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Special Publication 8
Recommendations
and Guidelines for
Managing Caves on Protected Lands
WiLliamK.Jones
Jerry Trout
Copyright 2003 by the Karst Waters Institute, Inc. except where individual
contributors to this volume retain copyright.
All rights reserved, with the exception of non-commercial photocopying
entific or educational
Published by:
advancement.
Karst Waters Institute, Inc.
P.O. Box 537
information.
The Karst Waters Institute is a non-profit 501(c)(3) research and education organization incorporated in West Virginia. The mission of the Institute is improvement of the fundamental understanding of karst water systems through sound scientific research, and the education
fessionals and the public. The Institute does not issue or have memberships.
of pro-
This publication was prepared for the National Cave and Karst Research Institute under order
number P2360010071
/ 001.
The guidelines and recommendations presented here are solely those of the authors and do not
necessarily
represent
the views
or policies
of the Interior.
COVER PHOTOGRAPH. Fluorescein sodium dye is being added to a cave stream about 1.6
kilometers (one mile) from the entrance where the passage is completely blocked by logs
washed into the cave from a nearby timbering operation during storm events. Photo by William
K. Jones.
Cave Protection
Karst Waters Institute Special Publication 8
Preface
and
an overview
of the
science
that
conflicting
land-use
issues to resolve
in implement-
Not all of the guidelines presented here will be universally applicable to all caves or all agencies. Caves
occur in a wide variety of settings and each cave
will have some unique characteristics that require
different management strategies. It is hoped this
book will provide a good basis for cave protection
management
on federal
federal
pres-
agencies.
assessment
or site inventories
not
The references
consulted
regarding
and research
government
that manage
caves
questions
concerning
represent
the views
of the Interior
their extensive
comments
and sometimes
or any
have
statements
or poli-
agency.
mission
cave
decisions.
management
government
cave
information about the cave resources to the government and often take a keen interest in the manage-
different
agencies
lands.
Cave Protection
Karst Waters Institute Special Publication 8
TABLEOF CONTENTS
Part
I m
Cave
Resources
1.
Introduction
2.
FCRPA
3.
Caves
4.
Significance
5.
Karst
6.
Surface
of
Features
Depressions
..................................................................
Uncovered
Towers
Epikarst
......................................................
8
9
......................................................................
Drainage
Features
Basins
and
of
Karst
Hydrology
12
..................................................
13
..................................................
14
.........................................................................
Aquifers
14
....................................................................
Minerals
Biology
.................................................................
Drainage
and
Cave
Conserving
Speleothems
Minerals
15
.......................................................
16
............................................................
21
.............................................................................
Surface
Karst
Habitat
21
..............................................................
22
Cave
Animals
.....................................................................
23
Cave
Ecology
.....................................................................
24
Distribution
11.
Cave
12.
Archeology
and
Paleontology
13.
Cave
14.
Anthropogenic
2 m
.....................................................................
Closed
Karst
Part
......................................................................
Entrances
Recharge
10.
................................................................................
Surface
9.
Caves
and
Cave
...............................................................................
Karst
8.
.......................................................
..........................................................................
Karren
Karst
Processes
..............................................................................
Cave
7.
and
History
Management
Biodiversity
of
Cave
Animals
........................................
...................................................................
28
.........................................................................
29
........................................................................
Threats
to
Guidelines
Caves
and
for
Cave
Karst
26
29
..............................................
Resource
Protection
................................
30
33
1.
Cave
Protection
......................................................................
35
2.
Cave
Protection
Laws
35
................................................................
iv
Tableof Contents
Cave Protection
Karst Waters Institute Special Publication 8
Part
3.
Jurisdictional
4.
Inventory
5.
Public
6.
Cave
7.
Caving
8.
Cave
9.
Education
Access
User
to Protected
Groups
Safety
Agricultural
12.
Logging
13.
Spills
14.
Quarries
15.
Oil
..........................................
Gating
Cave
Mapping
3.
Drainage
4.
Water
5.
Digging
6.
Monitoring
..............................................
38
Programs
40
...................................................
40
................................................
41
Impacts
to
Caves
and
Karst
................................................
42
in Karst
Areas
Contamination
...................................................
Episodes
.............
Mines
42
...............................................
44
.....................................................
45
....................................................................
Tools
2.
Evacuation
37
Karst
Management
Inventory
37
and
Wells
Cave
.......................................................
Caves
Water
1.
36
.............................................................
Interpretive
Forestry
Gas
and
and
Investigative
45
Methods
.......................................
......................................................................
Basin
Tracing
Delineation
50
...........................................................
50
.......................................................................
and
within
Caves
52
.........................................................
52
..........................................................................
Cave
Resource
Protection
Guidelines
53
............................................
55
................................................................................
Appendices
59
...............................................................................
A.
FCRPA
of
1988
C.
Significant
D.
NPS
2001
Resources
Cave
F. BLM
Glossary
Biographical
Cave
and
and
--
Policies
Legislation
Karst
Circular
71
...........................................................
Designation
Management
E. Regulations
69
......................................................................
B. Non-Government
U.S.
Park
Service
........................................
to
NPS
Cave
Management
..........................................................
..................................................................................
Sketches
of
the
Writers
77
........................................................
Related
47
49
.......................................................................
for
35
on
and
and
References
Ownership
Effects
and
and
Caves
Rescue
and
and
11.
of
Cave
...................................................................
and
Closure
Urbanization
Summary
and
...........................................................................
10.
3 --
Boundaries
.........................................................
79
81
............................
85
87
89
93
0
C
0
Q
G
"0
0
o
Cave Protection
PART1
CAVERESOURCESAND PROCESSES
INTRODUCTION
is an extension
of the entrance."
associated
values,
and
assessment
preparation
of
of cave resource
management
plans
edu-
activities
future.
tion. Caves
are found
in a wide
range
of geologic
cave
resources
as a
and
associated
mineral
with
caves
include
formations,
animals,
paleontological
to be nothing
entrances. However,
caves
ancient structures containing
should be viewed
as
many delicate furnish-
remains, anthropological
and archaeological
artifacts, recreational
uses, and water resources.
The
protection of caves often requires an understanding
flora.
management
more than a
karst
Some
caves
caves
are
are natural
an
integral
museums
hosting
exhibits. Many
part
of
important
involves
iden-
changes
to the management
FCRPA
"cave"
lands.
means
According
any naturally
CAVES
The Oxford
cave.
pro-
void,
term
cavity,
dictionary
defines
"cave"
as: "n. 1. A
would
chambers
is naturally
formed
aqueduct,
or manmade.
sur-
Cave Protection
veyed,
Caves can
sage two feet in diameter with a couple of rightangle bends may enter the dark zone in less than ten
feet, while a hundred foot high tunnel may run half
a mile between
entrances
Cave entrances
without
diameter,
and a minimum
length
is not
been
conducted
by
cave
explorers
who
are
Cave
explorers
are understandably
sur-
biased
among
the various
ural bridges"
cave category
is made).
Monument,
California
(Jones).
setting, actually the hydrogeologic setting, is probably the place to start. A major grouping criteria is
whether the cave formed primarily by dissolution of
the host rock (karst caves) or by other processes (nonkarst caves). Karst is a landform created primarily by
chemical (dissolution) weathering as opposed to
mechanical
weathering.
or karst caves
caves (commonly
in clastic or
igneous rocks)
of cavers.
Numerous
presented
classification
in the literature
setting, 2.
of the passages.
of
formed
in non-
of rocks
with glaciers
Cave Protection
EACHDOT REPRESENTS
ONECAVE
t
1
Figure 2. Map showing general distribution of caves in the continental United States (from Culver and
others, 1999).
or size of passages,
manager
is asked
to manage
resource.
However,
the geology
are found
the surface.
in many volcanic
manager
--
caves
Even
unknown
passages
to be thoroughly
J
t
open following
a storm event. Many caves have, at
present, no known entrance. In short, the resource
entrance
explored
may collapse
Previously
in caves believed
may
a largely
unknown
and topography
of
stone, dolomite or gypsum bedrock that have developed characteristic karst topography of sinkholes
and captured surface drainage. Knowledge of the
types of caves and the hydrogeologic setting of the
area are needed
to develop
a management
strategy
for protecting
cave resources. Some caves may be
relatively isolated features and some may be seg-
feature,
but often
an area-wide
system of underground
passages.
Cave Protection
2003
199
19?4
U,l
1965
1949
( NUMBER
OFREPORTED
CAYE:S
I
500
1000
1500
2000
I ......
2500
..... I
3000
3500
4000
Figure 3. Plot showing the increase in the number of reported West Virginia caves by year.
represent
the most
solution or
numerous
and best
the number
cave reports
of caves
in Colorado
first systematic
Solution
Most solution
system of the
However,
some solution
caves are
formed by deeply circulating and often hydrothermal waters, and some, such as Carlsbad
Caverns,
by
reservoirs.
state cave
inventories
are maintained
are usually
by
not
SIGNIFICANCE
OF CAVES
on BLM
Caves are the habitat for many highly adapted animals. These animals range from small aquatic crustaceans to more obvious vertebrates including bats
and salamanders. The energy source for most cave
Recent
studies
of microorganisms
living
in
process
Cave Protection
geomorphic
and hydrologic
archeological
forestry, but the exploitation of karst terrains is difficult and in some areas has resulted
of cover soils.
cold-water
fisheries are spring fed streams from
caves and karst aquifers. Soils formed on carbonate
rocks can be very productive
for agriculture
and
in caves.
or cultural
discoveries
have
comes
Mineral
extraction
(quarrying)
is an important
paleokarsts
reservoirs.
conflict
activities
of man.
economic
important
"wild
values.
Caves
have
long
is an important
recreational
economic
interests,
but
KARST
of
activity.
these diverse
been
caves"
with
Karst is a landform or terrain where the primary erosion mechanism is chemical weathering
or dissolu-
},
T
1
I
i
v
v
Cave Protection
Karst Waters Institute Special Publication 8
Figure 5. Photo showing epikarst and cutter in road cut, Kentucky (Jones).
A cross-sectional
for
are: limestone,
dolomite,
marble,
the list
units.
of
the
most
important
cave-
view
of a mature
block
of karst,
weathered
zone
ment to karst. As the internal permeability of the soluble rock increases by water flowing through and
enlarging cave passages, the surface features adjust
to funnel more and more surface runoff
to the underlying
downward
Cave Protection
underlying caves. The presence of surface karst features is an indication of caves below, and in many
cases the surface
features
and
map.
water
from
the catchment,
but
amount
of precipitation,
on plateaus
underlain
world's
area above
the effects
of centuries
of
of the catchment.
protected.
non-karst
SURFACE
FEATURES
"pavements"
It is important that anyone involved in cave inventory work or site assessment projects prior to logging
or construction activities be able to identify surface
landscapes
to capture
are possible.
Cave Protection
Karst Waters hlstitute Special Publication 8
Figure 7. Photo showing karren developed on limestone outcrop, Tongas National Forest, Alaska (Jones).
assessments
in karst regions.
or removal
of a sediment
often
and sink-
surface disturbances.
considered
impacts.
to be
less
sensitive
to
sinkholes
An experienced
surface
karst geologist
Cave
entrances
provide
access points
Cave Entrances
Cave
entrances
may be considered
a surface
karst
themselves will meet the definition of a cave specified by the FCRPA. In many cases the cave entrance
is somewhat
accidental
a potential
especially
change
to the cave
environ-
through
the cave.
Cave
entrances
tures compared
may collapse,
and debris.
are usually
rather
ephemeral
fea-
covered,
Entrances
may
appear,
Even small
constrictions
may alter airflow, temperature
and
humidity conditions in the entrance area of the cave.
and
other
animals
that
are
Cave Protection
Karst Waters Institute Special Publication 8
/
DOLINE
UVALA
POLJE
Figure 8. Sketch showing
cross sections
in moun-
An examination
of the weathering
surface on the
rock will often show a range of small solution run-
logic
structure
corridors
were
names.
should be
Vertical joints in the bedrock may become solutionally enlarged and filled with soil to considerable
depth. These joints are called cutters and may range
from a few centimeters
to several
meters wide
and
filled vertically oriented pipes. The soil mantle frequently obscures the cutter, but the intervening
ledges or pinnacles of undissolved rock may stand
out in relief. These parallel ridges typically follow
the strike of the bedrock and have been called ribbon
karren.
features
called
solution
corridors
and
the
all closed
karst depressions
to have three
components:
1. A drain to divert surface water from precipita-
tion downward
aquifer or caves.
of karst terrains.
Some
sinkholes
are
The evolution
of
10
Cave Protection
Karst Waters h stitute Special Publication 8
SOLUTION
DOLINE
Y
COLLAPSE
SINKHOLE
VERTICAL
SHAFT
Figure 9. Sketch showing cross sections of types of sinkholes.
when
proto-caves
connecting
recharge
points
to a
of cave passages
feature
in areas
Numerous
classification
systems
caves.
to describe
sink-
holes have appeared in the literature, but some sinkholes may be a blend of several types or may result
from more than one mechanism (Figure 9). Solution
dolines are the most common
surface
overall and are usually funnel-shaped
karst feature
depressions
can
Cave Protection
11
has an underground
stream entering
at one
sinkholes
a non-karst
(Figure13).
Sinkholes may be relatively isolated occasional
features of the landscape and various setback
requirements may provide a degree of protection to
prevent pollutants and sediments from entering the
cave
systems.
However,
sinkholes
may
form
an
may converge
and coalesce
to
sinkhole or uvala. These features
12
Cave Protection
plain,
landscape.
Caves at various levels
the towers. Some of the small karst
islands off the coasts of Thailand and Vietnam contain a deep central sinkhole lake called a hong connected
to the
sea
by
base-level
cave
passages.
Poljes, the largest of closed karst depressions, are relatively rare in North America. The classical descrip-
and
can reach
tens
of kilometers
devel-
an ever-increasing
volume
in
a surface
watercourse,
by
pol-
the floor, and sink at the other end by entering another cave or ponor in the floor of the stream bed. Many
by non-karst
examples
of surface
karst are
Cave Protection
Karst Waters Institute Special Publication 8
13
Figure 16. Photo showing tower karst in Ha Long Bay, Vietnam (Jones).
contact
and reemerge
at down-gradient
springs
on base level
streams
or
downstream
across karst terrains may sink and rise and sink and
rise several times. These are called interrupted
streams.
Some
karst
stream
channels
contain
an
opening in the bed that functions as a sink point during low flow and discharge water as a spring during
high flow. These alternating orifices are called
estavelles.
sys-
(artesian), amount
of mineral con-
to karst. However,
fisheries
have
source
cold-
as limestone
14
Cave Protection
Karst Waters Institute Special Publication 8
:IPITATION
'ARUTOG
ENIC")
ECHARGE
)
RECHARGE
CLASTIC
ROCKS
LIMESTONE
1. Stream sink at limestone
2.
3.
4.
5.
contact
Sinkholes
Infiltration through the soil cover
Epikarst zone at the soil/bedrock contact
Sinkhole drain
main drainage
level
7. Spring
Figure 17. Sketch showing
recharge
KARSTDRAINAGEBASINSAND
HYDROLOGY
The protection
a cave.
mation
passages.
system.
Recharge
Some
karst catchments
cover
several
hun-
land.
Education
cave
will often have a karst and a non(Figure 17). In some settings, a non-
topographic
divides. Karst caves are notorious
for
passing underneath
surface ridges and the interbasin transfer of water from one surface catchment
containing
the cave passages.
If streams flowing
from higher elevation non-carbonate
rocks sink into
the non-karst
Recharge
that
Cave Protection
Karst Waters Institute Special Publication 8
contaminants,
or be deposited
CO2 + H20
15
H+ + CO32-(bicarbonate dissociates)
2HCO3
(dissolution of calcite)
this runoff.
water
Water exchange
aggressive.
may have
between
the saturated
rock matrix
recharge
water may
zone
and maintenance
of speleothems
can have
of sewage
is especially troublesome
in
rates
sited
reactions
are depend-
ent on the solubility of the rock and the aggressiveness (acidity and ionic strength) of the water flowing
through the caves. As the water moves through the
aquifer, more rock is dissolved, the pH rises, and the
solution
becomes
increasingly
less
in most
areas.
This
and standard
treatment
centers and
are attempting
to cor-
aggressive.
on karst landscapes
gas is present
in the
Karst Aquifers
emerges
having
cave
to transmit water from the recharge points to the discharge points. Some workers view the aquifer as
three components:
matrix or primary
perme-
ability, fracture permeability, and conduit permeability (Worthington, 1999). Primary permeability refers
tion are:
to water moving
through
intergranular
pore
space
16
Cave Protection
Karst Waters h stitute Special Publication 8
in older
carbonate
rocks.
Secondary
fractures
are enlarged
low
and fracture
in carbonate
permeability
rocks,
are usu-
but account
for
in younger
car-
standpoint,
the
from
a management
standpoint.
Caves
and caves
with
active
streams
above
the
water table are called vadose caves. Dry caves situated above the level of active stream flow are relic or
fossil caves. Many caves may have higher dry levels,
an intermediate vadose level, and a lower phreatic
level.
The streams
very rapidly
basin usually
requires
water-tracing
tests
CAVEMINERALSAND SPELEOTHEMS
What is and what is not a cave mineral? A mineral is
"a
naturally
occurring,
homogeneous,
ganically
or organically
chemical
composition
formed
and
an
solid,
inor-
with a definite
ordered
atomic
mineral
that is derived
from pri-
cave
mineral.)
cave
to occur as a secondmineral
is
not
common
stalactites,
helicitites,
forms
(out
of
many)
include:
minerals comprising
speleothems
include the carbonate minerals such as calcite and aragonite and
options
to reduce
or
the amount
of storm runoff
a cave is
or accidental
damage
or destruc-
tion by visitors
3. Changes
humidity
and
or
to
Cave Protection
17
environment
in which the mineral is found is one
way to determine whether a mineral is stable. The
is variable
activities.
and easily
For instance,
of a cave mineral,
influ-
during
the
the
years, humans
undergo
degradation.
precipitation
a unique
set of
from
water,
then there
a "normal"
thermodynamic
cave
environment
as being
classes
sulfide
or high
concentrations
of carbon
For
minerals
that
form
from
water,
sulfates,
and vana-
of minerals
known
and are
tl .0
,0.8
+0.6
I
o.4
,"
"%7%
> -+0,2
r..
silicates,
7 and 8 and an Eh
between +0.4 and +0.6 volts (similar to the groundwater field on Figure 19). In several caves, the "nor-
hydrogen
phosphates,
oxides and
carbonates,
"'-,"-
--h
"%
,i
%%,
0
-o.2
0.4
IO
12
pH
comparing
showing
Eh-pH
environments.
18
Cave Protection
Karst Waters h stitute Special Publication 8
Native Elements
Sulfur
Sulfides
Chalcocite
Chalcopyrtie
Arsenates
Arseniosiderite
Beudantite
Conichalcite
Manganberzeliite
Mimetite
Phosphates
Archerite
Ardealite
Biphosphammite
Bobierrite
Brushite
Carbonate-
Cinnabar
Olivenite
Galena
Strashimirite
Marcasite
Talmessite
Silicates
Opal
Allophane
Benitoite
Boltwoodite
Chrysocolla
Devilline
Ferrohexahydrite
Fibroferrite
Glauberite
Halotrichite
Hexahydrite
Clinochlore
Hydrobasaluminite
Cristobalite
Hydroglauberite
Carbonate-
Dickite
Jarosite
Carbonates
Calcite
Aragonite
Ankerite
Artinite
Aurichalcite
Azurite
Baylissite
Cerussite
hydroxyapatite
Chlorapatite
Collinsite
Crandallite
Diadochite
Dittmarite
Evansite
Fluorapatite
Francoanellite
Gordonite
Hannayite
Hopeite
Hydroxylapatite
Endellite
Epidote
Fraiponite
Halloysite
Hemimorphite
Illite
Ilvaite
Kaolinite
Montmorillonite
Nontronite
Palygoskite
Quartz
Rectorite
Kalinite
Kieserite
Koktaite
Leconite
Lonecreekite
Loweite
Melanterite
Metaviltine
Millosevichite
Misenite
Natroalunite
Natrojarosite
Pickeringtite
Braunite
Dolomite
Koninckcite
Saponite
Picormerite
Chalcophanite
Cryptomelane
Cuprite
Hausmannite
Hematite
Maghemite
Magnetite
Montep onite
Periclase
Plattnerite
Pyrolusite
Rancieite
Romanechite
Huntite
Hydromahnesite
Hydrozincite
Kutnohorite
Magnesite
Malachite
Monohydrocalcite
Natron
Nesquehonite
Rhodochrosite
Rosasite
Siderite
Smithsonite
Leucophosphite
Lipcombite
Minyulite
Mitridatite
Monetite
Montgomeryite
Mundrabillaite
Newberyite
Niahite
Parahopeite
Phosphammite
Phosphosiderite
Purpurite
Sauconite
Sepiolite
Shattuckite
Silhydrite
Tridymite
Sulfates
Gyp sum
Epsomite
Mirabilite
Aluminite
Aluminocopiapite
Alunite
Polyhalite
Potassium alum
Romerite
Rozenite
Sabieite
Sodium alum
Spangolite
Syngenite
Tamarugite
Thenardite
Tschermigite
Voltaire
Zaherite
Vanadates
Metacinnabar
Pyrite
Pyrrhotite
Realgar
Sphalerite
Stubnite
Oxides &
Hydroxides
Goethite
Ice
Asbolane
Birnessite
Borates
Tincalconite
fluorapatite
Tenorite
Strontianite
Pyromorphite
Alunogen
Todorkite
Thermonatrite
Sampleite
Ammoniojarosite
Calciovolborthite
Vernadite
Trona
Sasaite
Anglesite
Carnotite
Bohmite
Gibbsite
Vaterite
Witherite
Schertelite
Scholzite
Anhydrite
Aphthitalite
Desclozite
Metayuyamunite
Spencerite
Arcanite
Tyuyaminute
Lithiophorite
Manganite
Portlandite
Nitrates
Darapskite
Gewihabaite
Stercorite
Strengite
Struvute
Aubertite
Barite
Basaluminite
Vanadinite
Ralstonite
Hydrombobom-
Swaknoite
Bassanite
Acetamide
Halides
Halite
kulite
Mbobomkulite
Nickelalumite
Taramakite
Tarbuttite
Tinticite
Blodite
Boussingaultite
Brochantite
Glushinskite
Guanine
Mellite
Atacamite
Niter
Variscite
Burkeite
Oxammite
Bromargyite
Carnallite
Chloromagnestie
Fluorite
Galcite
Kainite
Sal Ammoniac
Sylvite
Nitrammite
Nitratite
Nitrocalcite
Nitromagnesite
Svelte
Vashegyite
Vivianite
Wavellite
Whitlockite
Woodhouseite
Celestite
Chalcanthite
Chalcoalumite
Clairite
Copiapite
Coquimbite
Cyanotrichite
Despujolsite
Urea
Uricite
Weddellite
Whewhllite
Lepidocrocrite
Organics
Table 1. Listings of the cave minerals by chemical class (compiled from Hill and Forti, 1997).
Cave Protection
19
damage
to the minerals
occurs.
Carbonates.
Calcite is by far the most common
carbonate mineral found in caves. Several other carbonate
minerals
are metastable
and a few
can be
here.
of water
to the halides.
However, these minerals are stable in a range of conditions, similar to but not over as wide a range of
conditions
as the carbonate
minerals.
Deliquescence
is the most common problem with regard to stability of the nitrate minerals (Table 2). These minerals
are highly soluble and are hygoscopic. Thus the
nitrate minerals
when
the cave
gets moister
(summer).
(Table2).
Phosphates.
Phosphate
minerals
are found
guano
guano.
These minerals
are stable in
These
minerals
form
when
water
evapo-
with
near
or coatings on the
of the minerals is a
Silicates. Opal is by far the most common of the silicate minerals found in caves. Opal is metastable
(Table 2). In the cave environment, opal forms by
evaporation
of the water
after carbonate
minerals
of mineral
degradation.
The sta-
available
suggests
The limit-
(transitional
environ-
ments, Figure 19). These minerals are rather insoluble and are found where the solutions enter the cave
class of minerals
atmosphere.
called Organic
minerals.
only
dry.
when
the cave
environment
These are
are stable
stays warm
and
20
Cave Protection
Dehydrates
Deliquescent
Native Elements
Pyrite
YES
Halides
Halite
Carnallite
Chloromagnesite
Galcite
Kainite
YES
YES
YES
Natron
Nesquehonite
Rhodochrosite
Vaterite
Nitrates
Gewihabaite
Hydromb ob omkulite
Niter
Nitrammite
Nitratite
Nitromagnesite
YES
Phosphates
Brushite
Schertelite
Spencerite
Struvute
Taramakite
Silicates
Opal
Endellite
YES
YES
YES
YES
YES
YES
YES
YES
YES
YES
YES
YES
YES
Fibroferrite
Glauberite
Kieserite
Lonecreekite
Melanterite
Millosevichite
YES
YES
YES
YES
YES
YES
YES
YES
Aphthitalite
YES
YES
YES
Tridymite
Sulfates
Endosomite
YES
YES
YES
Cargonates
Aragonite
Dolomite
Monohydrocalcite
Metastable
YES
YES
Marcasite
Oxidation-Reduction
YES
YES
YES
YES
YES
YES
Table 2. A listing of the "unstable" and the process by which the minerals degrade.
Cave Protection
21
CONSERVINGCAVEMINERALS
Two
excellent
articles
(Cabrol 1997; Veni 1997) describe how human visitation in caves (commercial and wild) can influence
these
parameters.
Their
findings
are summarized
here.
As human
activity
changes
the value
of
cence (self dissolving by drawing moisture), increases in humidity in the cave environment
can result in
because
of
complicated
scenario.
Humans
may directly alter the humidity just by their presence in a cave, or by altering the air flow patterns
through a cave by creating or altering entrances.
appear
and disap-
could
be curtailed.
comes
about degradation
from work
of cave
down
is much
greater
than that
required for the cave air to be heated up by the passing humans. These changes in temperature of the air
can cause (and have been shown to cause) degradation of minerals and prehistoric art in caves.
no degradation
seems to occur
degradation
does occur. The
of humans
is that we tend to
cave minerals
from damage.
However
the
visitor
BIOLOGY
Karst terrains are found
in a variety
of climatic
and
humans.
in caves.
grows
22
Cave Protection
Karst Waters h stitute Special Publication 8
the nearly
constant
environment
of water
these
endangered
are some
animals
of the most
yet, amazingly,
unusual
cave
and
animals
understood.
Obligate
cavernicoles
repre-
Program
rankings
to be vulnerable
and quali-
existence.
communities.
Those peculiar
organisms
liv-
ing within caves have limited tolerance to subsurface environmental changes imposed primarily by
anthropogenic
surface disturbances.
Those invertebrate and vertebrate species that are endemic to a
specific cave or cave system are particularly vulnerable and as many as ten species in the U.S. have been
Historically,
regions
vulnera-
were
used
for pastures.
The
plowing
Most of the world's karst lands located in humid climates were originally forested. Now, relatively few
of these forests remain.
found on the karst of southeast Alaska provide a picture of the original type of vegetative cover in this
climatic type. The wind-firmness of trees growing on
epikarst with thin soil cover may actually be somewhat greater than for areas with deep soils.
Windthrown trees in deep soils tend to fall when the
root ball fails and is pulled from the ground. Mature
trees growing
on epikarst
Cave Protection
23
relative
to adjacent
non-carbonate
areas is
many
farmland
on a subdued
more developed
ancestor.
areas
known
are found
as "glades"
in the southeastern
or
"cedar
states. These
species occur-
Daleafoliosa.
communities.
These
environ-
by
the founder
populations,
features
of the cave
environment,
pastures where limestones crop out. The productivity of karst seems to decline as the karst becomes
and pronounced.
colonization
The
adapted
a separate
cave
animal
at some
species
distinct
point
in subter-
show one or
5) lowered
fecundity
and lowered
meta-
volume
and development
time. In terms
of
(regressive
evolution)
as
of others (constructive
evolution).
These various adaptations
generate the convergent
characteristics,
combine
referred
to
to
organisms
(Christiansen,
1961).
shade.
Karst
features
such
as
sinkholes,
deep
and cave
and pro-
Caves
fauna
are a mixture
of
environment.
An example of an organism dwelling
in these habitats in the American
Hart's-Tongue
ecosystems
Cave Animals
ground
processes.
environments.
In essence,
are melting
Most,
pots where
subterranean
are the
making
up
communities
in subterranean
24
Cave Protection
Karst Waters h stitute Special Publication 8
HABITAT
OBLIGATE
CAVE
DWELLERS
FACULITATIVE
CAVE
DWELLERS
SURFACE
REFUGE
SEEKERS
TERRESTRIAL
Troglobites
Troglophiles
Trogloxenes
AQUATIC
Stygobites
Stygophiles
Stygoxenes
Table 3. Terminology
in caves.
(terrestrial).
The
animals
are then
sub-
environments
(some
salamanders
and cave
rats for example) (Figure 21). These groups are summarized in Table 3. Only the obligate category
demonstrates
the extreme
behavioral,
morphologi-
ranean life.
Cave Ecology
Caves are one part of an interconnected
complex
of
provides
of water
an eastern wood
rat
occurring
in order
to conserve
and determining
parameters
for
distribution,
and
entrance
abundance
of
fauna
a transition
of characteristics
(e.g.,
light, humidity, temperature) that may afford conditions for entry or survival for preadapted
species or
for relict species that are rare or have become extinct
Cave Protection
Karst Waters h stitute Special Publication 8
25
to these organisms
is transmit-
fluctua-
tions
waters.
associated
primarily
with
recharge
These variations potentially function as cues to initiate the reproductive cycle and to trigger molting of
this transition zone is its mixing of permeability, connectivity, and biodiversity as well as the important
productive
process,
photosynthesis,
that is carried
some
aquatic
arthropods.
In this zone
dependent
of perpetual
cricket guano).
characteristics
or in entrance
of organisms
areas. Diversity
decrease
solar radiation
(for example,
algae,
ferns).
considerable
influences
of
surface
of relative humidity
and atmos-
environmental
constancy,
the community
is
most
cave
ecosystems
(e.g., plant
debris,
bat and
in two situations
in the United
States.
and sulfur-oxidizing
few
this
caves
where
process
bacteria.
is active
include
Wyoming.
Although
evidence
that autotrophic
contin-
microorgan-
Deprived
of photosynthetic
herbivores
are mostly
communities.
primary
producers,
absent in subterranean
envi-
predators/parasites,
and decomposers)
systems.
On the surface,
photosynthesizers
Their absence
in caves
represents
a func-
26
Cave Protection
Karst Waters hlstitute Special Publication 8
communities.
Predators
and
decom-
extreme
conditions
that sustain
little life. Many caves are not rich in food but consist
of low energy, low density, and low diversity habitats. Their food webs are fundamentally detritus
communities
to assimilate
and invertebrates
available.
in importance
in cave
communities
and
demonstrating
expansive
omnivory
and
in states or within
various
plant
debris,
bat or cricket
guano,
mam-
Cavernicoles
are represented
transitory organic matter (dung) communities are situated usually within a few hundred meters of the surface with
a resource
base of organic
matter
(often
and particulate
organic
ultimately
matter
on dis-
transported
to encounter
extremely
rare to observe
Cave, Kentucky,
when
the entire
is the exception
logically diverse cave in North America with 45 obligate cave species reported.
spiders,
oligochaetes,
harvestmen,
snails, pseu-
mites,
ostracods,
and
numerous
other groups
Hadenoecus
subterraneus
vertebrates
[e.g.,
Myotis
of inverte(Scudder)grisescens
However,
these groups
can have
Biodiversity is a field of biology that studies the variety and number of different species or types of animals (species richness) present in a given study area.
Even though caves may have many species represented, the actual number of animals may be low
Cave Protection
Karst Waters h stitute Special Publication 8
27
--
.................
,,,...........
,.........................
, ..............................
well
concentration
of ani-
diverse
among
all organ-
environments.
the dominant
Of those,
component
aquatic
insects
of surface water
waters.
Conversely,
biodiversity
a cave salamander
(Hobbs).
as in Hawaii)
and limestone
caves
are devel-
to: Appalachians,
of subter-
ranean crustaceans
noted
in regional
that
expressed
caves is attributed
to inadequate
28
Cave Protection
Karst Waters h stitute Special Publication 8
NUMBEROF
TROGLOBITS
178
2
11
108
0
13
257
20
31
Appalachians
Black Hills
Driftless Area
Edwards/Balcones
Florida Lime Sinks
Guadalupes
Interior Lowland Plateau
Mother Lode
Ozarks
NUMBEROF
STYGOBITES
(2)
(8)
(7)
(3)
(9)
(6)
(1)
(5)
(4)
Table 4. Biodiversity
water
(1)
(9)
(7)
(3
(5)
(8)
(2)
(6)
(4)
263 (2)
2 (9)
13 (8)
164 (3)
24 (5)
14 (7)
319 (1)
23 (6)
82 (4)
7,441 (2)
284
9O4
inputs
to the caves.
Caves
of the
2,011 (4)
627 (6)
1,379 (5)
11,928 (1)
179 (8)
6,964 (3)
31,304
as many
subterranean
biodiversity
and
more
than
one-third
to this
are single
cave
isolates popula-
Regional
160 (9)
615 (7)
of some major karst areas of the United States. Ranks are in parentheses.
NUMBEROF
CAVES
85
0
2
56
24
1
62
3
51
620
Total
TOTAL
SPECIES
perturbations
species
by
focusing
habitat
conservation
of
cave fauna.
CAVEPALEONTOLOGY
species are
hotspots.
Troglobitic species are especially abundant in northeastern Alabama (particularly Jackson County) and
other
smaller
clusters
occur
in Kentucky,
Texas,
too far
Virginia, and West Virginia. Stygobites are aggregated in southcentral Texas (Hays County) with other
concentrations
disturbance
by scavengers
is probable.
The cave
roof provides protection from weathering,
and the
alkaline conditions associated with carbonate caves
in Florida,
Oklahoma,
elsewhere
in
cavernicoles
are
county
endemics
and
remains
have
been
deposited
in a cave,
of bones.
minimal
Fossil remains
may
in calcite.
Paleontological
undisturbed
lecting.
and protected
sites should
from
be left
unauthorized
col-
Cave Protection
29
caves
sloths,
mammoth,
tapir, peccary,
reindeer,
of North
ately reported
American
caves.
to law enforcement
authorities
and
ARCHEOLOGY
archeological
affairs.
Archeological investigations should only be conducted by qualified personnel that have all the
required state and federal authorizations. Study
methods may include looking for any signs of camping in the cave or drawings or markings on the
walls, excavating
trenches,
collect-
archeological
doing analysis of
is very important
investigations.
In many
cases,
from
Americans
underground
did
on
occasion
venture
deep
areas is in Mammoth
Cave,
and as a source
of salt. It appears
that
of sulfate minerals,
especial-
found
in caves
in the Mammoth
appears
Cave
to have suffered
usually
provide
excellent
protec-
to crime
scenes
where
or vandalism.
Any
material
removed
environment
in the cave.
measures,
at least
CAVEHISTORY
Many caves have been used by European
settlers to
supply raw materials, especially saltpeter (potassium nitrate, KNO3)) for the manufacture of gunpowder and bat guano for fertilizer. Saltpeter mining
operations were highly organized by the confederate
army during the American Civil War and numerous
caves
in the southern
Appalachians
contain
traces
looting
undisturbed
trace
such as leaching vats and hoppers (Figure 25) associated with mining and processing
nitrates
(Hubbard, in press). Names and tally marks dating
from the time of mining may sometimes be found on
30
Cave Protection
Karst Waters Institute Special Publication 8
Figure 25. Photo showing saltpeter hoppers in Organ Cave, West Virginia (Jones).
been written
tected within
to a secure loca-
attractions
long before
history of
part
about milestones
old signatures
on cave walls
of cave exploration,
are con-
ANTHROPOGENIC
THREATSTO
CAVESAND KARST
The activities of humans (anthropogenic threats)
may impact caves directly through cave visitation or
more indirectly through surface disturbance. Most
caves are low energy environments
relative to the
surface and alterations are generally permanent in
Cave Protection
31
Some anthropogenic
disturbances lead to alterations
of or complete losses of habitats. These disturbances
slash
and
sediments
7) construction
Figure 26. Photo showing a calcite encrusted saltpeter vat that was destroyed by vandals about one
month after this picture was taken in 1964 (Robert
Bergad).
the human
the
surface,
any
external
caves
adverse
are linked
to
environmental
in Table 5. In gener-
of:
minerals,
archeological
artifacts, and the void itself. Most of this vulnerability is due to intentional or accidental
activities
.
of visitors
to the cave.
and
caused by sinkhole
or
subterranean
voids;
and subsequent
flooding
dammed
rivers;
8) dams
at cave
entrances
from
and at
storage tanks;
of the cave.
into
of surface reservoirs
alteration
of normal
air flow
as well as
Caves
are fragile
ecosystems
of cave entrances
and some
32
Cave Protection
Karst Waters h stitute Special Publication 8
ACTIVITY
THREATS
Sedimentation,
Increased
storm runoff,
Possible
flooding,
Slash and
debris inputs
Agriculture
Increased
bacteria, Increased
storm
Cave Visitation
Cave visitation
increase
of caves or passages
prescribed
means
of
approach:
conservation
Preservation
the entrances
is
a totally
tactics should
as a sole
deficient
include
ade-
of man.
and
other
surface
and subsurface
karst
ranean ecosystems
ment program
agement
ecosystems,
are dependent.
is crucial
to
the
maintenance
of
karst
cover should
community
demands or whose
retain soil.
These surface
disturbances
greater
water
may inadequately
of these environments.
At
a minimum,
local populations
of various invertebrates, fishes, salamanders, and bats have been extripared and up to 10 species are known or expected to
and provide
a standard
of compari-
can be maintained
in secure
databases.
Analyses of these data should result in the establishment and employment of appropriate management
techniques.
Any
subsequent
recognition
of general
caves
periods
of time
PART2
Management
Cave Protection
Karst Waters h stitute Special Publication 8
PART2
MANAGEMENTGUIDELINESFOR CAVEPROTECTION
CAVEPROTECTION
Cave protection
ultimately
comes
down
to control-
land-use
prac-
tices not only directly above the cave but also for the
entire watershed.
Preparing
a cave protection
plan to
meet the goals of the FCRPA should involve the following steps:
1. Identify all cave entrances on the federally
protected
which
and contents
the condition
of the caves.
of the caves and their
water
.... Act of
lands.
Several
acts include:
8. Native American
lands.
2. Determine
this unique
parts of the
caves.
karst aquifers.
These
include
the Resource
Environmental
Resource
Compen-
9. Manage
the cave
of water entering
the cave.
manage-
ment policies.
activities
of pri-
vate landowners
or damage done to a privately
owned cave with the landowners
consent.
CAVEPROTECTIONLAWS
JURISDICTIONAL
BOUNDARIESAND
CAVEOWNERSHIP
resulted
in several
caves becoming
of America's
National
most
magnificent
Parks or Monuments.
The
for example)
Cave Protection
Karst Waters h stitute Special Publication 8
resource.
property.
The owner-
ship question may be even more confusing if different owners hold the land surface and the mineral
rights below the surface. However, once inside the
cave, the boundaries are usually unknown. An inter-
land. Establishing good relations with the neighboring landowners and public education may help protect the caves.
The cave
resource
inventories
information,
especially
of federal
entrance
locations,
recreational
These
speleothems
caves
are often
well
are managed
and conven-
decorated
with
of visitors.
advantage of the highly developed cave is that it satisfies most visitors, permits large numbers of people
in privately
owned
caves. Also,
state and federal water pollution laws may help protect the quality of water reaching the boundary of
government
ownership.
Real
protection
of many
Karst
or more square
known
visitation.
of visitors
approach.
INVENTORY
cave
The
cave
inventory
is a list of
caves
and
cave
resources.
These
less sensitive
caves
(not
as
trail over
a more
an easy-to-walk
natural
cave
route.
experience
This
without
of the
cave.
the nature,
resources
on information
and support
significance
within
a
of the groups.
generally
some caves is to keep its location, if not its existence,
secret. This may be true in some cases, but a land
manager cannot be expected to protect an unknown
contain
have
number
control
of
over
unusual
access
and may
minerals
and
Cave Protection
speleothems,
or have an unusually hazardous
feature should be closed to all except minimum administrative and research visits. Access to inadequately
inventoried
caves or caves currently being mapped
should be limited until the significance and vulnerability of the cave can be determined.
of the resource
nature of any
damage or collecting, guided tours, photo monitoring of sensitive areas of the cave, keeping cave loca-
entrances.
increase
in the temperature
of the
PUBLICACCESSTO PROTECTEDCAVES
Control of visitor access to caves will vary widely on
federal lands. The cave inventory should identify the
sensitivity of the caves to accidental or deliberate
damage
by visitors.
should be
gated
secure
forests
than caves
or rangelands.
situated
in large national
of undesir-
appropriate
for development
as show
caves,
open
collectors
or
cavers interested
in wild
in a tour of a
3. Cave divers
4. Cave mappers
5. Cave scientists
6. Cave for pay operators
schools"
and "adventure
7. Rock climbers
8. Inexperienced
Because
adventurers
caves,
sensitive
or other
are a curiosity
caves
also
public,
some-
attract vandals,
mineral
collectors,
and souvenir hunters. Caves are sometimes called an "underground
wilderness"
and visi-
wilderness
should
area.
who has
be properly equipped
and hopefully
explore
cave.
the particular
At
the
qualified to
a minimum
this
caves
requiring ropes should be properly trained in "vertical caving" techniques. Cave diving is a highly specialized and often hazardous sport. All divers
should
be "cave
certified,"
certi-
and mapping.
Cave mappers
exclusive
access to a particular
try to match
unsupervised
user groups are aware of any agency
regulations concerning
the cave. All cavers should
times places of great natural beauty, a scientific laboratory, and a recreational opportunity.
Caves present one of the last places on earth where an explorer
can "walk
where
no one has walked
before."
Unfortunately,
manager
CAVEUSERGROUPS
Caves
the cave
control
over who
visits
and want
a cave
some
currently
Cave Protection
Karst Waters h stitute Special Publication 8
under exploration.
This is understandable
passages
Scientists,
caves
often
on federal
can be determined.
from
universities,
lands
for many
have
studied
years.
Scientific
CAVINGSAFETYAND RESCUEAND
EVACUATION
CONSIDERATIONS
but, with-
on cave visitation
is
caves.
caves, is a controversial
subject. This is a relatively
new use of caves and the damage associated with
rock
climbers
than cavers.
popular
be a management
A cave
Cave-for-pay
diseases
operations
are similar
rafting ventures.
information.
to commercial
The outfitters
or dan-
to the caves.
white-water
Other
headache
of more
provide
cave divers.
these operations
entering
to a limited number
at the present.
or resource
manager.
Do the visitors
cavers or spelunkers?
call
Is their equipment
adequate? Is all their gear brand new? Are they carrying a rock hammer? Is the group size reasonable?
These people may be difficult to deal with, but a
clear policy on qualifications expected for people
seeking entry to wild caves should be developed
and consistently
fairly
enforced.
and equitably
resources.
Everyone
while
must be treated
protecting
the cave
all undeveloped
caves.
the standard.
"Traditional"
carbide
temperature
a "ceiling-burner"
Cave Protection
are associated
from infected
animals.
bat cave
associated
rabies
cases are
reported in the literature (Weiss, 2001). There is considerable controversy about the degree of risk of
exposure to rabies in caves. Anyone bitten by a bat
must assume rabies exposure and contact a doctor
receive
rabies vaccine.
nation
mally
recommended,
Routine
rabies vacci-
or explorers
but cave
resource
is not normanagers
spores
that can be inhaled.
range from none, to a condition
Another medical/safety
gas that is produced by radioactive decay of uranium that is present naturally in small concentration in
most soils and rocks. Radon is mostly a concern for
people accumulating long exposure times to cave air.
Although
rel-
in Mammoth
Cave,
KY and a minimum
measured
in caves
management
responses
(see
Sperrin
et al.
2000).
Caving safety is very much a cave protection issue
because recovering
an injured caver from a deep
for
damage
to the cave
environment
resource
working
itself.
long
is never a desirable
group.
Of course
the logistics
of evacuation
series of pas-
Cave Protection
section of
can
Speleological Society is well organized in its different regions across the country and cavers with cave
rescue training often volunteer for assistance in rescue operations.
courses
assessment
-- location
and injuries
be called and in
what order
3. Incident
commander
Field Coordinator)
4. Medical
7. Media liaison
8. Someone
to monitor
dur-
concerns.
Because
divers
carry a limited
air
in the cave.
1994). Caves
or areas of
resources
should
have
closely
con-
entry.
Gates
are not
to control
always
unautho-
vandal
sound
although
mate-
EDUCATIONAND INTERPRETATION
Recreational
cave exploring is an important use of
cave resources and caves with few easily damaged
ecosystem
mentally
entry of organic
CAVECLOSUREAND GATING
cave
proof
protection
for many
caves.
Education
Cave Protection
Karst Waters Institute Special Publication 8
or railway
lines cross
2. A conservation
message
dence
time
of several
years
or longer.
Great
care
these regions.
servation programs and experience in public education on cave related issues. Two booklets written for
6. Museum
and
conservation
,.
mes-
URBANIZATIONEFFECTS
ON
CAVESAND KARST
plant
and
A major
discharged
concern
for popular
to a surface
stream
show
down-
their treated (or untreated) waste products into sinkholes. This obviously degrades the environment of
the receiving
caves.
a concen-
karst aquifers
are "surface
water
influenced."
an increased
risk of accidental
chemical
Because
caves
are connected
to the surface
and ground-water
recharge
occurs so rapidly in
karst terrains, the effects of concentrations
of people
are magnified in these areas.
into sinkholes
con-
of in karst areas.
in
This
Cave Protection
Karst Waters h stitute Special Publication 8
means probable
contamination
by bacteria
AGRICULTURAL
IMPACTSTO CAVES
AND KARST
and sedi-
to be filtered in
and accelerates
the for-
support
and pastures
streams
sedimentation
in the caves.
waters
by sinkholes.
Excavation
work
may
cave being
discovered,
but it may
impervious
also tends
to increase
the amount
of
pastures
mean
that agricultural
com-
agriculture
contaminants
is
are
animal wastes,
sedimentation,
dispos-
increase
rich bluegrass
of
amount
stream banks. Caves with large entrances and blowing cold air in the summer can attract a lot of livestock to the entrance area.
and often
of questionable
effec-
to anyone
enter-
solvents
have
contaminated
a surprising
hydrocarbons
and do not
troublesome
amount
of practical
control
over
the animal
cant caves
or obvious
points
of surface
inputs
to
LOGGINGAND FORESTRY
IN KARSTAREAS
community
(Hobbs, 1987).
Organic
The
in karst situations.
The principle impacts of logging on caves are sedimentation and debris load. Alteration of the storm
pulse through the cave is another potential problem.
Alteration of the root zone may affect carbon dioxide
production
forested
areas is complex
and depends
of surface
of caves
on
on many fac-
karst development
and
Cave Protection
the
duration
--
intensity
--
frequency
of storm
fed surface
sites,
streams
are factors.
This means
that a
non-karst
a no
road
construction
and
no
harvest
approach will be the best protection. This is especially true for high vulnerability karst with mature
or road construction
or old growth
is done
in a karst watershed.
the discharge
epikarst,
occa-
sional and widely spaced sinkholes, few or no sinking or loosing streams, and moderate
slopes. The
standard practice for these areas has been to leave
around
sinkholes,
cave
entrances,
can pro-
vide fair protection for the caves if no major depressions are missed and if the buffer strips remain
windfirm.
Trying to protect
ing individual
between
cave resources
karst features
conservation
and
by isolat-
is a compromise
commercial
interests.
surface expression.
forests.
caves. Buffers,
be left around
even if it is downed
sinkholes
timber,
of the forest
to a mature
condition,
it
as streams
and given
protection
as required
for streams.
as much
or more
Maintain
roadside
vegeta-
tion.
caves.
sion of the logs are desirable. Helicopter logging may be useful in particularly sensitive
areas. Equipment
with low-pressure
tires and
Cave Protection
on karst terrains.
to breakdown
woody debris.
9. The fire control policy should maintain as
much as possible the natural burning frequency and intensity for the area. Avoid burning
on areas with thin soil cover or exposed
and
SPILLSAND WATER
CONTAMINATION
EPISODES
logging,
released
over
a period
of months
or years.
Tracer tests from the spill site may be used to identify the likely flow routes if the contaminant itself
does not act as a reliable tracer.
Cave Protection
Karst Waters Institute Special Publication 8
Any
suspicion
of a water
contamination
problem
QUARRIESAND MINES
Previously
unknown
However,
blasting. Haul roads for the quarry may cross sensitive karst areas and runoff from the quarry may enter
at some
point.
Deep
quarries
often
go
as discussed
for
quarries.
Mines may intercept
and alter underground streams and create excessive sediment loads.
chemicals
are
the significance
of chemicals.
the caves
passages
away.
or cave
caves
into caves.
Hydrocarbons
may actually
be stored in
those fea-
cements
or grouts,
and hydrocarbon
leaks or
spills. Grouting operations may also restrict groundwater movement and alter water quality and quantity. Vented or escaped gases such as natural gases or
hydrogen
sulfide may enter the caves. Some problems may occur in the future as the well casings
deteriorate.
A BLM/Industry Cave and Karst Task Force developed standards for minimizing the potential impacts
of oil and gas drilling on caves (Goodbar, 1991). A
three-step
procedure
was presented:
operations
field
and geophysical
measures
were
pro-
of the procedures
target. Recommended
and permanent
liners to contain
spills
4. Use of stock tank vapor recovery
systems
Figure 31. Photo showing a sawdust pile completely surrounding a cave entrance, Virginia (Jones)
discussion
PART3
Management
i
Cave Protection
49
PART 3
MANAGEMENTAND INVESTIGATIVEMETHODS
CAVEINVENTORY
contents,
significance,
exploration
hazards,
and the potential threats to the cave. This task is initially a search for cave entrances.
of known
caves.
Cave entrances
may
communications
must be maintained
between
managers.
databases
or' spreadsheets.
Fields
number
-- usually
estab-
feature or named
for
-- UTM coordinates
and/or
latitude
for reaching
Any maps
the cave
hazards,
equipment
required
minerals,
of use
7. Trip reports
8. Photographs
showing
major features;
and
the cave
program.
secret.
2. Directions
1. Who found
and contents,
between
the federal
agencies
and inter-
consider
cave
infor-
Cave Protection
CAVEMAPPING
of caves
in several
National
exceptions, the cooperation between the various caving groups and the federal cave resource managers
has been very good. Problems
have occasionally
arisen when
competing
groups
want exclusive
access to the same cave. Cavers are always hoping to
cave resources
among
on federal
the
is a
of art.
"stations"
through
out the
mappers)
is usually
to "survey
as you go."
DRAINAGEBASINDELINEATION
The fundamental unit for protecting a cave is the
area contributing
cave. Normally
the drainage
basin
for a stream
is
potential ground-water
contributing area is assumed
to be roughly the same as the surface catchment.
However, subsurface streams in karst areas are noto-
are recorded
processed
in a survey
using
a cave
interbasin
floodwater
non-soluble
rocks,
contributing
without damaging the cave. Few, if any, of the incave stations are permanent. Some parks establish a
small brass "bench mark" at the entrance station
(allogenic water).
require
some
consideration
for
the
removal
of
so the actual
karst part
on
of the
made between
human
divides and
area. Usually
a distinction
is
hydrogeologic
set-
maps.
Cave Protection
51
1(2.59)
10(25.9)
DRAINAGE
AREASQUARE
MILES
(SQUARE
KM)
(259) 100
Figure 32. Graph for estimating the drainage basin area of a spring if average annual runoff and recharge
are known
area.
in rela-
52
Cave Protection
WATERTRACING
dows in the area are sampled until the dye is detected or until some
prescribed
The
of diffuse-flow
function during high flow conditions and may discharge to a different spring or karst basin at these
times. Also,
are usually
depicted
DIGGINGFORAND WITHINCAVES
Some highly significant caves, such as Lechuguilla,
are
accessible
Although
only
through
artificial
entrances.
is
often a productive
way to find new caves or reopen
caves whose entrances have collapsed or been silted
shut, there are some environmental
risks and
changes to the cave environment
associated
with
opening
a new entrance.
aquifers.
Entrances provide
the cave chambers
the lower
activated
carbon
or unbleached
cotton
are often
a quantitative
test will
be necessary.
Quantitative tests require direct sampling or monitoring of the spring waters for the duration of dye
recovery and graphically plotting the "breakthrough"
curve
(time/concentration
curve).
moving
changes
in
the
in summer.
barometric
Caves
containing
pressure
outside.
fairly
constant
year round,
air movement
may affect the humidity of the cave and impact mineral growth
to full explosive
charges, to using a
trackhoe or bulldozer. Anything other then the simplest dig should only be undertaken by experienced
people after an evaluation of the risk and benefits
associated with the project. Obviously blasting and
heavy equipment operations will not be suitable in
many protected
environments.
conduct
the tracing
studies.
The
and serv-
ice monitoring
state water
require
and health
permits
departments.
to conduct
Some
water-tracing
states
tests. In
Arrangements
will
have
to be made
sensors.
A few
may be an environmentally
caves
preferable
are accessible
option
to fre-
Cave Protection
53
humidity,
gas concentration.
on what parties
of cave explorers
of a couple
to the cave.
However,
any blasting
and possibly
open passage
MONITORING
Regular
reassessment
should
be an integral
part of any management
plan.
Monitoring is a regular or continuous observation or
Monitoring
should
document
the successes
managers
should
allowable
number
establish
This may
the "visi-
include
of visitors
the
per hour,
the condition
prior
to human
to evaluate
the future
condition
of the
resources.
should
be as non-invasive
to the cave
as
may include
regular
photo
documenta-
and
activities
in the catchment,
continuous
surveys
(2002) recommended
monitored
of various
cave animals.
Cigna
temperature,
relative
methods
and radon
include:
is found.
concentration,
Monitoring
usually recorded
ic "data loggers"
dioxide
carbon
measurements
within
the catch-
patterns.
discharg-
or passage
sections.
A consistent
composition
54
Cave Protection
counters
or cameras
at the cave
methods
include
direct observa-
monitoring
equipment,
and
indirect methods such as measuring the deposition of fresh guano after bats have emerged
from the cave.
Information
from
must be reviewed
of the cave
SUMMARY
Cave Resource Protection Guidelines
Cave Protection
SUMMARYOF CAVERESOURCEPROTECTIONGUIDELINES
may develop
a topography
around
resources,
An understanding
of the geo-
may
by
of the Interior.
to the resources
characterized
cul-
an important management
decision will involve
the protection of surface karst features. If sink-
and
educational
and
scientific
uses.
The
cave
and
protection
protocols
for
cave.
National
Alabama
have collected
on caves
then
protection
of
the
area
around
the cave
spaced,
of water entering
the caves.
biological
processes
in the
cave.
Surface
water
entering
the
cave.
Changes
to the
entrances may change the humidity and temperature of the air in different passages. The presence
of people or lights may increase the temperature
underground.
The cave resource manager should
try and maintain natural circulation and transfer
rates in the underground
environment.
tions
of
caves
inventoried
on
Federal
lands
manager
caves. Human
the Freedom
of Information
Act.
visitation
should
control
the
to
to the surface
by numerous,
but often
unseen,
58
Cave Protection
Karst Waters Institute Special Publication 8
visitors
may
to
be
12. Any
construction
damage
wilderness."
Education of visitors to good caving
practices and explanation of the rules and regula-
projects
be
environment.
As much
may
visitor contact
cave entrances
procedure.
The opening of new
or "digging"
for additional pas-
around
to control
visitor
may
of animals
to and
from
the
impact
caves
nificant
threats
reserves
around
always provide
by increased
to
cave
surface
resources.
adequate
protection
emergency.
amount
Cave
rescues
may not
for the
caves.
should
be carefully
inventoried
quarrying,
Creating
karst features
cave,
of
sedimentation
or oil and
can be very
to cave resources.
15. Monitoring
of the condition
results should
at regular
tiveness
intervals
be reviewed
and com-
to evaluate
the effec-
protocols.
REFERENCES
Cave Protection
References 61
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Mammoth
1997, Archeology
of the subterranean
400p.
of the
(Eds),
Ency-
zoonoses:
Medicine,
in
4th edi-
Cave Protection
References 67
techniques
for repairing
for-
and speleothems:
W.B.,
and
White,
E.L.,
(Eds.),
1989, Karst
P.W.,
1993,
Environmental
change
and
H., Culver,
D.C., Humphreys,
W.F., (Eds.),
791p.
origin:
in
Wood,
ecosystem
--
fur Hydrobiologia,
v. 155, n. 2, 223-237.
strate-
I.D.,
P.A.,
carbonate
tion: in Klimchouk,
aquifers
as a result of solu-
Slovakian
151-163.
research in the
v. 31, n.1,
landowners
in
limestone
regions:
Cave
APPENDICES
A. FCRPAof 1988
B. Non-Government
Resources
Cave Protection
AppendixA
Appendix
71
A.
THEFEDERALCAVERESOURCESPROTECTIONACT OF 1988
lands be managed
pro-
signifi-
SECTION 3. DEFINITIONS
For purposes of this Act::
1. CAVE
The
Actions
means
any
naturally
occurring
pas-
extension
AND POLICY
(a) Findings. The Congress finds and declares that-caves on Federal lands are an
caves are
of the entrance.
2. FEDERALLANDS
The term "Federal lands" means lands the fee title to
which is owned by the United States and administered by the Secretary of Agriculture or the Secretary
of the Interior.
3. INDIAN LANDS.
The term "Indian lands" means lands of Indian
tribes or Indian individuals which are either held in
trust by the United States for the benefit of an Indian
tribe or subject to a restriction against alienation
imposed by the United States.
4. INDIAN TRIBE.
The term
"Indian
tribe"
significant
5. CAVE RESOURCE.
substance
or
any
group
Indian
tribe,
or communi-
means
"cave"
2. in some instances,
term
void, cavit
enter, whether
or not the entrance
is naturally
formed or manmade.
Such term shall include any
Provisions
which
caves.
Table of Contents
1. significant
in a manner
resource"
occurring
includes
naturally
any material
in caves
or
on Federal
72
Cave Protection
AppendixA
deposits,
sediments,
minerals,
speleogens,
and
speleothems.
term
cave
"Secretary"
Agriculture
means
the
Secretary
of
priate.
recommended
to the Secretary
by interested
prescribed
pursuant
to this para-
7. SPELEOTHEM.
The term "speleothem"
formation
or deposit
means
any natural
occurring
mineral
in a cave
or lava
lagmite,
helictite,
caveflower,
drapery, rimstone,
flowstone,
or formation
concretion,
of clay or mud.
2. regulation
means
and floor
relief features
of any cave
on the
to anastomoses,
scallops,
meander
to volcanic
the
purposes
of
caves.
the
shall
cooperate
and
consult
with
Secretaries
should
foster communication,
Act.
and
in
cooperation,
and
public.
one
be similar.
community;
caving
Regulations shall include, but not be limited to, criteria for the identification of significant caves The
Secretaries
agree-
management
committees
to
into volunteer
or lava tube
of use of significant
caves, as appropriate;
3. entering
recreational
necessary
or restriction
8. SPELEOGEN.
ceiling,
walls,
6. SECRETARY.
The
SECTION 5. CONFIDENTIALITY OF
INFORMATIONCONCERNINGNATURE
to) --
with
ests, including
appropriate
private
sector
inter-
cavers.
sector
interests,
not
create
a substantial
destruction
of such cave.
risk
of
including
cavers.
The
harm,
theft,
or
(B) The initial list of significant caves shall be updated periodically, after consultation with appropriate
private
agencies
or bona
AppendixA
Cave Protection
73
of
by van-
or removal,
8 or upon
from
any
cave
the permittee's
conviction
cant religious
treated as a violation
or cultural importance.
Such
of section 7.
or
who
LANDS.--
on
under
located
resource
Any permit
or
section
or removal
any permit.
permits
74
Cave Protection
AppendixA
procures,
solicits,
to violate
any
order assessing
Nothing in this section shall be deemed applicable to any person who was in lawful possession of a cave resource from a significant
cave prior to the date of enactment
of this Act.
and appropriateness
of such
(a) ASSESSMENT.-
offense,
was issued.
same
occurred
at the
time.
(d) SUBPOENAS. -- The Secretary may issue subpoenas in connection with proceedings under this
subsection compelling the attendance and testimony
of witnesses
and subpoenas
duces
tecum,
and may
and impose
sanctions.
SECTION 9. MISCELLANEOUSPROVISIONS.
(a) AUTHORIZATION. -- There are authorized to
be appropriated $100,000 to carry out the purposes
of this Act.
revision
of a civil penalty
under
this section
may file a petition for judicial review of such assessment with the United States District Court for the
District of Columbia or for the district in which the
received
by the United
States as a
7; or col-
AppendixA
Cave Protection
75
(to the extent provided for in advance in appropriation Acts) as determined by the Secretary for the
improved
management,
benefit,
repair,
or restora-
resource;
repeal, interpret,
modify,
or be in
related right.
(a) WATER. -- Nothing in this Act shall be construed
as authorizing the appropriation of water by any
Federal,
Indian
tribe, or any
Cave Protection
AppendixB 77
Appendix
Cave Management
Forests
that contain
concerns.
caves
ongoing
research programs,
often in cooperation
with various universities.
The U.S. Geological
and
Biological
resources.
sur-
studies
in karst regions.
private
cave protection
American
organizations
with an interest in
and management
Cave Conservation
problems.
Kentucky,
dedicated
Association
headquartered
assis-
Association
Promotes
(www.batcon.org)
research and pub-
scien-
Park Service
government
and other
agencies.
academic,
non-profit,
and
agencies for some years. The NSS also has an internal network of volunteers in the event of an accident
deep in a cave. A list of "cave rescue phone num-
and conducts
A reference
library
on cave
related
subjects is maintained. Suppliers of caving equipment and books related to caves may be found in
advertisements in the NSS News.
(www.karstwaters.org)
institute provides
Symposiums.
This is a group of karst scientists interested in multidisciplinary karst research at the graduate level. The
Karst Waters Institute hosts international symposia
on various
International
P. O. Box 162603
Austin, TX 78716
Karst Waters Institute
P. O. Box 537
in Horse Cave
Bat Conservation
Carlsbad,NM 88220
operates an educational
museum.
It is
to cave and karst conservation
and man-
Resources
(www.cavern.org)
This organization,
B.
train-
AppendixC 79
Cave Protection
Karst Waters Institute Special Publication 8
Appendix C.
Significant
Cave Designation-
significant
Historic
caves.
Places because
of their research
for
scientific,
educational,
and
recreational
purposes, the opportunity to nominate potential significant caves. The authorized officer will give public notice, including a notice published in the Federal
Register, calling for nominations for the initial listing, including procedures for preparing and submitting the nominations.
Nominations
land where the cave is located as new cave discoveries are made or as new information
becomes avail-
information
becomes
within
the limits
threatened,
or endangered
species
or traditional
(3) Geologic/Mineralogic/Paleontologic.
cave possesses
features:
The
(i) Geologic or mineralogic features that are fragile, or that exhibit interesting
formation
processes,
or
past events.
(iii) Paleontologic resources with potential to contribute useful educational and scientific information.
(4) Hydrologic. The cave is a part of a hydrologic system or contains water that is important to humans, biota, or development
of cave
or other historical
for subsequent
listings will be accepted from governmental agencies and the public by the agency that manages the
ter documentation
available.
associations,
significance.
or archaeological
resources
resources.
or impact;
are notable.
resource
management
plans. Accord-
ingly, all caves on National Park Service administered lands are deemed to fall within the definition
of "significant
cave."
(as
(e) Special management areas. Within special management areas that are designated wholly or in part
80
Cave Protection
AppendixC
found
as a permanent
officer
determines
and
evaluated under paragraphs (a) and (b) of this section meets one or more of the criteria in paragraph
bound-
shall include
statement of finding signed and dated by the authorized officer, and the information used to make the
determination. This documentation will be retained
record in accordance
passages
not mapped
or dis-
initially believed to be separate for which interconnecting passages are discovered after significance is
determined.
AppendixD 81
Cave Protection
Karst Waters h stitute Special Publication 8
Appendix D.
2001 NPS Management Policies
Referencing
Caves
Information
resources,
processes,
systems,
and values
of units of
those resources at
This can occur, for
the national park system in an unimpaired condition, to perpetuate their inherent integrity and to
provide present and future generations with the
opportunity to enjoy them.
sites,
example, with regard to caves, archeological
and rare plant and animal species. Some types of
personnel
and law enforcement
matters are other
processes
(FOIA).
Information will also be withheld when the NPS has
entered into a written agreement (e. g., deed of gift,
interview
release, or similar written contract) to
law, a subpoena,
a court order, or a
federal audit.
of the natural resources, processes, systems, and values of the parks. The Service recognizes that natural
and species
are evolving,
actions.
systems,
The
and values
natural
resources,
processes,
preserves
are
processes,
systems,
and val-
resources
topographic
ontological
features,
resources,
contained
in Director's
Order
Physical
processes
such as weather,
erosion,
resources
and evolution;
and
82
Cave Protection
AppendixD
4.8.1.2 Karst
drainage
patterns,
and caves.
Karst processes
(the
or resources.
of caves to
underground
or portions of caves
for research, with
use of undeveloped
developments
do or will significantly alter or
adversely impact karst processes, these impacts will
be mitigated. Where practicable, these developments
will be placed where they will not have an effect on
cave
surface
If existing
or proposed
entrances
exempted
4.8.2 Management
of Geologic
processes
features"
describes
to continue.
the products
be
kept
confidential
and
Features
may
The term
(See Decision-making Requirements to Avoid hnpairmerits 1.4.7; h formation Confidentiality 1.7.3; Caves
6.3.11.2)
"geologic
and physical
com-
in parks include
human-caused
resources
such as fossilized
and
plants or
ural resources
and at the bottom of deep bodies of water influences biological processes and the evolution of
species--.
The phosphorescence
and gypsum
includes
karst (such
caves
on dark
in, above,
or
Recognizing
of parks.
The Service
movements.
lightscape in parks. To prevent the loss of dark conditions and of natural night skies, the Service will
will disrupt
water
ditions,
sub-surface
of waves
of
of light in caves
dark-dependent
of a park.
natural
resource
com-
AppendixD 83
Cave Protection
Karst Waters h stitute Special Publication 8
process.
that have
entrances
within
wilderness
entrances
AppendixE 85
Cave Protection
Karst Waters Institute Special Publication 8
Appendix
E.
NATIONALPARKSERVICECAVERESOURCESMANAGEMENT
The following
is an annotated
educational,
purposes.
The
AGEMENTOBJECTIVES
National
Park
Service's
Natural
Resources
management
and protection
recreational
karst terrain.
The
or
guidance
for cultural
resources,
including
resources
within
the caves
are generally
The management
(PL 88-577).
LAWS, REGULATIONS, AND POLICIES
resources
agement
in accordance
with approved
cave manplans .... Natural
drainage
patterns,
air
1966
LEGISLATIVE
MANDATES/REGULATORY 1974
REQUIREMENTS
of 1988
agement
resources
that significant
caves
are an invaluable
36 CFR Chapter
of natu-
resources
r-AppendixF 87
Cave Protection
Karst Waters h stitute Special Publication 8
Appendix F.
Bureau of Land Management Cave and Karst Circular
grazing,
recreation,
and managing
responsible
for supervising
opment
and
resources
on both
responsible
production
for
Federal
solid
the exploration,
operations
and Indian
minerals
It is
of recreational
opportunities.
These
complex
environmental
activity
5. Ensure the listing of caves meeting the significance criteria and the confidentiality of cave
locations.
Promote consistency among Federal agencies
with cave management
responsibilities,
where
include
or other multi-resource
erals.
protection
under
management
these
lands.
resources
is
devel-
of
program
hydrological,
geological, scientific, recreational, cultural, and other cave values from
wildlife
management
designed to:
exchange
of information
between
problems.
or scientific
investigation
of cave
resources.
Program
are:
scientific,
and
recreational
values
for
volunteer
involvement
of qualified
and experienced
individuals
and caving organizations in cave management
projects, through the use
of volunteer
and cooperative
management
agree-
paleontologic,
ments.
Manage
al, scientific,
hydrologic,
to protect and
cultural,
and recreational
values.
education-
88
AppendixF
Cave Protection
Karst Waters h stitute Special Publication 8
address
cave
management
opportunities
and
issues.
open new
resource
values
into
and management
conflicts between
and
entrances
and change
Certain timbering practices may decrease soil stability and increase siltation and runoff into sinkholes
and
cave
entrances.
If slash
is piled
into
cave
include: Recreation, education, research, or commercial activities, when those activities can be adequate-
ly managed.
The need
to expand
awareness
and understanding
an awareness
among
of
industry
is a current challenge.
New training
cours-
The BLM, in
cooperation
with industry, academia,
researchers,
volunteers, and other agencies, develops techniques
and methods to protect caves and karst resources on
power
lines, timber
harvesting,
mining
operations,
adverse
impacts
to caves
and karst
it might be.
as often as
Cave Protection
Glossary 91
GLOSSARY
Aggressive
water -- Water having
solve rocks.
Allogenic
recharge
-- A ground-water
reservoir.
Pervious
satu-
recharge
Deliquescent
-- A mineral
-- The process
-- A sinkhole.
of dissolving
rock.
A basin or funnel-shaped
sur-
-- Recharge
from precipitation
Drainage
basin
--
The land
Aquatic
-- Organisms
rocks
--
Sedimentary
minerals.
rock consisting
Primarily
of
limestone
A measure
to
oxidation
or reduction
Endemic
--
Of limited
endemics
Diffuse
flow
--
Movement
of
ground
water
in
interconnecting
cavities
are full
of water.
in volts.
The
Known
process.
only from
geographic
are known
a restricted
distribution.
locality.
Single-cave
of animals
and
sources.
Epikarst -- A zone of enhanced solutional development in soluble rocks at or near the soil -- bedrock
interface.
Estavelle
Cavernicoles
-- Animals living or found in caves.
are only found in caves.
Obligate cavernicoles
contact.
potential
bedrock
of redox
--
A reversing
spring/sink.
Discharges
caves
--
Caves
by
water
in
recharge
from deeply
cir-
92
Cave Protection
Glossary
Karst
--
A landscape,
underlain
by
limestone
or
by karren, closed
ranean drainage,
depressions,
Recharge
-- That part of precipitation
or surface
water that penetrates the Earth's surface and eventually reaches the aquifers.
subterSpeleothems
and caves.
--
General
deposits, especially those caused by the re-crystallisation or precipitation of dissolved minerals. Also
called cave formations and includes stalactites
growing
is subterranean.
down
window
--
closed
depression
grow-
etc.
usually
revealing
part of a subterranean
stream
across its floor. An unroofed part of a cave.
flowing
Spring
if
concentration
in water.
The range
is from
0 to 14
all voids
caves
are
caves is confined
--
age forces.
Terrestrial
of soil particles
In geomorphology,
the removal
by seepof soil
caves.
Uvala
depression
sion.
Internal erosion
Polje (karst)-
-- Living
and
under pressure.
Piping
or swallet.
Phreatic
a surface stream
A large, flat-floored
closed
depres-
dolines.
A compound
formed
by
or at the
of several
BIOGRAPHICAL
SKETCHES
Cave Protection
Biographical Sketches 95
BIOGRAPHICALSKETCHES
Robert
Service,
William
Ashville NC
Mr.
Currie
is a specialist
on
endangered
cave
to protect
structures
and monitor-
endangered
cave animals.
Association.
James R. Goodbar
Charles Town, WV
Mr. Jones is a consulting hydrologist and Adjunct
Professor of Hydrology at American University,
Washington, DC. He has published numerous papers
on karst hydrology and water tracing and has studied
caves and karst areas in North America,
Europe, and
Kerbo
-- National
CO
Resources
Program
over
Division.
He was
the cave
specialist
at
cave
years and has extensive experience in managing visitor impacts to caves. He has written several books
management
problems
including
visitor
use,
operations.
He holds
Association
and
the
Karst
D. Hose -- National
the Director
of the National
Cave
a 13 year teaching
publication
research extending
record
in
cave
and
papers
on cave
management
is the National
Cave
Management
for the U.S. Forest Service and has been
of years and has studied the impacts of timber harvesting on cave resources.
He administers
and teach-
es workshops
and symposiums
on cave and karst
management and protection, bat education, and var-
Waters
and many
exploring
caves for over 50 years. He has been
involved with cave management issues for a number
Springfield, OH
on caves
protocols.
karst
Carol M. Wicks
-- University
of Missouri,
Columbia, MO
Dr. Wicks is a Professor of Geology at the University
of Missouri.
the link-
ages between hydrology and biology of karst systems. She studies the spatial and temporal changes in
the rates and mechanism of recharge in karst basins
and the changes in the geochemistry that occur along
discrete flowpaths. She holds a BS in Chemical
Engineering from Clarkson University, an MS in
Chemical Engineering and a Ph.D in Environmental
Sciences from the University
of Virginia.
She is cur-