General Anesthetic Techniques in Ruminants: Anesthesiology Update

ANESTHESIOLOGY UPDATE
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GENERAL ANESTHETIC
TECHNIQUES IN RUMINANTS
Gwendolyn L. Carroll, MS, DVM,
and Sandee M. Hartsfield, DVM, MS
Ruminants are raised for meat, milk, fiber, teaching, and research.
Small ruminants, particularly, may be regarded as companion animals.
The introduction of exotic breeds such as the South African Boer goat
from New Zealand has resulted in an "exotic animal market" in which
individuals may be worth thousands of dollars. Ruminants used for
biomedical research are covered by the Animal Welfare Act and are not
exempt from appropriate standards of care during perioperative periods. lO Thus, some ruminants are presented for medical and surgical
intervention beyond their economic value as food and fiber animals. As
a result, many techniques and drugs previously reserved for companion
animals or horses are now being applied to ruminants. Excellent reviews
of general anesthesia for ruminants 11 0, 111, 113, 114 and specifically for cattle45
and sheep and goats are available. 23,31 Many drugs used in anesthesia
for ruminants are not approved by the Food and Drug Administration
for food animals. Animals treated with unapproved drugs must not be
sent for slaughter until sufficient time has passed for the drug to clear.114
Legal implications of the use of extralabel drugs have been reviewed. 38
For completeness, drugs, drug combinations, and techniques previously
reviewed are summarized here, but the primary focus of this article is
on recently available anesthetic drugs.
PREOPERATIVE PREPARATION
Preoperative preparation of ruminants for general anesthesia is

critical. Patients undergoing elective surgical procedures should be propFrom the College of Veterinary Medicine, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas
VETERINARY CLINICS OF NORTH AMERICA: FOOD ANIMAL PRACTICE

VOLUME 12 NUMBER 3 NOVEMBER 1996
627
628
CARROLL & HARTSFIELD
erly fasted. Regurgitation and aspiration of ruminal contents can be lifethreatening. Fasting decreases the rate of ruminal fermentation and may
decrease tympany. 111 Hypoventilation and hypoxemia, in addition to
regurgitation, are great risks in fed animals. 5 Ventilation and Pao2 are
compromised for several reasons: abnormal positioning during anesthesia may promote ventilation-perfusion mismatching; normal diaphragmatic excursion is restricted by abdominal contents; and anesthetic drugs
depress the central respiratory centers and the ventilatory muscles. ll1
Several periods of fasting have been recommended for cattle: 24 hours
for food and water,lll 24 to 48 hours with water withheld 12 to 18
hours,89 24 to 48 hours with water withheld 24 hours,? and 36 to 48
hours with water withheld for 8 to 12 hours.1l4 We generally recommend
that healthy hospitalized cattle scheduled for elective procedures be
fasted for 48 hours and water-deprived for 24 hours.
A common recommendation for preoperative fasting for sheep and
goats is a 24-hour fast without restriction from water.23, 31, 102 A longer
fast is not generally recommended because animals, especially heavily
pregnant sheep and goats, might develop a metabolic acidosis with a
longer fast. 23, 31, 102 A longer fast may also promote more liquid ingesta,
which might actually increase risk of regurgitation. 31 In healthy adult
nonpregnant hospitalized sheep and goats scheduled for elective procedures, we generally recommend a fast of 24 to 48 hours and water
deprivation of 12 to 24 hours. Disallowing water as well as food prevents
the sheep and goats from filling their rumen with water when food is
unavailable. Our recommendation is based on our clinical impression
that sheep and goats ventilate better, suffer less tympany, and regurgitate less frequently and less copiously if longer fasting and water deprivation are encouraged.
Hypoventilation and hypoxemia are particularly important when
the patient will not receive supplemental oxygen or when the patient
will be positioned head down in a cradle. All ruminants should be
orotracheally intubated during general anesthesia, with their airway
protected by inflation of the endotracheal tube's cuff. Their heads should
be positioned to allow for drainage of saliva and regurgitated material.
Positioning of cattle during anesthesia is important in regard to
cardiopulmonary dysfunction during anesthesia. Positioning alone,
without the influence of depressant drugs, can significantly impact cardiopulmonary function. Dorsal recumbency decreased Pao2, Paco2, pHa,
and base excess (BE) in healthy conscious cattle restrained for abomasopexy; heart rate, respiratory rate, and rectal temperature increased. 50 In
another study, cardiopulmonary responses of adult conscious nonsurgical cattle were evaluated in four body positions (standing, right and left
lateral, and dorsal recumbency).1l9 Pao2 decreased significantly in lateral
and dorsal recumbency (dorsal recumbency producing the greatest decrease), and cardiac index decreased after 30 minutes in dorsal recumbency.1l9 Dorsal recumbency in pregnant cows was associated with increased heart rate and arterial blood pressure and decreases in Pao2 in
spite of increased ventilation. 21 Restrained or anesthetized cattle in lateral
GENERAL ANESTHETIC TECHNIQUES IN RUMINANTS
629
or dorsal recumbency should be supplemented with oxygen to optimize Pao2

Large fractious cattle may require premedication to facilitate restraint and to prevent injury to themselves or their handlers, but premedication is rarely an absolute requirement in sheep and goats. Premedicants can be classified as anticholinergics, tranquilizers, sedatives,
and analgesics. Anticholinergics are not routinely recommended for
ruminants?l, 97, 114 High doses of atropine, which may precipitate tachycardia, are required to effectively decrease salivation.97 Small ruminants
in particular require large and repeated doses of atropine to decrease
salivation. 3l, 111 The respiratory secretions and saliva become more viscus,
which may promote obstruction of the airways.97,114 Anticholinergics
decrease intestinal motility and may promote accumulation of gastrointestinal gas. 71 Therefore, the use of anticholinergics is usually restricted
to treatment of bradycardias. Atropine or glycopyrrolate is used to
treat intraoperative bradycardia (Table 1). Glycopyrrolate has several
advantages over atropine. Atropine has a relatively short duration of
action in ruminants. 97, 114 Glycopyrrolate does not readily cross the
blood-brain barrier or the placenta, and it increases gastric pH.97 In
pregnant sheep, placental transfer of atropine (0.05 mg/kg, intravenously [IV]) was significantly greater than transfer of glycopyrrolate
(0.025 mg/kg, IV), although fetal circulatory effects were not demonstrated after the administration of either drug. 72 Because of its longer
duration of action, glycopyrrolate has been suggested as the treatment
of choice for bradyarrhythmias in goats?9
Tranquilizers and sedatives may aid in restraint and handling of
fractious animals. Analgesics often provide some sedation as well as
pain relief. Most tranquilizers, sedatives, and analgesics decrease the
requirement for subsequent anesthetic drugs. Premedicants may also
alter the stress response to anesthesia. For example, premedication with
xylazine (0.05 mg/kg, intramuscularly [1M]) but not acepromazine (0.05
mg/kg, 1M) attenuated the increase in cortisol associated with recovery
from thiopental anesthesia in cattle. 8
Drugs discussed below for each species have certain contraindications that should be considered when choosing them as part of an
anesthetic regimen. As an example, acepromazine may be associated
with intraoperative hypotension and should be avoided for patients who
are hypovolemic. In addition, diazepam may be unreliable for sedation
in ruminants. Diazepam calms sick or debilitated animals, but produces
minimal calming in normal animals.71 The route of administration, the
dose, and the speed of intravenous injection of diazepam may contribute
to the varied results. 70 Ruminants are particularly sensitive to alpha-2
agonists (xylazine, detomidine), requiring about one tenth of the equine
dose. 97 Administration of an alpha-2 agonist to ruminants can be associated with respiratory depression, bradycardia, tympany, salivation, and
hyperglycemia. 11 1 Generally, xylazine should not be administered to
debilitated or hypovolemic ruminants or to ruminants with urinary
obstructionYl Administration of xylazine during late pregnancy in-
630
Table 1. REPORTED DOSAGES FOR ANTICHOLINERGICS, TRANQUILIZERS, AND

SEDATIVES IN RUMINANTS*
Drug
Atropine
Glycopyrrolate
Glycopyrrolate
Dosage
0.04 mg/kg, 1M, SQ97
0.02 mg/kg, IV97,114
0.005-0.01 mg/kg, 1M, SQ9?
0.0025-0.005 mg/kg, IV97
0.01 mg/kg, IV?9
Species
Ruminants
Ruminants
Goats
Acepromazine
0.022-0.055 mg/kg, IV or
0.044-0.088 mg/kg, IM71
0.044-0.088 mg/kg, IV71
Acepromazine
Acepromazine
Acepromazine
Diazepam
0.1 mg/kg, IM35

0.05-0.1 mg/kg, IM35
0.1 mg/kg, IM35
0.022-0.088 mg/kg, IV?l
Diazepam
Diazepam
0.4 mg/kg, IV slow7O

0.04-0.5 mg/kg, IVB7
Diazepam
0.2-0.5 mg/kgl14
Xylazine
Xylazine
0.022-0.11 mg/kg, IV71

0.2 mg/kg, IM1B
Sheep and
goats
Cattle
Cattle
Xylazine
0.3 or 0.4 mg/kg, IM18
Sheep
Xylazine
0.2 mg/kg, IM19
Goats
Xylazine
Sheep
Detomidine
Detomidine
0.1 mg/kg, IV30

0.2 mg/kg, IM30
0.05 mg/kg, IV30
0.1 mg/kg, IM30
0.025 mg/kg, IM30
2.2-11 jJ..g/kg, IV?l
5--40 jJ..g/kg, 1M, IV83
Kids
Cattle
Cattle
Detomidine
30, 60, 90 jJ..g/kg, 1M, IV99
Sheep
Detomidine
10, 20, 40 jJ..g/kg, 1M, IV98
Goats
Medetomidine
Pentobarbital
Telazol R
30 jJ..g/kg, IV51
1, 1.5, 2 mg/kg, IV11B
1.1 mg/kg, IV or 4.4 mg/kg,
Lambs
Cattle
Ruminants
Acepromazine
Xylazine
Ruminants
Cattle and
goats
Cattle
Sheep
Goats
Cattle and
goats
Calves
Cows
Goats
Commentt
Used for intraoperative
bradycardia
bradycardia
bradycardia
For anxiolysis
For anxiolysis
As adjunct to local anesthesia
To calm sick or debilitated

animals
For use in calves
Cows lay down after 0.5 mgl
kg, IVB7
Duration = 94 min, recovery

= 206 min
= 147 min
= 442 min
Maximum recommended
dose30
Maximum recommended
dose 3O
Bradycardia, hyperglycemia.
Low dose = sedation
40-60 min, sternal
recumbency if IV; high
dose = deep sedation,
ataxia, recumbency
Ataxia, recumbency,
analgesia at high doses
Ataxia, recumbency,
analgesia at high doses
Potent sedative, no analgesia
Standing sedation
Preanesthetic
IM71
*These dosages have been gathered from various references. You may need to consult the original
reference for complete information regarding the drug's use. We do not endorse all of these guidelines,
and dosages may need to be adjusted for individual animals.
tDuration and recovery are rounded to the nearest minute.
631
creases intrauterine pressure and the number of intrauterine contractions

in COWS,59 and it increases myometrial activity (elevated for 3 hours and
doubled for 60 minutes) in ewes. 46
Opioid analgesics, which decrease the awareness of pain, have not
been used extensively in ruminants. 97 Opioids may be cardiovascular
and respiratory depressants. 97 Opioids such as etorphine and carfentanil
are used for chemical restraint of wild ruminants and are usually combined with neuroleptics (e.g., phenothiazines, butyrophenones).47 Opioids are discussed later in this article with analgesics.
The effects of many premedicants may be antagonized (Table 2).
When injecting antagonists intravenously, the calculated dose may be
administered to effect. The effects of benzodiazepines may be antagoTable 2. ANTAGONISTS*
Drug
Dosage
Species
Flumazenil
0.011-0.022 mg/kg, IV71
General
Flumazenil
20 IJ-g/kg, IV56
Sheep
Naloxone
Yohimbine
2.2-33 IJ-g/kg, IV71

0.125 mg/kg, IV49
General
Cattle
Yohimbine
0.2 mg/kg, IV43
Sheep
Tolazoline
0.2-2.0 mg/kg, IV111
Ruminants
Tolazoline
2 mg/kg, IV42.43
Sheep
Tolazoline
2.1 mg/kg, IV20 (range

1.4-2.7 mg/kg, IV)
Goats
4-Aminopyridine
0.3 mg/kg, IV49
Cattle
Idazoxan
0.05 mg/kg, IV42
Sheep
Idazoxan
10 and 30 J.Lg/kg, IV109
Calves
Atipamezole
0.11-0.44 mg/kg, IV71
General
Atipamezole
30 and 60 J.L9/kg, IV51
Lambs
4-Aminopyridine
plus
yohimbine
4-Aminopyridine
plus
yohimbine
Doxapram
hydrochloride
A: 0.3 mg/kg, IV plus
Cattle
Y: 0.125 mg/kg, IV49

A: 0.6 mg/kg, IV plus
Y: 0.25 mg/kg, IV54
Goats
0.11-0.44 mg/kg, IV71
Small
ruminants
Comment
Antagonizes
benzodiazepines
Antagonized midazolam
antinociception
Antagonizes opioids
Antagonized effects of
xylazine
xylazine
Antagonizes alpha-2
agonists
xylazine
xylazine after
xylazine-ketamine
xylazine
xylazine
xylazine
Antagonizes alpha-2
agonists
medetomidine
xylazine
xylazine after
xylazine-ketamine
Partially reverses sedation
after alpha-2 agonists
632
nized with flumazenil (see Table 2). Naloxone may be administered to

antagonize the effects of opioids (see Table 2). The effects of alpha-2
agonist administration can be antagonized with alpha-2 antagonists such
as yohimbine, tolazoline, idazoxan, and atipamezole or with a central
nervous stimulant such as 4-aminopyridine (see Table 2). Combinations
of drugs have been advocated also (see Table 2). The administration of
alpha-2 antagonists is not necessarily benign, and caution should be
used. Antagonism of xylazine (0.4 mg/kg) with high doses of yohimbine
(0.8 mg/kg, IV) was implicated in the deaths of 3 of 4 sheep, and rapid
injection of tolazoline (2 mg/kg, IV) was implicated in the death of one
ewe. 43 Administration of a combination of 4-aminopyridine (0.3 mg/kg,
IV) and yohimbine (0.125 mg/kg, IV) to a steer previously treated with
a large dose of xylazine (0.6 mg/kg, 1M) resulted in the death of the
steer.49 Doxapram hydrochloride (0.11 to 0.44 mg/kg, IV), an analeptic,
may be used in small ruminants to counter the sedation induced by
alpha-2 agonist administration.71
Cattle
Generally, cattle do not require tranquilization or sedation. Acepromazine should be avoided preoperatively due to increased risk of regurgitation35 and potentially profound cardiovascular effects. If necessary
to calm wild cattle, small doses of acepromazine may be used (see Table
1).71 Cows are reportedly sedated with intravenous diazepam (0.04 to
0.5 mg/kg, IV), but not predictably with intramuscular diazepam. s7
Diazepam (0.4 mg/kg, IV slowly) is an effective sedative in calves,
although a tachycardia may result. 70 The alpha-2 agonists xylazine and
detomidine may be used as premedicants in cattle (see Table 1). Breed
differences in the response to xylazine administration have been reported, with Herefords becoming recumbent more readily and recovering more slowly than Holsteins. s6 Heat-stressed cattle are more sensitive to xylazine, having increased time to standing and prolonged
analgesic efficacy.25 If an alpha-2 agonist is needed perioperatively, the
authors prefer xylazine to detomidine due to its shorter duration of
action. Pentobarbital has been advocated as a sedative in cattle that are
to remain standing; it produces minimal effects on blood gases, heart
rate, blood pressure, and rumen motility, but respiratory rate is depressed. llS Based on the degree and the duration of sedation (about 1
hour), 2 mg/kg, IV of pentobarbital was most suitable for standing
sedation in cattle. llS
Sheep and Goats
Acepromazine, diazepam, or xylazine may be used for restraint

before induction (see Table 1). Goats are more sensitive to xylazine than
are sheep.3o,97 The maximum dose of xylazine in sheep is about twice as
633
high as the maximum dose in goats. 3D Goats appear to be analgesic and

well sedated with xylazine dosages of 0.04 to 0.05 mg/kg, IV.97 Untoward effects may be associated with the administration of xylazine to
sheep. Xylazine administration to anesthetized ventilated sheep results
in increased airway pressure. 73 Additionally, a large number of Swedish
Landrace and crossbred sheep have shown signs consistent with pulmonary edema after xylazine administration. 117
Detomidine causes dose- and route-dependent sedation and analgesia in sheep99 and goats. 98 In most instances, the duration and extent of
sedation exceeds that of analgesia. In sheep, moderate analgesia of the
trunk was present only with high doses (60 and 90 iJ-g/kg); salivation,
ataxia, recumbency, bradycardia, and hyperglycemia were also noted in
detomidine-treated sheep.99 In goats, 10 iJ-g/kg (IV) of detomidine causes
sedation, 20 iJ-g/kg (1M or IV) causes sedation and moderate analgesia,
and 40 iJ-g/kg (1M or IV) causes severe ataxia and sternal recumbency.98
Medetomidine (30 iJ-g/kg, IV) is a potent sedative in lambs, but at the
dose used, analgesia was not present. 51 Medetomidine caused a decrease
in heart rate and tachypnea; Pao2 ranged from 62 to 71 mm Hg.51
Alpha-2 agonists may be combined with opioids or benzodiazepines. The authors have used detomidine (10 iJ-g/kg, 1M) and butorphanol (0.1 mg/kg, 1M) in combination as premedicants for injectable anesthesia in goats. Sharifi et al95 evaluated a high dose of detomidine
hydrochloride (91.8 iJ-g/kg, IV) in combination with diazepam (0.7 mg/
kg, IV) in sheep. Effective sedation lasted about 108 minutes; however,
significant hypotension and significant increases in central venous pressure, pH, bicarbonate, and blood glucose developed. 95 Electrocardiographic changes included A-V block, ST segment depression, premature
ven_tricular contractions, and T-wave elevation. 95
GENERAL ANESTHESIA
General anesthesia produced by inhalant anesthetics is preferred for

adult ruminants undergoing prolonged or complicated surgical procedures (e.g., laparotomy), but injectable regimens are appropriate for
some surgeries. During general anesthesia, ruminants should be positioned properly and adequately padded. For laterally recumbent animals, the down foreleg should be pulled forward to protect the radial
nerve and the upper limbs should be supported. All ruminants should
be orotracheally intubated during general anesthesia to protect their
airways, to allow insufflation of oxygen in case of de saturation of hemoglobin, and to allow intermittent positive pressure ventilation (IPPV)
when necessary. An indwelling intravenous catheter for the administration of intravenous anesthetic drugs is indicated, especially for drugs
(such as thiobarbiturates) that may cause sloughing if administered
perivascularly. In addition, a patent intravenous catheter allows for the
administration of fluids (crystalloids at 5 to 10 mL/kg/h, IV), additional
anesthetic drugs, and emergency drugs.
634
When anesthetizing double-muscled calves, cardiovascular function

is a significant consideration. Cardiac performance is poorer in doublemuscled calves than in conventional calves; systemic arterial pressure,
cardiac output, stroke volume, and right and left ventricular work indices are lower, and pulmonary and systemic vascular resistances are
higher in double-muscled calves. 3
Orotracheallntubation and Extubation
In ruminants, the bronchus to the right cranial lobe of the lung

arises directly from the trachea at the level of the third rib, rather than
from the mains tern bronchus. 104 While not usually problematic in adult
cattle, this anatomic nuance may create difficulty in small ruminants
intubated with long endotracheal tubes. If the position of the distal end
of the tube is in question, both sides of the thorax should be ausculted
during IPPV to ensure flow of gases into both lungs. After placement of
the tube, the cuff should be inflated, the endotracheal tube secured, and
the patient's head positioned to allow drainage of regurgitated material
and saliva from the pharynx. Before recovery, the mouth should be
examined and any debris removed from the pharynx. The ruminant
should be recovered in sternal recumbency (propped if necessary). The
endotracheal tube should remain in place until the ruminant can protect
its airway (vigorous swallowing reflex) and has excellent control of the
tongue. The endotracheal tube should be removed with the cuff inflated.
Cattle
There are two general methods of intubation in adult cattle, direct

visualization of the larynx and palpation of the larynx. For direct visualization, a Rowson laryngoscope blade (35 to 46 cm) may be used. A stylet
(to stiffen the endotracheal tube) or guide tube (to facilitate passage of
the endotracheal tube) or smooth rod 45 extending past the distal tip of
the endotracheal tube may be useful when using a laryngoscope; the
laryngoscope may be removed once the guide tube is in place. Alternately, a mouth speculum (e.g., Drinkwater) tied to gauze or a rope for
retrieval is positioned between the dental arcades, the tongue is held to
the side, and the anesthetist (after removing all jewelry) palpates the
arytenoids with one hand. With the other hand, the anesthetist introduces an endotracheal tube into the larynx (if enough room exists in the
mouth for the arm and the tube). In cattle with small oropharyngeal
spaces, introducing a stomach tube (about 2 to 3 times as long as the
endotracheal tube) to the level of the midcervical trachea to serve as a
guide tube is easier. Once the guide tube is in place, the endotracheal
tube may be advanced through the larynx and into the trachea. The cuff
should be inflated as soon as the endotracheal tube is in place, and the
tube should be secured to the patient's head. Double-cuffed endotracheal
tubes are available (Bivona Inc, Gary, IN) to prevent inadvertent aspira-
635
tion of foreign material in the event of failure of one cuff. A range of

sizes (20, 22, 24, 26, and 30 mm internal diameter) of endotracheal tubes
is available for adult cattle.
Sheep and Goats
We use a standard human adult laryngoscope blade (20 cm) and a

guide tube to facilitate intubation in sheep and goats. The maxilla is
held with a piece of roll gauze and the tongue is pulled laterally. The
. laryngoscope blade is positioned to expose the arytenoids and the glottis.
A guide tube formed from two stiff urinary catheters (Sovereign polypropylene 8 French, 55.9 cm [Monoject, St. Louis, MOD, glued together
in tandem is introduced through the larynx to the midcervical trachea.
The endotracheal tube is passed over the guide tube and through the
glottis. If difficulty develops in passing the endotracheal tube into the
larynx, a small amount of 2% lidocaine (0.5 to 1 mL per adult sheep or
goat) may be introduced through the endotracheal tube to desensitize
the arytenoids. Care should be taken when topical lidocaine is used in
ruminants because it may obtund the ruminant's ability to protect its
airway.35 Benzocaine should not be used as a topical anesthetic in goats,
because sprays and ointments containing 140/0 to 20% benzocaine cause
dose-dependent methemoglobinemia in the goat. 94 Benzocaine-based
topically administered anesthetic has also been implicated in methemoglobinemia in sheep.58 The endotracheal cuff should be inflated and the
endotracheal tube secured before repositioning the animaL A range of
sizes of endotracheal tubes (5- to 10-mm internal diameter) is available
for sheep and goats.
INJECTABLE TECHNIQUES
Several protocols exist for induction and endotracheal intubation in

ruminants. A few injectable regimens are satisfactory for maintenance
of anesthesia. The most significant complication of injectable anesthesia
is the tendency for hypoxemia and de saturation of hemoglobin when
ruminants are breathing room air. If insufflation of oxygen and/or
repositioning of the patient do not improve oxygenation, IPPV may be
instituted. However, IPPV may not be curative. In positioning ruminants
for embryo collection or transplant, hypoxemia can develop when patients in dorsal recumbency are cradled in a head-down position for
laparotomy /laparoscopy. In most cases, this complication may be overcome by insufflation of oxygen. Occasionally IPPV is required and rarely
the position of the patient may have to be altered to improve ventilation.
Specific drugs used in injectable protocols may be associated with
untoward effects. For example, propylene glycol, a base in many pharmacologic preparations, produces transient cardiovascular depression.
Its use has been associated with cardiac asystole, pulmonary and renal
hypertension, hemolysis, and hemoglobinuria in awake calves. 34 Propyl-
636
ene glycol also causes pulmonary hypertension in sheep.82,84 Thirtypercent propylene glycol (0.5 mL/kg, IV) administered to adult sheep
caused a profound increase in pulmonary arterial pressure (17 to 35 mm
Hg) and decrease in cardiac output (2.7 to 1 L/min).84 The administration
of pentobarbital (40% propylene glycol) as an infusion (5 to 10 mg/kg/
h) or as boluses (50 to 150 mg) experimentally produced pulmonary
hypertension; 40% propylene glycol in sheep (0.12 mL/kg over 3 minutes) increased pulmonary arterial pressure 202% and increased pulmonary vascular resistance 223% over contro1. 82 Propylene glycol is commonly found in formulations of pentobarbital, diazepam, and etomidate.
General Discussion of Specific Injectable Anesthetics
Barbiturates
Barbiturates have been used extensively in ruminant anesthesia for

induction and occasionally for maintenance. However, barbiturates are
not recommended for ruminants under 3 months of age. 71 Pentobarbital
sodium is not a suitable general anesthetic for adult cattle or very young
ruminants. It has been used relatively safely as a general anesthetic for
adult sheep and goats, but muscle relaxation and analgesia are poor. lll
Ultra-short-acting thiobarbiturates (e.g., thiopental and thiamylal-not
presently available) are used commonly for induction of anesthesia
before maintenance with an inhalant. Thiobarbiturates are less acceptable for maintenance anesthesia. They tend to be cumulative once redistribution sites are saturated, and the patient must metabolize the drug
to recover. Thiobarbiturates are respiratory and myocardial depressants,
and they are arrhythmogenic. llo Dose of thiobarbiturate may be decreased by premedication or addition of guaifenesin (glyceryl guaiacolate; GG) to the regimen. lll
Guaifenesin (Guai/axin)
Guaifenesin is a centrally acting muscle relaxant used as an adjunct

to anesthesia. Because it produces little analgesia, it should not be used
alone. Guaifenesin has been combined with thiobarbiturates in cattle
(Table 3) and with ketamine and xylazine for induction and maintenance
anesthesia in cattle (see Table 3) and sheep and goats (Table 4). Concentrations greater than 5% are not recommended in cattle because of
hemolysis. 28
Ketamine (Ketaset)
Ketamine is a dissociative anesthetic. By depressing respiratory

function, ketamine may induce hypoxemia and hypercapnia and intravenous administration may cause apnea. 110 Other changes associated with
administration of ketamine include bronchodilation and cardiovascular
637
Table 3. INJECTABLE ANESTHETICS FOR CATILE*t
Drugs
Dosage
Pentobarbital
Thiopental sodium
Thiamylal sodium
5% GG plus
thiobarbiturate
15-30 IL9/kg, IVlll

6-12 mg/kg, IVlll
4-8 mg/kg, IVlll
2 9 thiobarbiturate in 1 L 5%
GG; 1.5-2 mUkg, IV
(induction) and < 4 mU
Species
Comment*
Calves
Cattle
Cattle
Cattle
Not for adults

Induction
Induction
Induction and maintenance
Ketamine
Ketamine
2 mg/kg, IVlll
2.6-4.6 mg/kg, IVlO7
Cattle
Cattle
If premedicated
Ketamine
(calculated)
10 mg/kg, IM18
Cattle
Volume is prohibitive in
adults; duration = 47
min, recovery = 109 min
kg, IV total
(maintenance) 111
Xylazine-ketamine
Xylazine-ketamine
Xylazine-ketamine
Xylazine-ketamine
Xylazine-ketamine
X: 0.06-0.2 mg/kg, 1M
K: 1.5-4.3 mg/kg, IVlO7
(calculated)
X: 0.1 mg/kg, 1M
K: 5 mg/kg, IM18
X: 0.2 mg/kg, 1M
K: 10 mg/kg, IM120
K:
K:
X:
K:
Cattle
Cattle
Calves
0.2 mg/kg, 1M
5 mg/kg, IV120
Calves
premedication
10 mg/kg, IM121
Calves
Xylazine-ketamine
X: 0.088 mg/kg, 1M
K: 4.4 mg/kg, IMOO
Calves
Xylazine-ketamine
X: 0.1 mg/kg, IV
K: 2 mg/kg, IV26
Cattle
Xylazine-ketamine
X: 0.1 mg/kg, 1M or IV
K: 5 or 6 mg/kg, 1M or 2 mgl
kg,IV69
5% GG to effect, IV
K: 1-2 mg/kg, IV bolus 114
1 9 ketamine in 1 L 5% GG,
IV to effect l14
5% GG, ketamine 1 mg/ml,
xylazine 0.1 mg/ml; 0.55
ml/kg, IV (induction) and
2.2 mUkg, IV
(maintenance)111
4 mg/kg, IV63
X: 0.1 mg/kg, IV
T: 4 mg/kg, IV64
0.055-1.1 mg/kg, IV or
2.2-6.6 mg/kg, IM71
4.4-17.6 mg/kg, IM71
Cattle
5% GG-ketamine
5% GG plus
ketamine
GKX
Telazol
Xylazine-Telazol
Telazol
Telazol
Duration = 75 min,
recovery = 156 min
Duration is extended by
simultaneous
administration of xylazine
and ketamine.
Supplemental ketamine at
5 mg/kg, IM120
Maintenance on halothane
Duration is extended by
supplemental ketamine at
0.5-1 mg/kg121
Duration: 56 min; decreased
arterial blood pressure,
decreased Pa0 2
Maintenance: 2 mg/mL
ketamine in saline to
effecf26
Recovery 1M: 51-63 min,
recovery IV: 31-36 min
Cattle
Cattle
Cattle

up to 2.5 h
Calves
Calves
Ruminants
Anesthetic induction
Ruminants
Anesthesia
tThe safe use of injectable regimens to produce general anesthesia in ruminants includes protection
of the airway from regurgitated rumen contents and the ability to support ventilation and oxygenation in
the event of a significant degree of respiratory depression.
;Duration and recovery are rounded to the nearest minute.
GG = guaifenesin (glyceryl guaiacolate); GKX = guaifenesin-ketamine-xylazine.
638
Table 4. INJECTABLE ANESTHETICS FOR SHEEP AND GOATS*t

Drugs
Dosages
Species
Comments:t
Pentobarbital
20-30 mg/kg, IV111
Sheep and goats
Pentobarbital
20 mg/kg, IV slowly
to effecp2
10-16 mg/kg, IV111
Lambs and kids

8 weeks)
Sheep and goats
10-15 mg/kg, IV22
Goats
Duration 20 min
8-14 mg/kg, IV111
Sheep and goats
Induction
10-15 mg/kg, IV31

22 mg/kg, IV75
Sheep and goats

Sheep
Ketamine
30 mg/kg, IM18
Sheep
Ketamine
Goats
Ketamine
11 mg/kg, IV or
IM102
10 mg/kg, IM19
Prolong with half doses31

Tachycardia, muscle rigidity,
ataxia; duration = 23 min,
recovery = 68 min
= 98 min
Duration = 15-30 min
Diazepamketamine
D: 0.375 mg/kg, IV
K: 7.5 mg/kg, IV15, 16
Sheep
Diazepamketamine
D: 0.2 mg/kg, IV
K: 4 mg/kg, IV
Lambs and kids;

sheep and goats
Xylazineketamine
Xylazineketamine
X:
K:
X:
K:
Xylazineketamine
X: 0.22 mg/kg, 1M
K: 11 mg/kg, IM110
Xylazineketamine
Xylazineketamine
X:
K:
X:
K:
Xylazineketamine
X: 0.05 mg/kg, IV
K: 2 mg/kg, IV23
Sheep and goats
Xylazineketamine
X: 0.1 mg/kg, 1M
K: 5 mg/kg, IV31
Goats
Xylazineketamine
X: 0.1 mg/kg, 1M
K: 5 mg/kg, IM19
Goats
Thiopental
sodium
Thiopental
sodium
Thiamylal
sodium
Ketamine
Ketamine
0.1 mg/kg, IV
7.5 mg/kg, IV15
0.2 mg/kg, 1M
22 mg/kg, IV75
0.2 mg/kg, 1M
15 mg/kg, IM18
0.2 mg/kg, 1M
5 mg/kg, IV31
Goats
Sheep
Sheep
Sheep and goats
Sheep
Sheep
Not for maintenance.

Propylene glycol may
cause hemolysis
30-45 min duration
Induction

= 293 min
Duration = 15 min,
supplemental diazepam
(0.188 mg/kg, IV) and
ketamine (3.75 mg/kg, IV)
every 15 min for
maintenance 16
Induction for maintenance
with isoflurane and oxygen;
see text
Duration = 25 min
Salivation, bradycardia; 30%
regurgitated; duration = 67
min, recovery = 147 min
Duration = 25 to 30 min;
prolong with ketamine (4
mg/kg, IV or 6-8 mg/kg,
IM)11O
= 155 min
Duration = 15-20 min;
prolong with ketamine (3-5
mg/kg)31
Duration = 15-20 min;

prolong with ketamine (3-5
mg/kg)31
Duration = 111 min,
recovery = 383 min
Table 4. INJECTABLE ANESTHETICS FOR SHEEP AND GOATS*t (Continued).

Drugs
GKX
Dosages
Telazol
5% GG, ketamine 1
mg/mL, xylazine
0.1 mg/mL: 1.2
mUkg, IV
(induction) and 2.6
mUkg, IV
(maintenance)66
5% GG, ketamine 1
mg/mL, xylazine
0.1 mg/mL: 0.55
mUkg, IV
(induction) and 2.2
mUkg, IV
(maintenance)111
9, 12, or 15 mg/kg,
IM10B (12 mg/kg,
1M, optimum)
12 or 24 mg/kg, IVS7
Telazol
Telazol
13.2 mg/kg, IV6S

5.5 mg/kg, IV102
GKX
Telazol
0.055-1.1 mg/kg, IV
or 2.2-6.6 mg/kg,
IM71
4.4-17.6 mg/kg, IM71
Telazol
Telazol
5.5 mg/kg, IV
(induction) plus 1
mg/kg, IV
(maintenance)
XylazineX: 0.11 mg/kg, IV
T: 13.2 mg/kg, IV6s
Telazol
Butorphanol- B: 0.5 mg/kg, IV
T: 12 mglkg, IV41
Telazol
Butorphanol- B: 0.1 mg/kg, IV
T: 5.5 mg/kg, IV
Telazol
~4-9 mg/kg, IV
Propofol
(induction) plus
~0.3 mg-O.8 mg/kgl
min, IV
(maintenance )91
(calculated from
methods)
Propofol
2.5 mg/kg, IV
(induction) plus
0.3 mg/kg/min, IV
(maintenance )29
Propofol
2 mglkg, IV
(induction) plus
150-450 ~g/kgl
min, IV
(maintenance )2
3.5 mg/kg, IV122
Propofol
Telazol
Propofol
5.1 mg/kg, IV78
Species
Sheep
Comments*
Induction and maintenance;
100% oxygen increases
Pao2
Sheep and goats
Sheep
Sheep
Dose-dependent duration =
31-51 min; about 1 h to
stand
Not recommended for sheep
with compromied heart or
lung function S7
Sheep
Goats
Duration = 42 min
Duration = 1 h
Ruminants
Anesthetic induction
Ruminants
Goats
Anesthesia
Oxygen should be available;
see text
Sheep
Duration = 102 min; apnea
Sheep
Duration = 25-50 min
Goats
Sheep
Oxygen should be available;

see text
Sheep
Sheep

(300 ~g/kg/min, IV,
satisfactory)2
Sheep
Induction followed by
maintenance on halothane
in oxygen and nitrous oxide
Induction; apnea, myoclonic
activity of face or limbs
Table continued on following page
Goats
639
640
Table 4. INJECTABLE ANESTHETICS FOR SHEEP AND GOATS*t (Continued).

Drugs
Dosages
Species
Propofol
4 mg/kg, Ivaa
Goats
Propofol
Goats
Etomidate
4.3 mg/kg, IV
(induction) and
0.52 mg/kgl
min, IV
(maintenance)12
1 mg/kg, IV53
Sheep
Etomidate
2 mg/kg, IV53
Sheep
Xylazineetomidate
Xylazineketamineetomidate
X: 0.1 mg/kg, IV
E: 1 mg/kg, IV53
X: 0.31-0.67 mgl
kg, 1M (calculated
from methods)
K: 5 mg/kg, 1M
E: 5-10 mg/15-32,
kg, IV52
A: 18 jJ-g/kg
E: 1.2 mg/kg112
E: 5, 10,20,40 jJ-gl
kg, IM37 or
C: 5, 10, 20, 40 jJ-gl
kg, IM37
2.2 mg/kg, IV
(induction) plus
0.23 mg/kg, IV
(maintenance )35
Sheep
Alfentaniletomidate
Etorphine or
carfentanil
Althesin
Goats
Sheep and goats

Goats
Sheep and goats
Comments*
Maintenance on halothane;
apnea, regurgitation
Hypoventilation; time to
extubation = 7 min; time to
sternal = 9 min, time to
standing = 18 min
Duration = 5 min; recovery
= 10-20 min;
hemoglobinuria
Duration = 12 min; pain on
injection, hemoglobinuria
Duration = 20 min; recovery
= 1 h; hypoxia
Maintenance on nitrous oxide
in oxygen with 1-1.5 mgl
kg/h, IV etomidate
infusion 52
Nitrous oxide and oxygen

maintenance
Immobilization faster and
recovery slower with
carfentanil; see text for side
effects
= 20 min
tThe safe use of injectable regimens to produce general anesthesia in ruminants includes protection
of the airway from regurgitated rumen contents and the ability to support ventilation and oxygenation in
the event of a significant degree of respiratory depression.
:t:Duration and recovery are rounded to the nearest minute.
GG = guaifenesin (glyceryl guaiacolate); GKX = guaifenesin-ketamine-xylazine
effects consistent with sympathetic stimulation: tachycardia, increased

cardiac output, and hypertension. llo Ketamine is contraindicated in patients with increased intracranial pressure, increased intraocular pressure, loss of ocular integrity, a history of seizures, or mitral insufficiency.
In addition, we do not include ketamine in regimens for patients undergoing myelography. Ketamine alone is a poor visceral analgesic and
provides little muscle relaxation. Movement occurs commonly during
dissociative anesthesia, but movement is not indicative of pain unless it
corresponds with noxious stimulation. 111 Ketamine has been used alone
and in combination with other drugs in many regimens for cattle (see
Table 3) and sheep and goats (see Table 4).
641
Tiletamine and Zolazepam (Telazol)
Telazol is a combination of tiletamine (50 mg/mL) and zolazepam

(50 mg/mL). Tiletamine, like ketamine, is an arylcyclohexylamine and
is considered a dissociative anesthetic; zolazepam is a benzodiazepine
derivative. Telazol, because of the presence of tiletamine, is similar to
ketamine in actions and side effects. Telazol has been used for anesthesia
in ruminants (see Tables 3 and 4).
Propofol (Diprivan)
Propofol is a noncumulative, nonbarbiturate hypnotic (alkylphenol)

that can be used for induction or maintenance anesthesia in .sheep and
goats. The cardiopulmonary effects of propofol are similar to those of
thiopental in most species; however, propofol has the advantage of
being noncumulative. Propofol has been used for induction of anesthesia
and for maintenance anesthesia in sheep and goats (Table 4). Unused
propofol should be discarded because of the risk of contamination; the
preparation includes no preservatives and contains soybean oil, glycerol,
and egg lecithin, which support the growth of contaminants.
Etomidate (Amidate)
Etomidate is a nonbarbiturate hypnotic (a carboxylated imidazole

derivative). It is noncumulative, nonarrhythmogenic, and maintains cardiovascular stability. Etomidate may cause transient adrenal suppression. In most species, adrenal suppression is not problematic after a
single induction dose. Adrenal suppression is a greater concern if maintenance infusions are used. Etomidate is indicated in patients with
cardiovascular compromise or arrhythmias. Etomidate has been used
for anesthesia in sheep and goats (see Table 4).
Alphaxalone and Alphadolone (Althesin, Saffan)
Althesin is approved for use as an anesthetic in sheep and goats in

New Zealand102 and is used in many European countries31 (see Table 4).
It is a combination of steroids, containing 9 mg alphaxalone and 3 mg
alphadolone per milliliter.102 It is not currently available in this country.
Cattle
Barbiturates
Pentobarbital is unacceptable as an anesthetic for adult cattle, but

can be used in healthy calves over 1 month of age (see Table 3).111
Thiobarbiturates have been used successfully in adult cattle for induction
642
of anesthesia before inhalant anesthesia. Thiopental or thiamylal may be

used for induction of anesthesia (see Table 3).111
Two grams of thiopental or thiamy lal may be added to 1 L of 5%
GG for induction of anesthesia before inhalant anesthesia or for induction and maintenance of short, superficial procedures. 111 One author
(GLC) prefers 1 L of 5% GG and 2 g of thiopental or thiamylal administered intravenously to effect for induction of adult cattle. When administered for induction, the solution is given intravenously through a largebore catheter until the patient can be intubated; when used for maintenance for procedures lasting 45 minutes to 1 hour, the solution is given
by slow drip (see Table 3).111 Extended recoveries occur with large doses
of barbiturate.111
Ketamine
Ketamine alone and various combinations of xylazine and ketamine

have been used in cattle (see Table 3). Postanesthetic excitement may
occur.111 Due to the large volumes required, intramuscular administration of ketamine is practical only in calves. Xylazine may be administered before or simultaneously with ketamine; simultaneous administration of xylazine and ketamine extends the duration of intramuscular
xylazine-ketamine regimens. 12o Supplemental ketamine may be used to
prolong anesthesia. 120, 121 The Pao2 values of calves anesthetized with
xylazine-ketamine were near 60 mm Hg for about 20 minutes, increasing
during recovery; Paco2 values were elevated but did not exceed 50.3
mm Hg.121 Intravenous dosages of xylazine and ketamine have been
recommended for adult cattle (see Table 3). Intravenous administration
of xylazine-ketamine resulted in shorter recovery times (30.8 to 35.5
minutes) than did intramuscular administration (50.7 to 63 minutes); the
duration of analgesia depended on the route of administration and the
site tested. 69 One author (SMH) uses a combination of xylazine (0.025 to
0.05 mg/kg, IV), diazepam (0.025 to 0.05 mg/kg, IV), and ketamine (2.2
to 4.4 mg/kg, IV) for anesthetic induction of adult cattle. Clinically, the
amount of regurgitation appears to be decreased. Both authors use
diazepam (0.2 mg/kg, IV) followed by ketamine (4 to 6 mg/kg, IV) for
induction of anesthesia in calves; the amount of this combination required for endotracheal intubation is reduced by premedication (e.g.,
xylazine).
Five-percent GG may be administered before a ketamine bolus or 1
g of ketamine may be added to 1 L of 5% GG for the anesthetic induction
of cattle (see Table 3).114 Five-percent GG containing ketamine (1 mg/
mL) and xylazine (0.1 mg/mL) may be used for induction and maintenance anesthesia for up to 2.5 hours (see Table 3).111
Telazol
Telazol (4 mg/kg, IV) produces general anesthesia in calves. 63 In

mechanically ventilated calves, Telazol produced EEG effects that were
643
consistent with those associated with general anesthesia in other species. 63 Variations in cardiac output, cardiac index, stroke index, central
venous pressure, and right ventricular work were minima1. 63 Arterial
blood pressure and systemic vascular resistance changed in a biphasic
manner; arterial blood pressure decreased at 5 minutes, returned to
baseline at 10 minutes, and increased above baseline from 20 minutes
until the end of the study.63 In another study, xylazine (0.1 mg/kg, IV)
was added to Telazol (4.0 mg/kg, IV) to enhance its anesthetic and
analgesic effects. 64 Arterial blood pressure and systemic vascular resistance had a biphasic response, increasing above baseline at 5 minutes
and decreasing below baseline at 40 minutes. 64 Pulmonary capillary
wedge pressure, pulmonary arterial pressure, and central venous pressure increased from 5 to 60 minutes; heart rate decreased from 5 to 50
minutes; cardiac output decreased at 5 minutes and returned to baseline
at 30 minutes; and pulmonary vascular resistance increased at 10 and
60 minutes. 64 The statistically significant changes were within normal
limits for calves and were considered clinically insignificant.64
Sheep
Barbiturates
Pentobarbital (see Table 4) provides 20 to 30 minutes of generally

acceptable anesthesia in healthy adult sheep.111 However, muscle relaxation and analgesia may be inadequate, recovery may be prolonged, and
respiratory assistance may be necessary.111 Ultra-short-acting barbiturates may be used for induction in normal healthy sheep (see Table 4).
They are not recommended for maintenance of anesthesia or for debilitated or compromised patients. If alternate induction agents are unavailable for sick and debilitated sheep, the dose of barbiturate may be
reduced by premedication.
Ke ta mine
Ketamine has been administered to sheep as a sole anesthetic agent

(see Table 4),7s Over 90% of the sheep experienced tachycardia, 80% had
muscle rigidity, 40% had mild salivation, and eyelid, corneal, and pedal
reflexes were maintained,7s Marked ataxia occurred in 90% of the sheep;
maximal anesthesia developed at 11 minutes and lasted for 23 minutes;
recovery was complete in 68 minutes. 7S
Diazepam and ketamine provided effective anesthesia in sheep for
15 minutes (see Table 4).IS Sheep suffered a decreased Pao2, mild respiratory acidosis, and a significant increase in systemic vascular resistance. IS
Diazepam and ketamine anesthesia may be extended by repeated intravenous injections of maintenance doses of diazepam and ketamine every
15 minutes. I6 After induction, minute ventilation and cardiac output
644
decreased and systemic vascular resistance and pulmonary vascular

resistance increased. 16 Sheep were conscious by 30 minutes after the last
dose, and stood within 1 to 2 hours after the last dose. 16 We use
diazepam (0.2 mg/kg, IV) followed by ketamine (4 to 6 mg/kg, IV) to
effect for intubation of sheep.
Intravenous xylazine and ketamine provided effective anesthesia in
sheep for 25 minutes (see Table 4).15 Pao2 values decreased, mild respiratory acidosis developed, and mean arterial blood pressure and systemic
vascular resistance decreased. 15 Intramuscular xylazine-ketamine regimens have also been described (see Table 4). Intramuscular xylazine
followed in 10 minutes by intramuscular ketamine provides satisfactory
anesthesia for about 25 minutes (see Table 4).110 Duration of surgical
anesthesia may be extended by administration of additional ketamine.1l0
Reduced dosages should be used for procedures lasting 15 to 20 minutes
(see Table 4).31 The duration of analgesia from xylazine-ketamine varies
both with route of administration and with body site tested.ll
Guaifenesin (50 mg/mL), ketamine (1 mg/mL), and xylazine (0.1
mg/mL) in 5% dextrose in water (GKX) have been used for induction
and maintenance of anesthesia in sheep (see Table 4).66,111 The amount
of xylazine in the mixture is 20% of that used in GKX for horses. GKX
administration resulted in relatively stable cardiovascular measurements
during 1 hour of anesthesia; significant decreases in Pao2 (36.4 5.1
mm Hg at 30 minutes; 48.3 7.1 mm Hg at 60 minutes) occurred. 66
Time to standing from the end of infusion was 96.3 48.9 minutes. 66
Administration of 100% oxygen through the endotracheal tube to sheep
receiving GKX improved arterial oxygenation (34.6 mm Hg to 47.2 mm
Hg); sternal positioning and discontinuation of GKX further improved
arterial oxygen tension (110.4 mm Hg).66 The authors conclude that GKX
can be used safely in healthy sheep being maintained on 100% oxygen.
Telazol
The effects of Telazol at various doses and by various routes of

administration have been evaluated in sheep (see Table 4).57,65, lOB Duration of anesthesia (about 40 minutes) was not affected by the Telazol
dose when 12 mg/kg, IV, and 24 mg/kg, IV, were compared. 57 Ewes
receiving the lower dose of Telazol had reduced cardiac output, minute
ventilation, tidal volume, and respiratory airflow and increased pulmonary and systemic vascular resistance. 57 Ewes receiving the higher dose
of Telazol (24 mg/kg, IV) had decreased cardiac output, pulmonary
arterial pressure, minute ventilation, and respiratory airflow and increased systemic vascular resistance. 57 Both doses of Telazol significantly
decreased Pao2.57 In another study, intramuscular administration of Telazol at 12 mg/kg and at 15 mg/kg, but not at 9 mg/kg, produced
acceptable anesthesia in sheep.lOB Surgical anesthesia averaged 35 minutes for 12 mg/kg and 51 minutes for 15 mg/kg. lOB Induction required
about 10 minutes for both doses; time from head lift to standing was less
than 1 hour for both doses. lOB All doses significantly decreased Pao2.108
645
Telazol (13.2 mg/kg, IV) and Telazol (13.2 mg/kg, IV) plus xylazine
(0.11 mg/kg, IV) were evaluated in sheep.6s Muscle relaxation and
analgesia were present with both regimens, although muscle relaxation
appeared better with xylazine-Telazo1. 6s Duration of analgesia was 101.7
26 minutes in sheep receiving xylazine-Telazol, while duration of
analgesia was 41.6 15 minutes in sheep receiving only Telazo1. 6s
Apnea occurred immediately after xylazine-Telazol administration in
two sheep, but spontaneous ventilation returned after 2 minutes of
assisted ventilation. 6s The Pao2 in arterial blood gases from three randomly selected sheep receiving xylazine-Telazol ranged from 40 to 81
mm Hg.6S One sheep died 2 hours after receiving xylazine-Telazol,
possibly because treatment of hypoxemia was delayed. 6s Telazolbutorphanol tartrate anesthesia has been examined in sheep.41 Telazol
(12 mg/kg, IV) and butorphanol (0.5 mg/kg, IV) were administered
according to two schedules; butorphanol was administered 10 minutes
before Telazol or simultaneously with Telazol. Telazol-butorphanol resulted in adequate anesthesia for 25 to 50 minutes and produced a mild
respiratory acidosis and transient hypoxemia; cardiac output and mean
arterial blood pressure decreased; and systemic vascular resistance increased. 41 The hemodynamic and pulmonary changes were not considered hazardous. 41
Propofol
Propofol has been used for anesthetic induction and maintenance

in sheep (see Table 4). Cardiovascular effects of propofol have been
examined in ewes. 91 Based on our calculation from the information
provided, between 4 and 9 mg/kg (IV) of propofol were used for
induction and propofol, 0.3 to 0.8 mg/kg/min, was infused intravenously for maintenance. 91 In this study, propofol anesthesia for 70 minutes increased heart rate and mean arterial pressure and decreased
hepatic and renal blood flow. 91 Propofol (2.5 mg/kg, IV) followed by an
infusion of propofol for maintenance (0.3 mg/kg/min, IV) was used in
pregnant ewes for 1 hour of anesthesia. 29 Mean arterial blood pressure
was higher and cardiac index, oxygen extraction ratio, and umbilical
venous flow were not different in the ewes maintained with propofol
compared to isoflurane maintenance at 1 and 1.5 times the minimum
alveolar concentration (MAC).29 Propofol has been used for anesthetic
induction (2 mg/kg, IV) and as an infusion (300 J.Lg/kg/min) in combination with 50% nitrous oxide in oxygen for satisfactory anesthetic
maintenance in the pregnant ewe. 2 Orotracheal intubation after the administration of succinylcholine resulted in transient, severe bradycardia,
which was attributed to the muscarinic effects of succinylcholine. Otherwise, propofol had no adverse effects on maternal or fetal cardiovascular
or acid-base status. 2 Recovery time (time to swallowing, time to sternal
recumbency, time to standing) in sheep induced with propofol (average
3.5 mg/kg, IV) and maintained on halothane for 30 minutes was not
different from that of sheep mask-induced with halothane and maintained on halothane for 30 minutes. 122
646
Etomidate
Etomidate has been used alone and in combination with other

drugs for anesthesia in sheep (see Table 4). Etomidate (1.2 mg/kg) and
alfentanil (18 f.,Lg/kg) in combination with nitrous oxide and oxygen
were administered for various surgical procedures in 20 sheep.112 Etomidate was used as the sole anesthetic agent in 40 animals. 53 After a dose
of 1 mg/kg, IV, surgical anesthesia lasted about 5 minutes and recovery
to standing required 10 to 20 minutes; after 2 mg/kg, IV, surgical
anesthesia lasted about 12 minutes. 53 Hemoglobinuria appeared in 10%
of the sheep; pain on injection occurred with an IV dose of 2 mg/kg. 53
Salivation occurred in 20% of the sheep.53 When xylazine (0.1 mg/kg,
IV) was used with etomidate (1 mg/kg, IV) surgical anesthesia lasted 20
minutes and recovery time was 1 hour.53 Side effects included salivation
and hypoxia. 53
Althesin (Saffan)
Althesin may be used for induction and maintenance of anesthesia

in sheep (see Table 4).35 Ten minutes of surgical anesthesia is provided
by an induction dose of 2.2 mg/kg, IV. Recovery occurs in about 20
minutes. 35 An infusion (0.23 mg/kg/min, IV) may be used for maintenance. 35
Goats
Barbiturates
Pentobarbital (see Table 4) has been used for induction of anesthesia

in goats,31, 102, 111 but is unsuitable as a maintenance anesthetic due to
marked ventilatory depression and lack of analgesia. 23, 31 The drug
should be formulated in sterile water because propylene glycol may
cause hemolysis in goats. 23 Thiopental sodium (10 to 15 mg/kg, IV) (see
Table 4) produces light anesthesia for 20 minutes; increasing the dose to
20 mg/kg produces dangerous apnea. 22
Ketamine
Ketamine (11 mg/kg, IV or 1M) provides about 30 minutes of

adequate anesthesia in adult goats (see Table 4).102 Because ketamine
does not provide much visceral analgesia, it should not be used as a
sole agent for abdominal procedures. Although diazepam may counter
the skeletal muscle rigidity of ketamine, the combination of diazepam
and ketamine may not provide adequate analgesia.
We use diazepam (0.1 to 0.2 mg/kg, IV) and ketamine (4 to 6 mg/
kg, IV) for induction followed by maintenance with an inhalant. The
combination is especially good for young, old, or debilitated goats.
647
Diazepam-ketamine is not recommended for anesthetic maintenance for

abdominal surgery because visceral analgesia may be inadequate.
Several regimens using xylazine and ketamine have been advocated
(see Table 4). A common intramuscular regimen includes xylazine (0.22
mg/kg, 1M) and ketamine (11 mg/kg, 1M), which provides about 25 to
30 minutes of surgical anesthesia. lID Additional ketamine (4 mg/kg, IV
or 6 to 8 mg/kg, 1M) prolongs anesthesia. lID A reduced dose of xylazine
may be administered before a reduced dose of ketamine for procedures
requiring 15 to 20 minutes. 31 Intravenous xylazine/ketamine regimens
have also been described (see Table 4).
A 5% solution of GG containing xylazine (0.1 mg/mL) and ketamine
(1 mg/mL) (GKX) may be used for induction and maintenance in goats
(see Table 4).111 The combination appears to be suitable for extended
procedures.
Telazol
Several dosages of Telazol have been recommended for goats (see

Table 4). Telazol (5.5 mg/kg, IV) has been reported to provide excellent
anesthesia for 1 hour.1D2 In our experience, an initial dose of Telazol (5.5
mg/kg, IV) is suitable for intubation and about 15 to 20 minutes of
surgical anesthesia. For maintenance, the patient should be supplemented with Telazol (1 mg/kg, IV) as needed (individual variation is
large, but approximately every 10 minutes). Recovery may be extended
when supplemental Telazol is required. The inclusion of butorphanol
(0.1 mg/kg, IV) at induction appears to improve anesthetic maintenance.
The cardiopulmonary effects of these regimens have not been evaluated
in goats. An oxygen source should be available for insufflation of patients that hypoventilate. Alternately, the patient may be maintained on
an inhalant after induction with Telazol.
Propofol
Induction doses of propofol differ (see Table 4). In unpremedicated

goats, the dose is 5.1 mg/kg, IV?8 In premedicated goats (detomidine,
10 J.Lg/kg, 1M and butorphanol, 0.1 mg/kg, 1M), 4.3 mg/kg IV of
propofol were required for anesthetic induction; anesthetic maintenance
may be accomplished with an infusion of propofol (0.52 mg/kg/min,
IV).12 For surgeries lasting about 80 minutes, recoveries are smooth and
rapid. 12 Times from ending the propofol infusion to extubation, to sternal
position, and to standing are about 7, 9, and 18 minutes, respectively.12
Goats induced with propofol (4 mg/kg, IV) have also been maintained
with halothane for 15 to 45 minutes; times from the end of halothane to
extubation, to sternal, and to standing are about 5, 9, and 14 minutes,
respectively.88 Periods of apnea/8,88 regurgitation,88 hypoventilation,12
and myoclonic activity of the face or limbs 78 may be associated with
propofol anesthesia.
648
Etomidate
Nitrous oxide and oxygen in combination with etomidate (1.2 mg/
kg) and alfentanil (18 J-Lg/kg)112 and in combination with an etomidate
(1 to 1.5 mg/kg/h, IV) infusion52 have been used for maintenance
anesthesia in goats (see Table 4). Etomidate is formulated in propylene
glycol and might be expected to produce hemoglobinemia in goats. We
have successfully used diazepam (0.2 mg/kg, IV) and etomidate (0.67
mg/kg, IV) to induce anesthesia in a goat with a tetralogy of Fallot for
cardiac catheterization.
Althesin (Saffan)
Althesin may be used for induction and maintenance anesthesia in
the goat (see Table 4).35,102 Althesin offers a smooth induction and rapid
recovery; althesin produces hyperglycemia in goats. 23
Opioids
Cardiopulmonary effects of etorphine and carfentanil administration in goats have been reported recently (see Table 4).37 Both drugs
produced catatonic immobilization, with hyperextension of the limbs
and neck, occasional vocalization, and chewing. 37 Etorphine produced
violent struggling and vocalization immediately after its administration. 37 Immobilization was faster with carfentanil 5 minutes) than
etorphine (5 to 10 minutes); recovery to standing was faster for etorphine
(1 to 2 hours) than for carfentanil (>2 hours).37 Pica, polyphagia, chewing, and vocalization occurred during recovery.37 Bigeminy occurred in
one goat and Mobitz type-I, second-degree atrioventricular blocks occurred commonly.37 Both drugs produced hypertension (probably due
to increased peripheral resistance), bradycardia, and bradypnea without
clinically significant hypoxemia. 37
ELECTROANESTHESIA
Electroimmobilization is aversive and does not result in unconsciousness, amnesia, or analgesia; it cannot be considered anesthesia.102, 110
INHALANT ANESTHESIA
Inhalant anesthesia offers many advantages for ruminants who are

very young, old, or debilitated; inhalant anesthesia is indicated for
procedures of long duration. Using modern inhalant anesthetics, anesthetic depth can be rapidly altered in response to the patient's status,
and extended recoveries from excessive drug administration (saturation
of redistribution sites or impaired metabolism) may be avoided. Cur-
649
rently, two inhalants are commonly administered: isoflurane and halothane. Enflurane and methoxyflurane are less common for ruminants.
Generally, compared to halothane, isoflurane is the inhalant of choice
for compromised patients because it is not arrhythmogenic, is less dependent on metabolism for elimination, and provides a speedier induction and recovery. Sevoflurane, a new inhalant used extensively in
human and veterinary anesthesia in Japan, is being investigated for
veterinary use in the United States. Nitrous oxide is infrequently used
for ruminant anesthesia. Nitrous oxide accumulates in gas-filled compartments and may promote tympany and hypoxemia in ruminants.
Nitrous oxide is not a potent inhalant. 1l3 Fifty-percent nitrous oxide
reduces halothane MAC by only 27% in calves. 105 Nitrous oxide (50%)
in oxygen when combined with fentanyl (3000 J.1g/kg, IV then infused
with 1000 J.1g/kg/h) in newborn lambs abolished behavioral responses
to tail clamp, but did not abolish response to sound. I25
Based on body weight, ruminants can be maintained on large animal circle-breathing systems (adult cattle, > 140 kg), small animal circlebreathing systems (calves, sheep, and goats, 7 to 140 kg), or nonrebreathing systems (e.g., Bain circuit) 7 kg). Oxygen flow rates of 5 to 8 L/
min in adult cattle and 2 to 4 L/min in small ruminants are commonly
used after induction; for maintenance, 3 to 5 L/min for adult cattle and
1 to 2 L/min for small ruminants are typical flow rates. Ill
Cattle
Anesthetized cattle usually hypoventilate during inhalant anesthesia; controlled or assisted ventilation may be necessary.45 The MAC of
halothane in calves (average age = 5.85 weeks) is 0.76 0.03 (SEM);
the addition of 50% nitrous oxide decreases halothane MAC to 0.59
0.03 (SEM) (Table 5).105 Hypertension, decreased cardiac output, and
increased heart rate have been documented in bulls and steers anesthetized with guaifenesin-thiobarbiturate-halothane. 93 Some bulls were premedicated: one with xylazine (0.12 mg/kg, IV), three with acepromazine
(0.02 to 0.03 mg/kg, IV), and one with acepromazine (0.03 mg/kg, 1M).
The bull receiving xylazine had the highest mean arterial pressure and
bulls receiving acepromazine had pressures 20 to 30 mm Hg lower than
the mean pressure of all bulls. 93 Hypertension developed in unanesthetized bulls and steers restrained in lateral recumbency; hypertension
persisted after anesthetic induction.93 In bulls requiring surgery, hypertension occurred and persisted during anesthesia and surgery.93 Plasma
norepinephrine concentrations did not change, and plasma epinephrine
concentrations decreased during anesthesia. 93
.
The cardiopulmonary effects of isoflurane and halothane after atropine-guaifenesin-thiamylal have been compared in steers undergoing
rumenotomy.33 At equivalent anesthetic planes based on the position of
the eyeball, mean heart rate increased above baseline in the isoflurane
group and mean respiratory rate increased above baseline in the halo-
650
Table 5. REPORTED MINIMUM ALVEOLAR CONCENTRATION (MAC) VALUES FOR

INHALANT ANESTHETICS IN RUMINANTS
Inhalant
MAC
Species
Halothane
0.76 0.03
(SEM)105
Calves
Halothane
0.97 0.0481
Sheep
Halothane
1.3 0.14
1.41 0.111
1.51 9
1.58 0.0781
Goats
Isoflurane
Isoflurane
Lambs
Sheep
1.5 0.34
1.63 0.171
Enflurane
2.0 0.4 4
2.0 0.18 1
Methoxyflurane 0.26 0.0281
Goats
Sevoflurane
Cattle
Isoflurane
Sevoflurane
1.8-2.2
(p red icted)4O
2.85 (predicted)27
Comments
Addition of 50% nitrous oxide
decreased MAC to 0.59 0.03
(SEM)
Pregnancy decreased MAC 25% to
0.73 0.07
Halothane has been implicated in
hepatic necrosis in goats76
1.01 0.06
Goats
Sheep
Sheep

0.18 0.01
Based on constant ratio of MAC values
for paired inhalants
Based 'on constant ratio of MAC values
for paired inhalants
thane group.33 Arterial blood pressures were not different in the two
groups.33 An interesting finding in these steers was that the end-tidal
anesthetic concentration was less for the isoflurane-anesthetized (1.3%
to 1.7%) than the halothane-anesthetized (1.7% to 2.6%) steers.33
Based on our review of the literature, the MAC of isoflurane has
not been determined in cattle. The addition of intravenous butorphanol
(10 mg) to isoflurane-anesthetized steers (mean weight, 215 7.76 kg)
undergoing surgery does not markedly affect cardiopulmonary variables; these steers had been premedicated with atropine, anesthetized
with guaifenesin and thiamylal, and maintained at 1.3% to 1.7% endtidal isoflurane in oxygen. 14
Sevoflurane anesthesia has been evaluated in atropine-guaifenesinthiopental anesthetized, spontaneously breathing cattle. 40 Based on a
constant ratio of MAC values for paired inhalants, the MAC of sevoflurane was expected to be 1.8% to 2.2% (see Table 5).40 At mean end-tidal
sevoflurane concentrations of 1.4% to 2.0% for 75 minutes, heart rate
and mean arterial pressure increased and mild respiratory acidosis occurred. 40 Recovery was rapid; mean times to swallowing, sternal recumbency, and standing were 3.9 1.9, 11.3 1.9, and 16.3 3.4 minutes,
respectively.40
Sheep
Minimum alveolar concentration has been determined for methoxyflurane, halothane, and isoflurane in pregnant and nonpregnant ewes
651
(see Table 5).81 Pregnancy decreased MAC by 32%, 25%, and 40% for
methoxyflurane, halothane, and isoflurane, respectively. MAC in nonpregnant ewes was 0.26 0.02% for methoxyflurane, 0.97 0.04% for
halothane, and 1.58 0.07% for isoflurane. 81 Cardiovascular and acidbase status was determined in pregnant ewes and near-term fetuses
during isoflurane and halothane anesthesia. 8o At 1 and 1.5 MAC, maternal blood pressure was less than 20% depressed from control, but uterine
blood flow was maintained due to vasodilation. Fetal oxygen saturation
and metabolic status were not significantly affected. so At 2 MAC, maternal blood pressure and cardiac output were decreased by >35%; fetal
desaturation and metabolic acidosis occurred. so In lambs less than 10
days old, isoflurane MAC was 1.51 %.9
Sevoflurane MAC has not been determined in sheep. Based on a
constant ratio across species of isoflurane to sevoflurane, the sevoflurane
MAC in sheep is predicted to be 2.85% (see Table 5).27 At sevoflurane
concentrations of 2% to 4%, dose-dependent arterial hypotension occurs
and cardiac output is stable; the arterial hypotension is believed to be
primarily due to vasodilation. 27 At 2% to 4% sevoflurane, slight depression of right ventricular function occurs (systolic segment shortening
with preservation of global right ventricular variables).27
Goats
Minimum alveolar concentration studies for enflurane, halothane,

and isoflurane have recently been completed in the goat (see Table 5).1,4
Reported MAC values are enflurane, 2.0 0.4% 4 and 2.0 0.18%1;
halothane, 1.3 0.1% 4 and 1.41 0.11% 1; and isoflurane, 1.5 0.3% 4
and 1.63 0.17%. 1 The cardiopulmonary responses of goats to inhalant
anesthetics are similar to those of other species.4 Halothane has been
implicated as a cause of hepatic necrosis in goats. 76
RECOVERY
Emergencies may arise when ruminants are left to recover from

anesthesia without monitoring. The endotracheal tube should remain in
place with the cuff inflated until the patient is able to protect its airway.
Patients should be able to maintain sternal recumbency before they are
left unattended. Additional benefit can be gained from allowing patients
to recover in quiet and comfortable surroundings. Anesthetized patients
thermoregulate poorly and should be left in an environment that is dry
and warm. Conversely, excessive ambient temperatures can be detrimental. Postoperative analgesics should be administered as needed.
652
ANALGESIA
Analgesia has long been neglected in ruminants. Analgesia and

analgesic techniques are currently being investigated in ruminants for
several reasons. Increasing evidence indicates that a real physiologic
cost is associated with unrelieved pain. Additionally, many small ruminants are considered pets and owners may request the use of analgesics.
Public pressure for the application of pain-relieving drugs and techniques in animals used for research and teaching is increasing. The most
extensive research regarding food animal analgesia has been conducted
in sheep. Sheep are considered to be pharmacologically and physiologically similar to cattle in many ways.74
Analgesia should be considered in the preoperative period because
growing evidence suggests that "preemptive" analgesia is beneficia1. 36,
48,116 To be most effective, the process of nociception should be inhibited
with analgesics before the initiation of the painful stimulus.36, 48,116 Although opioid analgesics diminish "wind-up," local anesthetics that
block afferent and efferent pathways are more effective in preventing
"wind-up." Local anesthesia decreases the intensity of postoperative
pain beyond the expected duration of the local anestheticY6 This probably occurs through the suppression of the hyperexcitable state ("wind
up") responsible for maintaining a degree of postoperative pain. 116 Local
anesthetic techniques are applied extensively in food animal practice
and are discussed in another article. This discussion of analgesics is
directed toward opioid and alpha-2 agonist analgesics that may be
administered parenterally or regionally for postoperative pain. Alpha-2
agonists are used epidurally for surgical anesthesia and postoperative
analgesia; opioid epidurals are used primarily for postoperative analgesia. 96 Parenteral administration of alpha-2 agonists and opioids has been
discussed earlier (see section on premedicants). Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory agents (e.g., flunitin meglumine [BanamineD may be used
as adjuncts to opioids for analgesia in ruminants. Aspirin (50 to 100
mg/kg, PO) and phenylbutazone (6 mg/kg, IV, 1M, PO) have been
recommended as analgesics in ruminants used in the biomedical sciences. 85
Analgesic combinations are now being investigated for routine management practices in the food animal industry. Xylazine combined with
butorphanol for castration in cattle (Table 6) has been examined with
respect to daily gain and gain/feed ratio, morbidity, mortality, chute
behavior, serum haptoglobin, and cortiso1. 24 Xylazine-butorphanol combinations (see Table 6) have also been reported for use during standing
laparotomies in dairy cattle. 60
Cattle
Xylazine (0.04 mg/kg, IV) should not be used for analgesia in

cecal dilatation procedures because it reduces myoelectric activity of the
cecum and proximal loop of the ascending colon.106 Xylazine epidural
653
(0.07 mg/kg, diluted with 0.9% sodium chloride to 7.5 mL) has been
evaluated as a method of sedation and analgesia for castration in bulls
(300 to 600 kg).13 Analgesia was adequate (19.5%) or good (80.5%);
sedation was adequate (97.4%) or profound (2.6%); moderate ataxia
occurred in 14.3% and severe ataxia occurred in 2.6% of the animals.13
Cardiopulmonary effects (bradycardia, decreased Pao2, and increased
Paco2) of epidural xylazine (0.05 mg/kg diluted to 5 mL) may be
significant in cattle with heart disease, lung disease, or gastrointestinal
disease and should be avoided in those animals. I03
Neuroleptanalgesia has been produced by the combination of meperidine (12 mg/kg, slow IV) and diazepam (1 mg/kg, IV).17 Cattle
maintained consciousness at all times; ambulation was restored at 3 to
4.5 hours.17 The short half-life of meperidine (less than 1 hour) makes
its use as an analgesic in farm animals impractical. 85
Sheep
Epidural xylazine (0.05 to 0.10 mg/kg) provided good somatic analgesia for open castration but only moderate visceral analgesia in rams;
pelvic limb ataxia was present in the majority of rams.92 The analgesic
efficacy (intensity and duration) of parenteral xylazine is significantly
reduced in sheep experiencing chronic pain. 62 Breed differences in analgesic efficacy of xylazine were demonstrated in sheep, but body weight
differences among the groups could not be ruled out as the cause for
the difference. 61 The usefulness of xylazine as an analgesic in sheep is
limited by its profound sedative and cardiopulmonary effects.
The analgesic, behavioral, and ventilatory effects of butorphanol in
sheep have been described (see Table 6).123 Butorphanol (0.2 mg/kg, IV)
provides analgesia for thermal stimuli, but not mechanical stimuli, in
sheep.123 With mechanical stimuli, analgesia was not demonstrated even
with higher doses of butorphanol (0.4 mg/kg, IV); behavioral changes
were unacceptable if the dose of butorphanol exceeded 0.2 mg/kg, IV.123
The safety of butorphanol for relief of labor pain has been examined in
the pregnant ewe. 68 Maternal and fetal cardiovascular parameters were
not affected by butorphanol (2 mg per adult ewe, IV); butorphanol in
the fetus equilibrates rapidly with the ewe's circulation. 68
Buprenorphine (see Table 6) has been evaluated for antinociception
and respiratory effects in sheep. Buprenorphine is a partial mu opioid
agonist. At 6 J.Lg/kg, IV, buprenorphine provided thermal but no mechanical antinociception for about 3.5 hours74 and produced no adverse
respiratory effects.124 At 1.5 J.Lg/kg, IV, buprenorphine provided 40 minutes of thermal antinociception. 124 Increasing the dose to 12 J.Lg/kg, IV,
did not alter the mechanical antinociception. 124
Fentanyl (5 J.Lg/kg, IV) (see Table 6) produces mechanical antinociception in sheep.74 Fentanyl, like many opioids, may cause dysphoria in
sheep. The dysphoric effects of fentanyl outlast the analgesic effects. 67
Droperidol (150 J.Lg/kg, IV) given 10 minutes before fentanyl (10 J.Lg/kg,
Table 6. ANALGESICS AND ANALGESIC-SEDATIVE COMBINATIONS IN

RUMINANTS*t
Drugs
Dosage
Species
Comment*
Ruminants
Xylazine
Butorphanol
50-100 mg/kg,
P085
6 mg/kg, 1M, IV,
P085
50 j.1g/kg, IV74
10 mg/215 kg, IV14
Sheep
Cattle
Butorphanol
0.2 mg/kg, IV123
Sheep
Butorphanol
2 mg per adult, IV68
Pregnant
ewes
Butorphanol
Detomidinebutorphanol
Xylazinebutorphanol
Xylazinebutorphanol
0.1 mg/kg, 1M, IV

D: 10 j.1g/kg, 1M
B: 0.1 mg/kg, 1M
X: 0.02 mg/kg, IV
B: 0.07 mg/kg, IV24
X: 0.02 mg/kg, IV
B: 0.05-0.07 mgl
kg, IV60
1.5 j.1g/kg, IV124
Goats
Goats
Recommended for ruminants

used in biomedical science
used in biomedical science
Analgesia for 1 h
As an adjunct to isoflurane
anesthesia
Analgesia versus thermal
stimuli
Maternal and fetal
cardiovascular parameters
unaffected
Empiric perioperative use
See text
Cattle
Investigated for castration
Cattle
Investigated for standing

laparotomy in dairy cattle
Sheep
Buprenorphine
0.005 mg/kg, 1M,

IV, SQ, Ip85
Ruminants
Buprenorphine
6 j.1g/kg, IV74
Sheep
Fentanyl
5 j.1g/kg, IV74
Sheep
Fentanyldroperidol
F: 10 j.1g/kg, IV
0: 150 j.1g/kg, IV67
Sheep
Fentanyldroperidol
F: 5 j.1g/kg, IV
D: 5 j.1g/kg, IV55
Sheep
Meperidine
100,200, 300, mgl

49 kg, IV44
5 mg/kg, IV74
Sheep
M: 12 mg/kg, IV
slow
0: 1 mg/kg, IV17
2.5, 5, 10, 20 mg/
48 kg/h100
Cattle

stimuli 40 minutes
used for biomedical
sciences
stimuli ~3.5 h
Analgesia versus mechanical
stimuli
Addition of droperidol
abolishes behavioral effects
seen with fentanyl alone
(10 j.1g/kg, IV)
Addition of droperidol
increased mechanical
threshold for nociception
See text for behavioral side
effects
<30 minutes thermal and
< 15 minutes mechanical
antinociception
Ambulation in 3.5 to 4 h
Detomidinediazepam
91.8 j.1g/kg, IV plus

0.7 mg/kg, IV95
Sheep
Midazolam
0.1-0.3 mg/kg, IV56
Sheep
Aspirin
Phenylbutazone
Buprenorphine
Meperidine
Meperidinediazepam
Morphine
Ruminants
Sheep
Sheep
No significant cardiovascular
effects; behavioral and
analgesic effects not
examined
Sedation 108 minutes;
hypotension,
electrocardiographic
changes
Mechanical and thermal
thresholds increased
tFor additional xylazine and detomidine dosages, see Table 1.
tDuration is rounded to the nearest minute.
655
IV) abolishes the behavioral effects observed in fentanyl-treated (10 f.1g/

kg, IV) sheep (see Table 6).67 Combining a low dose of a neuroleptic
drug such as droperidol (5 f.1g/kg, IV) with a low dose of fentanyl (5 f.1g/
kg, IV) increased mechanical antinociceptive thresholds (see Table 6).55
The hemodynamic effects of meperidine, an opioid agonist, were
examined in conscious sheep (see Table 6).44 Behavioral effects included
agitation in 3 of 5 sheep (mean weight 49 kg) receiving 200 mg, IV and
rigor and jumping movements in 4 of 5 sheep receiving 300 mg, IV.44
Heart rate increased 43% to 64%, mean arterial blood pressure increased
17% to 27%, and cardiac output (but not stroke volume or left ventricular
stroke work) transiently increased about 25%. 44 Meperidine (5 mg/kg,
IV) provides less than 30 minutes of thermal and less than 15 minutes
of mechanical antinociception. 74 Because the duration of action is so brief
and the behavioral effects so marked, meperidine is not advocated as a
postoperative analgesic in sheep.
Total body and regional clearance of intravenous morphine in sheep
have been examined (see Table 6).100 No significant cardiovascular effects
occurred at the doses studied. Ioo Behavioral and analgesic effects were
not examined.
Midazolam, a benzodiazepine, has been evaluated as an analgesic
in sheep (see Table 6).56 Thresholds of pain associated with mechanical
and thermal stimuli were elevated by midazolam (0.1 to 0.3 mg/kg, IV);
mechanical antinociceptive activity was attenuated by flumazenil (20
f.1g/kg, IV).56 Antinociception appeared to be mediated by an interaction
with the gamma-aminobutyric acid A-benzodiazepine receptor complex,
with no evidence of opioid involvement. 56
Electroacupuncture-induced analgesia has also been evaluated in
sheep.6
Goats
Goats are intolerant of surgical procedures without analgesia or

anesthesia; sudden death is believed to be the result of catecholamine or
vagally induced arrhythmias. 30 Xylazine and detomidine cause dosedependent sedation and analgesia in goats. The usefulness of these drugs
as analgesics is limited by their sedative and cardiovascular effects.
Butorphanol (0.1 mg/kg, 1M or IV), a mixed opioid agonist-antagonist,
has been used to provide preemptive and postoperative analgesia in
goats.
Several regional techniques may be used to decrease postoperative
pain and to decrease the amount of inhalant or injectable agent required
for intraoperative management. Epidural analgesia provided by lidocaine and bupivacaine results in sympathetic blockade (vasodilation and
potentially hypotension) and motor paralysis. In the case of bupivacaine,
the goats may not be able to stand for up to 11 hours.u5 Sensory block
without motor block may be provided by epidural opioids or alpha-2
agonists. Epidural morphine (0.1 mg/kg), 39,77 guanfacine (5 mg per 45
656
to 55 kg), and clonidine (750 /-Lg per 45 to 55 kg)lDl in the goat have been
evaluated. Epidural morphine did not cause cardiopulmonary depression or excitement (although one goat became transiently excited 30
minutes after the epidural) in goats after hindlimb orthopedic procedures; goats receiving epidural morphine were generally more sedate
and showed fewer pain behaviors than did the saline controls.77 Epidural
morphine (0.1 mg/kg) provided better analgesia than did saline after
abdominal surgery, with less muscle weakness than with bupivacaine
(1.5 mg/kg).39 Although not clinically evaluated, epidural guanfacine
provided longer (>8 hour) antinociception than did clonidine (5.5 hour)
using a mechanical pain model. IOI Both guanfacine and clonidine produced similar hemodynamic changes (bradycardia, decreased mean arterial pressure, and decreased cardiac output), but clonidine produced
greater respiratory depression. lol
SUMMARY
Sedation, anesthesia, protection of the airway during general anesthesia, and control of pain in the perioperative period are important
considerations in the management of sheep, goats, and cattle. Though
ruminants are classically considered farm animals and are often intended
for the production of food and fiber, these species are used extensively in
research and teaching and they are increasingly important as companion
animals. Whatever their use may be, anesthetic and analgesic drugs and
techniques should be used to ensure minimal stress and discomfort
during the perioperative period.
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Address reprint requests to

Gwendolyn L. Carroll, MS, DVM
College of Veterinary Medicine
Texas A&M University
College Station, TX 77843-4474

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