrates ribosomal RNA (rRNA) that is
transcribed, processed and complexed into units
small nuclear pores: exportation of ribosomal
subunits to cytoplasm

The Cell Cycle

regular sequence of events of growth (synthesis)

and division (mitosis)

4 distinct phases: mitosis, G1 (time gap between

mitosis and DNA replication), S (DNA synthesis) and G2
(time gap between DNA duplication and next mitosis)

G1 longest and most variable, RNA and protein

synthesis, and cell volume reduced in half goes
back to previous size
S DNA replication, histone synthesis, and
beginning of centrosome duplication
G2 proteins for mitosis accumulate
G0 postmitotic cells begin to specialize and
differentiate and cell cycle temporarily or
permanently suspended

Differentiated: liver (renew cycling under certain

conditions)
Terminally differentiated: most muscle and nerve
cells
Mitogens or Growth factors binds to cell surface
receptors and triggering a cascade of kinase to activate
postmitotic G0 cells by protein signaling in the process
called Cycling

cells are on restriction point or G 1/S boundary until

there is sufficient nutrients and enzymes

Cylins cytoplasmic proteins that regulates overall

cycling

Removed by
completed

proteasomes

when

cycling

one cell cycle phase can be observed under light

microscope
a parent divides into two daughter cells with
identical no. of chromosomes as the parent

Interphase long growth period in mitosis

1. Prophase
a. nucleolus
disappears
and
replicated
chromatin condenses into threadlike, each
consist of duplicate sister chromatids joined by
cohesins
b. kinetochore region at centromere serves as
attachment site
c. centrosome with duplicated centrioles separate
and migrate to opposite poles
d. microtubules of mitotic spindle polymerize
between 2 centrosomes
e. lamins and inner nuclear membrane are
phosphorylated, causing nuclear lamina and
pore complex to disperse
2. Metaphase
a. chromosomes condense further and attach
to mitotic spindle at kinetochore (electrondense protein complex)
b. cells are spherical and align at equatorial
plane
3. Anaphase
a. sister chromatids separate and move
toward
opposite
spindle
poles
by
combination of microtubule motor proteins
4. Telophase
a. 2 set of chromosomes revert to their
decondensed state
b. spindle
depolymerizes
and
nuclear
envelope begins to reassemble
c. belt-like actin filaments with myosins develops
peripheral cytoplasm at the cells equator
d. cytokinesis cleavage furrow and organelles
are divide among daughter cells and each with
one nucleus

is No mitosis: nerves and cardiac muscle

Stem cells whose cycling serves to renew

Cyclin-dependent kinases complexes activated by differentiated cells
cyclins at each cell cycle phase
divide infrequently and assymetric, one daughter
When activated, they phosphorylates enzymes and
cell remains a stem cell while the other undergoes
transcription factors
differentiation
Check Table 3-1 for summary pg.65
best studied in tissues with rapidly renewing cell
populations
Cell cycle halted: inadequate nutrition, inappropriate
cellular microenvironments, or DNA damage
Progenitor cells or transit amplifying cells most
G1 arrest may permit repair of damage before S mitotic cells, not stem cells
phase
terminally differentiated, cycling cannot occur on
p53 gene for tumor suppressor
Mitosis

specialized cells for short time

Meiosis

specialized process involving two unique cell Apoptosis

divisions that occurs in germ cells or gametes
cell suicide, shrinks and eliminates defective cells
that will form the egg and sperm
results to apoptotic bodies that will undergo
Two key features
phagocytosis by WBCs

controlled by Bcl-2 family of cytoplasmic proteins

1. Synapsis homologous chromosomes of each
1.
Loss of Mitochondrial function and caspase
pair come together
activation
o Crossovers - reciprocal DNA exchange
o release of cytochrome c into cytoplasm to
between aligned maternal and paternal
activate caspases for protein degradation
chromosomes ; produces new combinations of
2.
Fragmentation
of DNA
genes
o
Endonucleases
are activated to cleave DNA
2. Haploid one chromosome on each pair
between nucleosomes
Diploid union of haploid eggs and sperm at 3. Shrinkage of nuclear and cell volumes
fertilization
o Destruction of cytoskeleton and chromatin
produces pyknotic nuclei
Process of Meiosis
4. Cell membrane changes
a. sister chromatids are formed with two identical DNA
o ex.blebbing
molecules after S phase
o membrane proteins degraded and lipid mobility
b. prophase I partially condense chromatin of
increases
chromosomes comes together
5. Formation and phagocytic removal
o tetrads is the term used due to pair of
o remants of cytoplasm and nucleus separate as
chromosomes with two chromatids
apoptotic bodies
o synapsis causes crossovers to mix up genes
Necrosis damaged cells due to injury that will release
o spermatogenesis: 3 weeks
its contents unlike apoptosis
o oocytes arrest: 12 yrs to 5 decades
o After synapsis, chromosomes becomes fully
condensed
and
undergo
metaphase,
anaphase, and telophase
o First mitotic division separates homologous
chromosomes
c. two new cells each divide again rapidly without the
S phase
o second mitotic division: chromatids separate
to opposite poles as individual chromosomes
o in each new cell, nuclear envelope forms
around new haploid set of chromosomes
Mitosis: produces 2 diploid cells
Genetically same cells
Meiosis: produces 4 haploid cells
DNA recombination