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Special Publication 8

Recommendations
and Guidelines for
Managing Caves on Protected Lands

WiLliamK.Jones

Horton H. Hobbs III


Carol M. Wicks
Robert R. Currie
Louise D, Hose
Ronal C. Kerbo
James R, Goodbar

Jerry Trout

Prepared for the National Cave and Karst Research Institute,


National Park Service, U.S. Department of the Interior

Copyright 2003 by the Karst Waters Institute, Inc. except where individual
contributors to this volume retain copyright.
All rights reserved, with the exception of non-commercial photocopying
entific or educational

Published by:

for the purposes of sci-

advancement.
Karst Waters Institute, Inc.
P.O. Box 537

Charles Town, West Virginia 25414


http://www.karstwaters.org
Please visit our web page for ordering

information.

The Karst Waters Institute is a non-profit 501(c)(3) research and education organization incorporated in West Virginia. The mission of the Institute is improvement of the fundamental understanding of karst water systems through sound scientific research, and the education
fessionals and the public. The Institute does not issue or have memberships.

of pro-

This publication was prepared for the National Cave and Karst Research Institute under order

number P2360010071
/ 001.

The guidelines and recommendations presented here are solely those of the authors and do not
necessarily

represent

the views

or policies

of the U.S. Department

of the Interior.

Library of Congress Catalog Number: 200311314


ISBN 0-9640258-7-6

COVER PHOTOGRAPH. Fluorescein sodium dye is being added to a cave stream about 1.6
kilometers (one mile) from the entrance where the passage is completely blocked by logs
washed into the cave from a nearby timbering operation during storm events. Photo by William
K. Jones.

Cave Protection
Karst Waters Institute Special Publication 8

Preface

This manual was prepared to provide guidance for


managers of protected lands that fall under the
Federal Cave Resources Protection Act of 1988. Part
1 presents a description of the features that require
protection

and

an overview

of the

science

that

conflicting

land-use

issues to resolve

in implement-

ing the FCRPA. Caves located on Indian lands are


generally managed by the Indian tribe having jurisdiction over such lands.

ent the full text of the FCRPA and examples of cave

Not all of the guidelines presented here will be universally applicable to all caves or all agencies. Caves
occur in a wide variety of settings and each cave
will have some unique characteristics that require
different management strategies. It is hoped this
book will provide a good basis for cave protection

management

on federal

drives the management guidelines. Part 2 presents


more detailed management guidelines and suggestions for the basis of a cave management
plan. Part
3 covers some of the specific tasks needed to prepare cave management

plans. The appendixes

plans from various

federal

pres-

agencies.

The description of surface features associated with


caves is :intended to help workers involved with
environmental
directly

assessment

or site inventories

related to cave inventories.

not

The references

provide a review of the literature related to cave


management.

interested users of the cave resource and the federal


resource managers. Most of what is known about

caves on public lands has not been documented by


federal employees. Cavers provide most of the

The three government

consulted

regarding

and research

government

that manage

caves

questions

concerning

represent

cies of the U.S. Department

the views

of the Interior

their extensive

comments

on the early manuscript.

karst features are by Dr. Lee F. Elliott.

and sometimes

or any

We gratefully acknowledge the improvements suggested by our reviewers. We especially wish to


thank Drs. David C. Culver and John E. Mylroie for

have

statements

or poli-

agency.

The illustrations showing

mission

cave

caves, and caves


and recommenda-

(primarily the National Park Service, The U.S. Forest


Service, and the Bureau of Land Management) all
different

decisions.

tions presented here are solely those of the authors

ment of these resources. The FCRPA applies to all


significant caves on federal lands owned by the
United States and administered by the Secretary of
Agriculture or the Secretary of the Interior, but the
agencies

management

state lands, private commercial


owned by land trusts. The views
and do not necessarily

government

cave

resources. Many of the guidelines presented in this


book may also be applicable to managing caves on

information about the cave resources to the government and often take a keen interest in the manage-

different

agencies

The National Cave and Karst Research Institute


(NCKRI) can also provide guidance on many management

The FCRPA encourages the active involvement of

lands.

that manage most federally owned caves have cave


specialists well versed on the site-specific management concerns. These specialists should always be

the different types of

Tableof Contents iii

Cave Protection
Karst Waters Institute Special Publication 8

TABLEOF CONTENTS

Part

I m

Cave

Resources

1.

Introduction

2.

FCRPA

3.

Caves

4.

Significance

5.

Karst

6.

Surface

of

Features

Depressions

..................................................................

Uncovered

Towers

Epikarst

......................................................

8
9

......................................................................

Drainage

Features

Basins

and

of

Karst

Hydrology

12

..................................................

13

..................................................

14

.........................................................................
Aquifers

14

....................................................................

Minerals

Biology

.................................................................

Drainage

and
Cave

Conserving

Speleothems
Minerals

15

.......................................................

16

............................................................

21

.............................................................................

Surface

Karst

Habitat

21

..............................................................

22

Cave

Animals

.....................................................................

23

Cave

Ecology

.....................................................................

24

Distribution
11.

Cave

12.

Archeology

and

Paleontology

13.

Cave

14.

Anthropogenic

2 m

.....................................................................

Closed

Karst

Part

......................................................................

Entrances

Recharge

10.

................................................................................

Surface

9.

Caves

and

Cave

...............................................................................

Karst

8.

.......................................................

..........................................................................

Karren

Karst

Processes

..............................................................................

Cave

7.

and

History

Management

Biodiversity

of

Cave

Animals

........................................

...................................................................

28

.........................................................................

29

........................................................................
Threats

to

Guidelines

Caves

and

for

Cave

Karst

26

29
..............................................

Resource

Protection

................................

30

33

1.

Cave

Protection

......................................................................

35

2.

Cave

Protection

Laws

35

................................................................

iv

Tableof Contents

Cave Protection
Karst Waters Institute Special Publication 8

Part

3.

Jurisdictional

4.

Inventory

5.

Public

6.

Cave

7.

Caving

8.

Cave

9.

Education

Access
User

to Protected
Groups

Safety

Agricultural

12.

Logging

13.

Spills

14.

Quarries

15.

Oil

..........................................

Gating

Cave

Mapping

3.

Drainage

4.

Water

5.

Digging

6.

Monitoring

..............................................

38

Programs

40

...................................................

40

................................................

41

Impacts

to

Caves

and

Karst

................................................

42

in Karst

Areas

Contamination

...................................................

Episodes

.............

Mines

42

...............................................

44

.....................................................

45

....................................................................

Tools

2.

Evacuation

37

Karst

Management

Inventory

37

and

Wells

Cave

.......................................................

Caves

Water

1.

36

.............................................................

Interpretive

Forestry

Gas

and

and

Investigative

45

Methods

.......................................

......................................................................

Basin
Tracing

Delineation

50

...........................................................

50

.......................................................................
and

within

Caves

52

.........................................................

52

..........................................................................

Cave

Resource

Protection

Guidelines

53

............................................

55

................................................................................

Appendices

59

...............................................................................

A.

FCRPA

of

1988

C.

Significant

D.

NPS

2001

Resources
Cave

F. BLM

Glossary

Biographical

Cave

and
and

--

Policies

Legislation
Karst

Circular

71

...........................................................

Designation

Management

E. Regulations

69

......................................................................

B. Non-Government

U.S.

Park

Service

........................................

to

NPS

Cave

Management

..........................................................

..................................................................................

Sketches

of

the

Writers

77

........................................................

Related

47

49

.......................................................................

for

35

on

and

and

References

Ownership

Effects

and
and

Caves

Rescue

and
and

11.

of

Cave

...................................................................

and

Closure

Urbanization

Summary

and

...........................................................................

10.

3 --

Boundaries

.........................................................

79
81

............................

85
87

89

93

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Cave Protection

Cave Resources and Processes 1

Karst Waters h stitute Special Publication 8

PART1
CAVERESOURCESAND PROCESSES

INTRODUCTION

Such term shall include any natural pit, sinkhole, or


other feature which

is an extension

of the entrance."

An understanding of the physical, chemical, and


biological processes occurring under the surface of
the earth is an essential element for the protection of

The Federal land managers provide the designation


of significance based on: biota, cultural, geologic,
mineralogic, paleontologic, hydrologic resources

caves. Cave inventory,

associated

values,

and

assessment

preparation

of

of cave resource

management

plans

should all be conducted in a systematic manner


based on a good understanding of the site in ques-

with the cave as well as recreational,

edu-

cational, and scientific values. If a cave is designated

should be guided by science-based guidelines. The

significant, its entire extent including passages not


mapped or known at the time of determination is
deemed significant. Approximately 45,000 caves are
known in the United States but fewer than 5% of
them are on Federal lands. Still, this means that at
least 2000 known caves fall under the FCRPA and
many additional caves will be "discovered" in the

activities

future.

tion. Caves

are found

in a wide

range

of geologic

and topographic settings and a variety of different


resources
Resource

within the cave(s) may require protection.


management
and conservation
plans
of man can threaten

cave

resources

as a

result of damage caused by direct visitation to the


cave and by any surface activity that adversely alters
the quality or quantity of inputs of water, nutrients,
or air exchange.
Resources
rock

and

associated
mineral

with

caves

include

formations,

animals,

paleontological

If caves were considered

to be nothing

entrances. However,
caves
ancient structures containing

should be viewed
as
many delicate furnish-

remains, anthropological
and archaeological
artifacts, recreational
uses, and water resources.
The
protection of caves often requires an understanding

flora.

of the regional hydrogeology

major cultural and archaeological

management

and not only good

of the land overlying

the cave but man-

more than a

hole in the ground, then inventory and protection


would be a relatively simple matter. The basic cave
passage is usually a robust structure and is difficult
to destroy, other than possibly by sealing the

ings and a community of very sensitive fauna and

karst

Some
caves

caves
are

are natural
an

integral

museums

hosting

exhibits. Many

part

of

important

agement of the entire drainage basin contributing

aquifers. The goal of the FCRPA is to protect not only

water to the cave. Cave management

the raw tunnel, but also the decorations, inhabitants,


artifacts, and water resources associated
with the

involves

iden-

tifying the resources present, assessing the various


potential threats, and monitoring
the resources to
make any needed
tocols.

changes

to the management

FCRPA

"cave"

lands.

means

According

any naturally

to the act, "The


occurring

CAVES
The Oxford

The Federal Cave Resources Protection Act of 1988


(FCRPA) requires protection of "significant caves"
on federal

cave.

pro-

void,

term
cavity,

recess, or system of interconnected


passages which
occurs beneath the surface of the earth or within a

dictionary

defines

"cave"

as: "n. 1. A

large natural underground hollow, usually with a


horizontal opening." A scientific definition of a cave
would simply be "a natural opening in the earth."
These "caves"

would

range in size from intergranu-

lar pore spaces in clay (openings less than 0.1 ram) to


the largest underground

chambers

and may be char-

or other manmade excavation) and which is large


enough to permit an individual to enter, whether or

acterized mathematically as fractal objects (objects


that show similar patterns at different scales) (Curl,
1986). A more applied definition requires that the
opening be of sufficient size to allow entry by a
human, implying a minimum diameter of about one

not the entrance

foot or 0.3 meters. These caves may be explored,

cliff or ledge (including any cave resource therein,


but not including

any vug, mine, tunnel,

is naturally

formed

aqueduct,

or manmade.

sur-

Cave Protection

Cave Resources and Processes

Karst Waters Institute Special Publication 8

veyed,

and studied by direct examination.

Caves can

be characterized by their length, passage shape, the


pattern of the passages,
and so on. Biologically,
whether or not the cave extends into a permanent
"dark zone" is an important consideration.
A pas-

sage two feet in diameter with a couple of rightangle bends may enter the dark zone in less than ten
feet, while a hundred foot high tunnel may run half
a mile between

entrances

Cave entrances

too small for human

without

a true dark zone.


entry may still

be important for animals living in the cave and may


also be points of the exchange of energy and air with
the surface.

The minimum length needed to define a cave


is probably more difficult to agree upon than the
minimum

diameter,

and a minimum

length

is not

specified by the act. Most of the cave inventories for


non-federal lands (and many federal lands as well)
have

been

conducted

by

cave

explorers

who

are

often organized into informal groups. The eastern


states typically have privately sponsored "state cave
surveys"
veys.

and the western

Cave

explorers

states have regional

are understandably

sur-

biased

toward caves with some potential or hope of


explorable passage; so many states will only list
caves longer or equal to some set minimum length or
depth. There is no standardization
of "minimum"
cave lengths

among

the various

state cave surveys.

Virginia uses, 6 meters, while Alabama requires a


minimum length of 150 meters for listing. Jones
(1998) used 10 meters for West Virginia and Nevada
uses 30.5 m (100 feet). These caves with significant
depth or length may be termed "proper caves." Note
that natural features usually called "arches" or "nat-

ural bridges"
cave category

will sometimes fall into the proper


(if no dark zone requirement

is made).

Shelter caves, often just a rock overhang, typically


are not long enough to attract the interest of cave
explorers but may have great archeological
or histor-

ical importance. Therefore the act should be applied


to a range of natural geologic features including:
1. Proper caves, 2. Natural bridges, 3. Natural arches,
4. Shelter caves, 5. Ice caves. Federal resource man-

agers must be aware of the explorational bias of


many cave surveys and look for features that fall
under the FCRPA but failed to attract the attention

Figure 1. Photo showing the entrance to a lava tube


cave, Lava Beds National

Monument,

California

(Jones).

setting, actually the hydrogeologic setting, is probably the place to start. A major grouping criteria is
whether the cave formed primarily by dissolution of
the host rock (karst caves) or by other processes (nonkarst caves). Karst is a landform created primarily by
chemical (dissolution) weathering as opposed to
mechanical

weathering.

Caves classified by geologic


include:
1. Solution

(host rock) setting

or karst caves

A. Carbonate (limestone and dolostone)


caves and natural bridges

B. Evaporite caves, especially gypsum


caves

2. Lava tube caves (caves of volcanic origin)


3. Tectonic

caves (commonly

in clastic or

igneous rocks)

of cavers.

4. Sea caves and sea arches


5. Arches and natural bridges

Numerous

karst rocks (often eolian caves)


6. Shelter caves or rock overhangs in any type

presented

classification

systems for caves have been

in the literature

over the years. The sys-

tems are usually based on: 1. The geologic

setting, 2.

The length and/or depth of the cave, 3. The plan or


arrangement

of the passages.

From the standpoint

of

protecting cave resources, establishing the geologic

formed

in non-

of rocks

7. Suffosional caves ( soil or debris piping)


8. Talus caves
9. Ice caves associated

with glaciers

Cave Protection

Cave Resources and Processes

Karst Waters Institute Special Publication 8

EACHDOT REPRESENTS
ONECAVE
t

1
Figure 2. Map showing general distribution of caves in the continental United States (from Culver and
others, 1999).

In terms of the number of reported caves and length


t

or size of passages,

karst caves are the most common

group followed by lava tube caves. Lava tubes form


in molten basalt lava by internal draining of lava
after the surface has solidified. Lava tubes (Figure 1)

manager

is asked

to manage

resource.

However,

the geology

are found

the surface.

in many volcanic

areas in North America

and Hawaii and may be several kilometers long.


Most tectonic

caves are small but a few over a kilo-

meter long have been reported.

Shelter caves should

probably only be considered significant if they are


associated with historical or archeological values.
Caves present another unique challenge for the land
resource

manager

--

caves

are out of sight.

Even

open country that has been extensively searched for


caves continually
t

unknown

passages

to be thoroughly
J
t

open following
a storm event. Many caves have, at
present, no known entrance. In short, the resource

entrance

yields new discoveries.


are often found

explored

may collapse

Previously

in caves believed

and mapped. An old

shut or a new entrance

may

a largely

unknown

and topography

of

an area provide an indication of what lies beneath


This is especially

true of areas of lime-

stone, dolomite or gypsum bedrock that have developed characteristic karst topography of sinkholes
and captured surface drainage. Knowledge of the
types of caves and the hydrogeologic setting of the
area are needed

to develop

a management

strategy

for protecting
cave resources. Some caves may be
relatively isolated features and some may be seg-

ments of an extensive hydrologic system with inputs


originating outside of the federal management
boundaries. The protection plan may be directed to a
single well-known

feature,

but often

an area-wide

approach will be needed to protect a complex interconnected

system of underground

passages.

Cave Protection

Cave Resources and Processes

Karst Waters Institute Special Publication 8

2003

199

19?4

U,l

1965

1949

( NUMBER
OFREPORTED
CAYE:S
I

500

1000

1500

2000

I ......

2500

..... I

3000

3500

4000

Figure 3. Plot showing the increase in the number of reported West Virginia caves by year.

In the United States (and worldwide),


karst caves
studied

represent

the most

solution or

numerous

and best

caves. Lava tube caves may be quite exten-

sive but their distribution is often geographically


restricted and they are less often directly connected

(1987). Colorado had a total of 320 caves and most of


them were on federal land. This probably greatly
underestimates
where

the number

cave reports

of caves

in Colorado

are often kept very confidential.

sidered "active" if they currently contain flowing

Alaska only had 35 reported caves in 1987 and the


number now is well over 600. Figure 3 illustrates the
number of caves reported for West Virginia since the

water and are fossil or paleokarst

first systematic

to the regional hydrogeology.

Solution

caves are con-

caves if they are

not presently part of the hydrogeologic


region.

Most solution

system of the

the land surface.

However,

some solution

caves are

formed by deeply circulating and often hydrothermal waters, and some, such as Carlsbad

sulfuric acid possibly

Caverns,

by

associated with nearby oil

reservoirs.

The general distribution of cave and karst areas of


the United States is shown in Figure 2. Most of the
various

state cave

inventories

are maintained

cavers and the actual cave locations

are usually

by
not

provided to anyone outside the group. Also, the lists


become

dated rather quickly

as new caves are rou-

tinely being found. An interesting breakdown of the


number

SIGNIFICANCE
OF CAVES

caves were created by the dis-

solution of soluble bedrock by slightly acidic water


percolating downward from precipitation falling on

of caves per state and the number

on BLM

and Forest Service lands was presented by Thorne

cave survey was done in 1949.

Caves are the habitat for many highly adapted animals. These animals range from small aquatic crustaceans to more obvious vertebrates including bats
and salamanders. The energy source for most cave

ecosystems is organic material brought into or swept


through the cave from outside. Obviously, protecting
the food supply is an important part of protecting the
cave.

Recent

studies

of microorganisms

living

in

caves have shown the importance of bacteria in the


food chain of other cave animals and possibly in the
cave forming

process

itself. A few caves have been

found where a large part of the energy system is


based on chemoautotrophyof sulfur by bacteria. These
systems are of considerable scientific interest as possible models for life in outer space. Cave microbes are

also receiving study for use in medicines.

Cave Protection

Cave Resources and Processes

Karst Waters h stitute Special Publication 8

Caves have many other values to scientists. Geologic


structures are often more evident in the walls of cave

passages than in surface outcrop. Calcite deposits


(stalactites and stalagmites) often exhibit growth
"rings" much like tree rings and may yield valuable
information on past climatic conditions. Old sediment deposits

geomorphic

and hydrologic

history of the region.

archeological

sites. Important paleontological


made

forestry, but the exploitation of karst terrains is difficult and in some areas has resulted
of cover soils.

in the total loss

in caves can also reveal a lot about the

Some caves are important


been

cold-water
fisheries are spring fed streams from
caves and karst aquifers. Soils formed on carbonate
rocks can be very productive
for agriculture
and

in caves.

or cultural

discoveries

The best information

have
comes

Mineral

extraction

(quarrying)

is an important

industry in many karst areas. Buried


are often
important
oil
and
gas

paleokarsts
reservoirs.

Unfortunately, cave protection plans will sometimes

from caves that received minimal disturbance by the

conflict

activities

the FCRPA places an emphasis on protection of the

of man.

Because of the varied values associated with cave


resources, many federal cave specialists consider all
or most caves to be significant, and extend protection protocols to the overlying land surface and surrounding
karst areas. Caves and karst lands have
many

economic

important
"wild

values.

Caves

have

long

is an important

recreational

from karst aquifers.

economic

interests,

but

cave resources. The resource manager of federally


protected cave and karst areas must understand the

resource and how it may be threatened by different


activities not only in the cave itself, but also on the
overlying surface and contributing watershed.

KARST

of

activity.

Karst landscapes often have a high aesthetic appeal.


A disproportionate amount of the world's fresh
water comes

these diverse

been

tourist attractions. The exploration

caves"

with

Some of the finest

Karst is a landform or terrain where the primary erosion mechanism is chemical weathering
or dissolu-

tion. The FCRPA does not mention karst, but karst is


the host landform for all solution caves. The term

},
T

1
I
i

v
v

Figure 4. Photo showing dolines in the classical karst of Slovenia (Jones).

Cave Resources and Processes

Cave Protection
Karst Waters Institute Special Publication 8

Figure 5. Photo showing epikarst and cutter in road cut, Kentucky (Jones).

karst comes from the area of western Slovenia called


"krs" and means a bare, stony, waterless place. The
classical karst landscape is characterized
by numer-

A cross-sectional

ous sinkholes (Figure 4) or dolines, sinking streams

at the soil/bedrock contact called the epikarst, and


some solutionally enlarged vertical joints in the rock

and large springs,


a general absence of surface
streams and channels, and many caves. Karst land-

forms show a full range of expression from the tower


karst of China and Vietnam to the cockpit karst of
Puerto Rica to the large springs of Florida. Karst is
developed on soluble rocks, so the available karst
maps of the United States (Davies and others, 1984;
Veni and others, 2001) are basically maps of soluble
rocks exposed

on or near the surface. These maps are

a good place to initially identify areas likely to contain caves,

but the large scale is not adequate

for

detailed site planning. Also, especially in Alaska,


existing geologic mapping is not always precise
enough to be completely reliable. The most important karst rocks

are: limestone,

dolomite,

marble,

and gypsum. The addition of basaltic lava to this list


completes
containing

the list
units.

of

the

most

important

cave-

view

of a mature

block

of karst,

such as in a road cut or quarry face, would typically


show a thin soil cover, a somewhat

weathered

zone

that transmit water downward


to a cave passage
(Figure 5). Some workers refer to these zones as

exokarst (surface), epikarst (upper bedrock zone), and


endokarst (horizontal cave passage zone). Cave
entrances, sinkholes (dolines), sinking streams, karst
springs, and weathered outcrops of carbonate rocks
(karren) are the most common surface karst features
in North America. Caves develop at the same time as
the surface karst landscape and are the central ele-

ment to karst. As the internal permeability of the soluble rock increases by water flowing through and
enlarging cave passages, the surface features adjust
to funnel more and more surface runoff
to the underlying

downward

caves. In a mature karst region, all

of the runoff may be through the underlying cave


passages to discharge at large springs. Most of the
surface karst features develop and function to direct
surface runoff and precipitation downward into the

Cave Protection

Cave Resources and Processes

Karst Waters Institute Special Publication 8

underlying caves. The presence of surface karst features is an indication of caves below, and in many
cases the surface

features

are easier to identify

and

map.

surface runoff and divert it downward.


Some of these
features, such as large sinkholes, may be obvious on

air photos or topographic maps, but some major cave


and karst areas have more subtle surface expression

The cave passages must be capable of transmitting


not only the runoff

water

from

the catchment,

but

also all of the suspended load, debris, and any


undissolved products that would normally be carried in surface channels. Many karst areas do not
have a surface drainage network -- all runoff from

the basin may be internal through the caves. Any


surface activity that increases the sediment or debris
load may adversely

affect the caves that must trans-

of the underlying caves. Areas with heavy soil cover


from glacier till may show little surface expression
but contain many buried sinkholes. The types and
thickness of soluble units and the dip (inclination of
the beds from the horizontal) influences the development of karst. The climate,

amount

of precipitation,

and length of (geologic) time the soluble units have


been exposed to weathering all play a role. Karst on
steeper slopes or in alpine environments has different
expression

than karst formed

on plateaus

underlain

mit this material (see cover photograph). To protect

by relatively level carbonate strata. Many of the

the caves, the surface

world's

area above

the cave must be

karst areas show

the effects

of centuries

of

Drainage to the caves often originates on


rocks situated outside of the outcrop area

agriculture. The high surface infiltration rapidly


diverts storm runoff downward into the underlying

of the soluble units. The protection of caves requires


the protection of all inputs to the cave including allogenic rechargewater flowing from the non-karst part

caves and for many karst areas has resulted in exten-

of the catchment.

are found where scouring (frequently by glaciers) has


stripped off the soil cover (Figure 6). Karst features
may show a range of types within a small area and,
considered world wide, an almost endless variety of

protected.
non-karst

SURFACE
FEATURES

sive soil loss often associated with logging and overgrazing.

Large areas of bare carbonate

"pavements"

It is important that anyone involved in cave inventory work or site assessment projects prior to logging
or construction activities be able to identify surface

landscapes

karst features. Most surface karst features, regardless

or no obvious surface karst development.


Still, the
relative expression of surface karst features is often

of size or scale, function hydrologically

to capture

are possible.

Significant caves may be present in areas with little

Figure 6. Photo showing limestone pavement in County Clare, Ireland (Jones).

Cave Resources and Processes

Cave Protection
Karst Waters hlstitute Special Publication 8

Figure 7. Photo showing karren developed on limestone outcrop, Tongas National Forest, Alaska (Jones).

used for vulnerability

assessments

in karst regions.

or removal

of a sediment

plug by a storm. A statisti-

Areas with little or very subdued surface karst are

cal study by Curl (1958) examined the relationships

often

and sink-

between the number and lengths of caves in an area


and the number of entrances. The number of acces-

ing streams are considered to be highly vulnerable to

sible caves (caves with entrances) probably repre-

surface disturbances.

sents a small percentage of the total cave passages


present in most karst areas.

considered

impacts.

to be

less

sensitive

Areas with numerous

to

sinkholes

An experienced

surface

karst geologist

familiar with the area in question should conduct


vulnerability
assessments.
Also, not all caves are
karst caves, so this discussion of karst features is not

Cave

entrances

provide

access points

not only for

applicable to all cave sites.

human visitors but for animals such as bats that


sleep in the caves and go outside to feed. Most of the

Cave Entrances

nutrients that sustain the permanent cave dwellers


are brought
into the cave through
entrances

Cave

entrances

may be considered

a surface

karst

feature, but for the most part natural cave entrances

themselves will meet the definition of a cave specified by the FCRPA. In many cases the cave entrance
is somewhat

accidental

in relation to the cave. Many

entrances are due to collapse of near-surface


passages. Some form when surface weathering
lowers

the land surface to intercept the cave passage. Other


entrances may capture surface streams or may act as
springs at the downstream
end of a cave passage.

A few caves are accessible through artificial


entrances that were opened by digging, blasting, or
drilling. The opening of a new entrance to a cave
represents
ment--

a potential

especially

change

to the cave

environ-

in terms of air movement

through

the cave.
Cave

entrances

tures compared
may collapse,
and debris.

are usually

rather

ephemeral

fea-

to the actual cave. Existing entrances


become

covered,

Entrances

may

or fill with sediments


also suddenly

appear,

again due to collapse of the underlying cave passage

(although some may be too small for human entry).


Some cave entrances are gated to control human
access to the cave, but care should be taken to minimize changes

to the cave environment.

Even small

constrictions
may alter airflow, temperature
and
humidity conditions in the entrance area of the cave.

Improperly designed gates can affect, or in extreme


cases exclude,
bats
dependent on caves.

and

other

animals

that

are

Karren and Uncovered Epikarst


Areas of exposed soluble bedrock usually present an
uneven surface. Vertically oriented joints in the rock
may be filled with soil to depths of tens of meters.
The exposed rock may appear rounded if it underwent a period of weathering beneath a soil mantel
(exhumed epikarst). A surface exposed to weathering by glacier stripping or high rainfall rates may
have very sharp fluted ridges of rock typical of subalpine and alpine areas. The joints are called grikes or
cutters. This type of karst surface is called lapis

Cave Resources and Processes

Cave Protection
Karst Waters Institute Special Publication 8

/
DOLINE
UVALA

POLJE
Figure 8. Sketch showing

cross sections

of a doline, uvala, and polje.

(French) and karren (German) in the literature. Much


of the karst of the Alexander Archipelago in southeast Alaska is of this type.

even larger solution canyons. These canyons may be


several hundred meters wide and over a kilometer

long. Solution fissures similar to cutters but with


much greater depths have been described

in moun-

An examination
of the weathering
surface on the
rock will often show a range of small solution run-

tainous regions of high relief. All of these features


show a high degree of directional control by the geo-

nels or channels due to solutional sculpturing of the


exposed rock surface (Figure 7). Different workers
have studied these small (typically 2 to 10 centime-

logic

ters apart) charmels and given them specific

structure

of the area. Solution

corridors

were

called "zanjones'" by Monroe (1976) in his study of


the karst of Puerto Rico.

names.

The books by Bogli (1980),Ford and Williams (1989) Closed Depressions


and White (1988) give detailed descriptions of the
many forms these features exhibit. Areas where these

small features are especially pronounced

should be

noted as part of any cave and karst inventory.

Closed depressions are usually classified, from


smaller to larger, as sinkholes (dolines), compound

sinkholes (uvalas),and poljes(Figure 8). White (1988)


considers

Vertical joints in the bedrock may become solutionally enlarged and filled with soil to considerable
depth. These joints are called cutters and may range
from a few centimeters

to several

meters wide

and

tens of meters deep (Howard, 1963). Cutters may


develop into sinkholes, but the internal drainage is
usually not as efficient as for a typical sinkhole.
Cutters are most often observed
relatively horizontal limestones

in road cuts through


and appear as soil-

filled vertically oriented pipes. The soil mantle frequently obscures the cutter, but the intervening
ledges or pinnacles of undissolved rock may stand
out in relief. These parallel ridges typically follow
the strike of the bedrock and have been called ribbon
karren.

In some areas the joints may be widened beyond the


meter or so width typical of a cutter to larger scale
surface

features

called

solution

corridors

and

the

all closed

karst depressions

to have three

components:
1. A drain to divert surface water from precipita-

tion downward

to recharge the underlying

aquifer or caves.

2. A solutionally modified depression at and just


below the bedrock surface (epikarst).
3. Usually

some form of soil or drift cover.

Sinkholes are probably the most characteristic surface landform

of karst terrains.

Some

sinkholes

are

the result of the collapse of underlying cave passages,


but most are probably due to solution of the bedrock
surface, often at a joint intersection.

The evolution

of

sinkholes is directly related to the evolution of


increasing hydraulic conductivity as cave conduits
develop in the underlying aquifer. Ford and Williams
(1989) state: "dolines can only commence to form

10

Cave Resources and Processes

Cave Protection
Karst Waters h stitute Special Publication 8

SOLUTION
DOLINE

Y
COLLAPSE
SINKHOLE
VERTICAL
SHAFT
Figure 9. Sketch showing cross sections of types of sinkholes.

when

proto-caves

connecting

recharge

points

to a

spring have developed." Sinkholes are of significance


to the land manager

for two reasons:

Sinkholes are surface features indicating cave


areas and are often easily identified on air photographs
or topographic
maps (LIDAR
imagery has been used with success
with extensive forest crown cover.)

any surface expression at all until they fail and can


present a serious hazard to roads and buildings. The
sudden appearance of collapse sinkholes is often
associated with lowering of a relatively shallow
water table. The actual collapse

of cave passages

entrance to a cave. A karst window is a collapse

feature

in areas

Sinkholes or sinkhole plains must be protected


to conserve the quality and quantity of the
input water to the underlying

Numerous

classification

systems

caves.
to describe

sink-

holes have appeared in the literature, but some sinkholes may be a blend of several types or may result
from more than one mechanism (Figure 9). Solution
dolines are the most common
surface
overall and are usually funnel-shaped

karst feature
depressions

wider than they are deep (Figure 10). Old solution


sinkholes overlying areas with a deep water table are
usually relatively stable features of the landscape.
Collapse dolines (Figure 9) are often steep sided and
may be deeper than they are wide. Cover collapse or
s osion sinkholesare caused by soil removal starting
at the bedrock contact and the subsequent development of a "soil arch" which can fail catastrophically.

Cover collapse sinkholes (Figure 11) may not show

can

produce steep sided sinkholes and some times an

Figure 10. Photo showing doline and heavy soil


loss from agriculture in Slovenia (Jones).

Cave Resources and Processes

Cave Protection

11

Karst Waters h stitute Special Publication 8

Figure 12. Photo showing an aerial view of a karst


window with cave entrance at both sides of the
stream exposed in the sinkhole, West Virginia
(Jones).

Figure 11. Photo showing collapse sinkhole, West


Virginia (Jones).

that exposes part of the underground passage and


usually

has an underground

stream entering

at one

end and exiting at the other end (Figure 12). Some


collapse

sinkholes

are in areas where

a non-karst

rock covers the soluble layers and collapse in the


underlying
passage has propagated
upwards
(caprock-protectedsinks or subjacent karst collapse sinkholes). These caprock-protected sinkholes may be tens
of meters deep and over a kilometer in width.
Subsidence sinkholesare usually more gentle features
and may indicate collapse at some depth. Vertical
shafts are primarily solution features and are much
deeper than they are wide. Vertical shafts are usually
classified as caves even if they contain no horizontal
passage if they are large enough for a person to enter

(Figure13).
Sinkholes may be relatively isolated occasional
features of the landscape and various setback
requirements may provide a degree of protection to
prevent pollutants and sediments from entering the
cave

systems.

However,

sinkholes

may

form

an

almost continuous doline plain covering tens of


square kilometers and make the protection of individual depressions of doubtful value. For example,

Malott (1945) counted 1022 sinkholes within 2.6


square kilometers (one square mile) on the Mitchell
Plain of Orange County, Indiana.
Several sinkholes
form a compound

may converge
and coalesce
to
sinkhole or uvala. These features

Figure 13. Photo showing vertical shaft, Neversink


Cave, Alabama (Hobbs).

12

Cave Protection

Cave Resources and Processes

Karst Waters h stitute Special Publication 8

sinkholes. These features are most likely to be found


in tropical or subtropical areas currently undergoing
geologic uplift. The tower karst of China and Vietnam
(Figure 16), the cone karst of Puerto Rico and Jamaica,
and the mogote karst of Cuba are examples. The cones
or towers may be somewhat isolated features rising
a hundred

or more meters above an alluviated

plain,

or the towers may be clumped together and present


a very rugged
often penetrate

landscape.
Caves at various levels
the towers. Some of the small karst

islands off the coasts of Thailand and Vietnam contain a deep central sinkhole lake called a hong connected

to the

sea

by

base-level

cave

passages.

Needle-like hills in New Guinea are called pinnacles.


The stone forest landscapes in China have been
described as an epikarst surface exposed by soil loss
due to deforestation (Huntoon, 1992).

Figure 14. Photo showing Fatnicko Polje, Croatia


(Jones).

Surface Drainage Features of Karst


may be tens of meters deep and cover an area of several square kilometers.

are classic karst features. As the karst aquifer

Poljes, the largest of closed karst depressions, are relatively rare in North America. The classical descrip-

tion of a polje is from Slovenia and the name is the


Slavic word for field -- karsticpoljes are characterized
by internal drainage. Poljes are large, flat-floored
depressions

and

Disappearing rivers and disrupted stream networks

can reach

tens

of kilometers

devel-

ops through time, the enlarging cave passages are


able to divert or capture

an ever-increasing

volume

of surface runoff. A mature karst landscape


may
have no surface stream channels at all. Streams flow-

ing off of adjacent non-carbonate units sink or flow

in

length. Poljes typically have very flat alluviated bottoms,

a surface

watercourse,

and are enclosed

by

relatively steep hills or mountainsides (Figure 14).


Many are seasonally flooded and all karst poljes
must drain internally. The largest polje is the Lika
Polje in the Dinaric karst of Croatia and its floor covers 474 square kilometers (183 square miles). Gams
(1973) specifies that the depression must have a minimum width of about 400 meters (1300 feet), but this
is somewhat arbitrary (like most things about poljes).
Many larger karst windows

are sort of miniature

pol-

jes, and some larger blind valleys (stream sinks)


(Figure 15) resemble poljes. In a classic polje, streams
emerge from caves or springs at one end, flow across

the floor, and sink at the other end by entering another cave or ponor in the floor of the stream bed. Many

of the classical poljes are associated with fault blocks


and are bordered

by non-karst

rocks on one side or

flank of the depression.


Karst Towers
The most spectacular

examples

of surface

karst are

probably areas where the solution depressions have


deepened to the point that the residual hills or ridges
capture the attention of the observer rather than the

Figure 15. Photo showing stream flowing into a


cave in a blind valley, West Virginia (Jones).

Cave Resources and Processes

Cave Protection
Karst Waters Institute Special Publication 8

13

Figure 16. Photo showing tower karst in Ha Long Bay, Vietnam (Jones).

into caves near the carbonate

contact

and reemerge

The sinking water flows through cave passages and

along the geologic contact of less soluble rocks.

returns to the surface as springs or seeps. If cave


exploration
or a water-tracing
test has determined

Surface streams may loose water to the karst aquifer

spring is called a resurgence. Many classification

at down-gradient

springs

on base level

streams

or

the source of the water appearing at a spring, the

in a variety of ways. Water may simply seep into


gravels in the streambed. Under low flow conditions
all of the water may be diverted underground and
the surface channel downstream of the sink point
may only carry water at times of higher discharge.
All of the water in the stream may flow into a cave
passage at the base of a cliff -- this is a blind valley.
The water may flow into a hole in the stream channel called a ponor in the karst of Slovenia. There may
no longer be any trace left of the former surface
channel

downstream

from the cave. Steams flowing

across karst terrains may sink and rise and sink and
rise several times. These are called interrupted
streams.

Some

karst

stream

channels

contain

an

opening in the bed that functions as a sink point during low flow and discharge water as a spring during
high flow. These alternating orifices are called
estavelles.

sys-

tems for springs have been proposed. Springs have


been grouped by discharge, geology, topographic
position, whether or not flow appears to be gravity
or under pressure

(artesian), amount

of mineral con-

tent and by water temperature (thermal springs).


Some springs may discharge directly into the ocean
some distance from shore (submarine springs).
Obviously springs may issue from any permeable
formation

and are not exclusive

to karst. However,

most of the world's largest springs are karst springs


or flow from lava-tube
water

fisheries

have

caves. Many important


their

source

cold-

as limestone

springs. Ultimately, protecting the water quality of


the caves has the added benefit of protecting the
water quality of spring-fed surface streams. Springs
also provide natural points for monitoring water
quality and discharge from the caves.

14

Cave Resources and Processes

Cave Protection
Karst Waters Institute Special Publication 8

:IPITATION
'ARUTOG
ENIC")

ECHARGE
)

RECHARGE

CLASTIC
ROCKS

LIMESTONE
1. Stream sink at limestone

2.
3.
4.
5.

contact

Sinkholes
Infiltration through the soil cover
Epikarst zone at the soil/bedrock contact
Sinkhole drain

6. Cave stream representing

main drainage

level

7. Spring
Figure 17. Sketch showing

recharge

routes for water entering

KARSTDRAINAGEBASINSAND
HYDROLOGY
The protection

a cave.

able karst watersheds must be determined by an


experienced karst hydrologist using a combination
of topographic and geologic boundaries and infor-

of caves that contain active streams or

mation

from water tracing tests and surveyed

are currently part of the flow paths of an aquifer


requires the protection of all inputs of water to the

passages.

system.

Recharge

Some

karst catchments

cover

several

hun-

dred square kilometers and in many cases part of the


catchment

may not be on federal

land.

Education

and cooperation with adjacent landowners may be


the only recourse for protecting off site inputs.
The delineation of the actual area of a karst drainage
basin is not a straightforward examination of the

cave

Work by Palmer (1991) has shown that the nature of


recharge to the karst aquifer has strong influence on
the type and pattern of cave passages that develop.
A karst watershed
karst component

will often have a karst and a non(Figure 17). In some settings, a non-

soluble caprock may cover part of the soluble rock

topographic
divides. Karst caves are notorious
for
passing underneath
surface ridges and the interbasin transfer of water from one surface catchment

containing
the cave passages.
If streams flowing
from higher elevation non-carbonate
rocks sink into

to another is not uncommon

the non-karst

in karst areas. The prob-

caves, then the water quality should be protected on


part of the catchment.

Recharge

that

Cave Resources and Processes

Cave Protection
Karst Waters Institute Special Publication 8

originates on the non-karst part of the basin is called


allogenic recharge. This water usually enters the karst
aquifer at distinct points, so it is also classed as discrete recharge. The water typically flows rapidly
through the caves and receives little natural filtering.
Any sediment,

contaminants,

or debris load washed

into the caves must either be transmitted through to


the resurgence,

or be deposited

in the cave. Any sur-

face activity that increases this load will probably


degrade

the caves that receive

CO2 + H20

15

H2CO3 (carbonic acid)

H2CO3 4-4H+ + HCO


(dissociates to hydrogen and bicarbonate)
HCO3

H+ + CO32-(bicarbonate dissociates)

CaCO3 + CO2 + H20 <--9Ca2-+

2HCO3

(dissolution of calcite)

this runoff.

Precipitation falling directly on the karst (autogenic


recharge) usually rapidly infiltrates the land surface
through sinkholes or more diffusely through the soil
(Figure 17). Autogenic water funneled into the caves
through sinkholes is usually classed as discrete
recharge. Water percolating more slowly through the
soil may be stored for some time in the epikarst and
is considered
diffuse recharge. In areas where the
soluble units are covered by a caprock, water enter-

Some caves are formed by water moving upward


from some deeper or adjacent aquifer. These are

classed as hypogenic caves and the aggressiveness of


the waters is produced independently of surface or
near surface sources (Palmer, 2000). Many of the
caves in the Guadalupe Mountains, such as Carlsbad
and Lechuguilla caves, appear to be formed by the
action of sulfuric acid. Jewel and Wind caves of the
Black Hills in South Dakota probably formed by rising thermal artesian waters. The condensation

water

ing the cave through the roof is diffuse recharge.

on the walls of many caves may also be slightly

Water exchange

aggressive.
may have

between

the saturated

rock matrix

and small fractures and the cave conduit is usually


somewhat limited, but this is also diffuse recharge
water to the cave. This diffuse

recharge

water may

not be highly significant in terms of the total amount


of water flowing through the cave, but most active
speleothems (stalactites and stalagmites) are maintained by this diffuse seepage water. Any surface
activity that changes the water budget or affects
water quality can adversely impact speleothem
growth and microclimate conditions within the cave.
Water stored and released

from the epikarstic

zone

overlying the cave is of primary importance for the


growth

and maintenance

of speleothems

can have

Areas where hypogenic


cave are found
little or no surface karst developed.

Hypogenic caves are more frequently found in


somewhat drier if not arid areas where they have not
been overpowered

by other karst processes.

Cave and karst areas are often major tourist attrac-

tions and planning visitor facilities requires careful


consideration.

The treatment and disposal

and waste products

of sewage

is especially troublesome

many karst areas. Thin soils, rapid infiltration

in

rates

and rapid transmission through the conduit part of


the aquifer present serious design problems.
Cave
tours can take several hours and some form of sani-

nents of the cave.

tary facility must realistically be provided. However,


soil-based septic systems must be very carefully

Karst cave passages enlarge primarily by dissolution

systems may not protect the water quality of the

direct and indirect impacts on the biological compo-

sited

of the host rock. The chemical

reactions

are depend-

ent on the solubility of the rock and the aggressiveness (acidity and ionic strength) of the water flowing
through the caves. As the water moves through the
aquifer, more rock is dissolved, the pH rises, and the
solution

becomes

increasingly

less

in most

areas.

This

and standard

karst aquifer. In many parks, the visitor

treatment
centers and

parking lots were situated directly above the cave.


Current park design practices

are attempting

to cor-

rect some of the problems caused by this unfortunate


juxtaposition of facilities and the resource.

aggressive.

Dissolved carbon dioxide gas is the principle cave


former

on karst landscapes

gas is present

in the

Karst Aquifers

atmosphere and may become enriched in water that


percolates through organic material in the soil. The
outgassing of carbon dioxide when the water

Solution caves function as a highly permeable zone

emerges

having

along the walls or roof of an air-filled

cave

to transmit water from the recharge points to the discharge points. Some workers view the aquifer as
three components:

matrix or primary

perme-

passage forms most calcite speleothems.


The general equations for carbonate dissolution and precipita-

ability, fracture permeability, and conduit permeability (Worthington, 1999). Primary permeability refers

tion are:

to water moving

through

intergranular

pore

space

16

Cave Resources and Processes

Cave Protection
Karst Waters h stitute Special Publication 8

between the grains of the rock and is usually very


low

in older

carbonate

rocks.

Secondary

fractures

that formed after the rock became hard provide the


initial pathways for ground water to move through
most karstic units. As these pathways

are enlarged

by dissolution, conduits develop that transmit


potentially large volumes of water through the
aquifer. Primary
ally very

low

and fracture

in carbonate

permeability
rocks,

are usu-

but account

for

most of the water stored in the aquifer. The conduit


(cave) permeability is very irregular in distribution
but accounts for most of the water discharged from
the aquifer. Some caves developed

in younger

car-

bonates such as found in Florida may have greater


water exchange with the primary rock matrix than
typical for karst aquifers.
From a cave and karst management

standpoint,

the

principle aquifers of interest are the epikarst zone


and the active conduit zone. The openings in the
epikarst zone are usually not large enough to meet
the criteria for a "proper cave," but the control over

storage and delivery of recharge water makes it


important

from

a management

standpoint.

Caves

situated at or below the water table are called phreatic caves

and caves

with

active

streams

above

the

water table are called vadose caves. Dry caves situated above the level of active stream flow are relic or
fossil caves. Many caves may have higher dry levels,
an intermediate vadose level, and a lower phreatic
level.
The streams
very rapidly

in most active cave conduits respond


to storm events on the surface. Some

caves may flood suddenly and completely. Natural


flooding will bring an increased sediment and debris
load into the cave. This is both damaging and beneficial to the cave environment.

The flux of energy car-

and seeps. The discharge points may be obvious


springs on hillsides or may be in the bed of a river or
off shore submarine springs. All of the discharge
from a karst basin may flow to a single spring or
series of closely spaced springs with an essentially
dendritic drainage pattern. Some karst basins may
disperse flow from a central area outward in a radi-

al or half-radial pattern. The delineation of a karst


drainage

basin usually

requires

water-tracing

tests

to determine the source of the water at the spring(s).


In most cases tests will need to be conducted during
different flow levels to determine if flood overflow
routes carry water to additional springs and to study
the range of travel times.

CAVEMINERALSAND SPELEOTHEMS
What is and what is not a cave mineral? A mineral is
"a

naturally

occurring,

homogeneous,

ganically

or organically

chemical

composition

formed
and

an

solid,

inor-

with a definite
ordered

atomic

arrangement." This is the definition that is used by


mineralogists (except for the organically formed
component). Hill and Forti (1997) define a cave mineral as a secondary

mineral

that is derived

from pri-

mary mineral in the bedrock or detritus. (Sulfur is


the only native element known
ary

cave

mineral.)

cave

to occur as a secondmineral

is

not

speleothem, although speleothems are composed of


cave minerals.
Speleothems, also called "formations,"
are usually the
major attraction for show caves. Speleothems
can

occur in myriad of shapes and styles. Some of the


more

common

stalactites,
helicitites,

forms

(out

of

many)

include:

stalagmites, columns, draperies, shields,


and rimstone dams. The most common

ried into the cave during storms may be crucial for

minerals comprising
speleothems
include the carbonate minerals such as calcite and aragonite and

deep cave fauna. Management

evaporite minerals such as gypsum (Figure 18).

options

to reduce

or

control flooding may be available, but the arguments


for and against are similar to those heard for control-

ling wild fires in natural areas. Activities that artificially increase

the amount

of storm runoff

a cave is

subjected to should be controlled if possible. The


cave conduits must be able to transmit the undissolved load carried in from the surface. If not, sedi-

ments will ultimately fill in the cave passages. Timber


harvesting and construction
an increase in storm runoff

activities tend to cause


from a watershed
and

Occasionally a speleothem will fail from its own


weight or be damaged by an earthquake, but the
activities of man are usually the cause of damage
destruction
of speleothems.
The main threats
speleothems and cave minerals are:
1. Intentional

or accidental

damage

or destruc-

tion by visitors

should be carefully managed in karst catchments.

2. Changes in the quantity and/or quality of


infiltrating waters

All of the water flowing through cave passages


eventually returns to the surface through springs

3. Changes

in the cave air temperature

humidity

and

or
to

Cave Protection

Cave Resources and Processes

17

Karst Waters hlstitute Special Publication 8

environment
in which the mineral is found is one
way to determine whether a mineral is stable. The

stability fields in Eh-pH space of most minerals are


well known. The Eh and pH of the water entering
the cave environment
enced by human
formation

is variable

activities.

and easily

For instance,

of a cave mineral,

influ-

during

the land overlying

the
the

cave might have been a forest (predevelopment) so


that the water from which the mineral formed was
basic with a pH of 7.5. In subsequent

years, humans

might have moved into the basin and cleared the


land. This land use change might cause the pH of the
water entering the cave to become slightly acidic
water (pH < 7). Now a mineral that formed from
water with a pH of 7.5 is exposed to slightly acidic
water. The mineral is no longer stable and will likely
Figure 18. Photo showing "Chandelier" gypsum mineral
speleothems, Lechuguilla Cave, New Mexico (Hobbs).

undergo

degradation.

In their book, Hill and Forti (1997) divide the 255


Any damage or degradation of the mineral deposits
in a cave is not self-healing,
human lifespan.
Minerals

at least not in terms of

precipitation

a unique

set of

conditions. If a mineral forms by

from

water,

then there

are two vari-

ables that are considered master variables: the pH


(acidity) and Eh (oxidation-reduction potential) of
the water. (The temperature and composition of the
water also influences the stability of a mineral.) If a
mineral forms by precipitation as the water evaporates, then the master variables are pH and temperature of the water and temperature
and relative

humidity of the air. The range of conditions over


which any mineral is stable (unlikely to degrade) can
be described in terms of pH and Eh as a field on a
pH-Eh diagram (Figure 19; modified from BaasBecking and others, 1960). White (1976) has
described

a "normal"

classes are native elements,


sulfides,
hydroxides,
halides, arsenates, borates,
nitrates,

form and are stable under

thermodynamic

minerals into the chemical classes that have been


used for years by mineralogists (Table 1). These

cave

wet, having a pH between

environment

as being

classes

sulfide

or high

concentrations

of carbon

For

minerals

that

form

from

water,

sulfates,

and vana-

of minerals

are quite well

known

and are

easily described in terms of Eh and pH (Garrels and


Christ, 1965). Our role in protecting most of the cave
minerals is to ensure that the setting in which each
the mineral is found maintains the conditions under

tl .0

,0.8
+0.6
I

o.4

,"

"%7%

> -+0,2
r..

mal" environment is one of anoxic (lack of oxygen)


conditions often characterized by the presence of
dioxide. While still wet, in these caves, the field of
stability of environment is having a pH less than 7
and an Eh between -0.2 and +0.3 volts (similar to the
isolated from the environment field of Figure 19).
Temperatures typically range from 0 to 35C.

silicates,

dates. Hill and Forti (1997) also include a class for


organic minerals. Luckily, the stability fields of many

7 and 8 and an Eh

between +0.4 and +0.6 volts (similar to the groundwater field on Figure 19). In several caves, the "nor-

hydrogen

phosphates,

oxides and
carbonates,

"'-,"-

--h

"%

,i

%%,

0
-o.2

0.4

IO

12

pH

comparing

the field of stability of a mineral to that of the cave

Figure 19. Diagram

showing

Eh-pH

environments.

18

Cave Resources and Processes

Cave Protection
Karst Waters h stitute Special Publication 8

Native Elements
Sulfur
Sulfides
Chalcocite
Chalcopyrtie

Arsenates
Arseniosiderite
Beudantite
Conichalcite
Manganberzeliite
Mimetite

Phosphates
Archerite
Ardealite
Biphosphammite
Bobierrite
Brushite
Carbonate-

Cinnabar

Olivenite

Galena

Strashimirite

Marcasite

Talmessite

Silicates
Opal
Allophane
Benitoite
Boltwoodite
Chrysocolla

Devilline
Ferrohexahydrite
Fibroferrite
Glauberite
Halotrichite
Hexahydrite

Clinochlore

Hydrobasaluminite

Cristobalite

Hydroglauberite

Carbonate-

Dickite

Jarosite

Carbonates
Calcite
Aragonite
Ankerite
Artinite
Aurichalcite
Azurite
Baylissite
Cerussite

hydroxyapatite
Chlorapatite
Collinsite
Crandallite
Diadochite
Dittmarite
Evansite
Fluorapatite
Francoanellite
Gordonite
Hannayite
Hopeite
Hydroxylapatite

Endellite
Epidote
Fraiponite
Halloysite
Hemimorphite
Illite
Ilvaite
Kaolinite
Montmorillonite
Nontronite
Palygoskite
Quartz
Rectorite

Kalinite
Kieserite
Koktaite
Leconite
Lonecreekite
Loweite
Melanterite
Metaviltine
Millosevichite
Misenite
Natroalunite
Natrojarosite
Pickeringtite

Braunite

Dolomite

Koninckcite

Saponite

Picormerite

Chalcophanite
Cryptomelane
Cuprite
Hausmannite
Hematite
Maghemite
Magnetite
Montep onite
Periclase
Plattnerite
Pyrolusite
Rancieite
Romanechite

Huntite
Hydromahnesite
Hydrozincite
Kutnohorite
Magnesite
Malachite
Monohydrocalcite
Natron
Nesquehonite
Rhodochrosite
Rosasite
Siderite
Smithsonite

Leucophosphite
Lipcombite
Minyulite
Mitridatite
Monetite
Montgomeryite
Mundrabillaite
Newberyite
Niahite
Parahopeite
Phosphammite
Phosphosiderite
Purpurite

Sauconite
Sepiolite
Shattuckite
Silhydrite
Tridymite
Sulfates
Gyp sum
Epsomite
Mirabilite
Aluminite
Aluminocopiapite
Alunite

Polyhalite
Potassium alum
Romerite
Rozenite
Sabieite
Sodium alum
Spangolite
Syngenite
Tamarugite
Thenardite
Tschermigite
Voltaire
Zaherite
Vanadates

Metacinnabar
Pyrite
Pyrrhotite
Realgar
Sphalerite
Stubnite
Oxides &
Hydroxides
Goethite
Ice
Asbolane
Birnessite

Borates
Tincalconite

fluorapatite

Tenorite

Strontianite

Pyromorphite

Alunogen

Todorkite

Thermonatrite

Sampleite

Ammoniojarosite

Calciovolborthite

Vernadite

Trona

Sasaite

Anglesite

Carnotite

Bohmite
Gibbsite

Vaterite
Witherite

Schertelite
Scholzite

Anhydrite
Aphthitalite

Desclozite
Metayuyamunite

Spencerite

Arcanite

Tyuyaminute

Lithiophorite
Manganite
Portlandite

Nitrates
Darapskite
Gewihabaite

Stercorite
Strengite
Struvute

Aubertite
Barite
Basaluminite

Vanadinite

Ralstonite

Hydrombobom-

Swaknoite

Bassanite

Acetamide

Halides
Halite

kulite
Mbobomkulite
Nickelalumite

Taramakite
Tarbuttite
Tinticite

Blodite
Boussingaultite
Brochantite

Glushinskite
Guanine
Mellite

Atacamite

Niter

Variscite

Burkeite

Oxammite

Bromargyite
Carnallite
Chloromagnestie
Fluorite
Galcite
Kainite
Sal Ammoniac
Sylvite

Nitrammite
Nitratite
Nitrocalcite
Nitromagnesite
Svelte

Vashegyite
Vivianite
Wavellite
Whitlockite
Woodhouseite

Celestite
Chalcanthite
Chalcoalumite
Clairite
Copiapite
Coquimbite
Cyanotrichite
Despujolsite

Urea
Uricite
Weddellite
Whewhllite

Lepidocrocrite

Organics

Table 1. Listings of the cave minerals by chemical class (compiled from Hill and Forti, 1997).

Cave Protection

Cave Resources and Processes

19

Karst Waters h stitute Special Publication 8

which that mineral is stable. Monitoring the cave


environment will help identify problems before irreversible

damage

to the minerals

ble in low humidity conditions with high temperatures (see halides).

occurs.

The stability of the chemical classes of minerals are


described in Hill and Forti (1997) and summarized

Carbonates.
Calcite is by far the most common
carbonate mineral found in caves. Several other carbonate

minerals

are metastable

and a few

can be

dehydrated (Table 2). The carbonate minerals are


stable over a wide range of Eh and pH conditions.

here.

Native elements. To date, sulfur is the only native


element that has been found in caves. Sulfur is stable

at low pH (<7) and with an Eh between -0.2 and +0.3


volts (Garrels and Christ 1965). This stability field
corresponds to the field of organic-rich saline
(Figure 19). Therefore, sulfur is found in caves in
which hydrogen sulfide is found.
Sulfides. Very few sulfide cave minerals exist as
their stability field is similar to that of the sulfur
(Garrels and Christ 1965). Some of these minerals are
unstable if the Eh of the surroundings changes

Nitrates. The nitrate minerals

of water

are due to evaporation

and are thus similar

to the halides.

However, these minerals are stable in a range of conditions, similar to but not over as wide a range of
conditions

as the carbonate

minerals.

Deliquescence

is the most common problem with regard to stability of the nitrate minerals (Table 2). These minerals
are highly soluble and are hygoscopic. Thus the
nitrate minerals

can seem to appear

when

the cave

atmosphere dries out (winter) and disappear as the


cave atmosphere

gets moister

(summer).

(Table2).
Phosphates.

Phosphate

minerals

are found

Oxides and hydroxides. The common oxide and


hydroxide minerals found in caves are ice, goethite,

guano
guano.

and Fe and Mn oxides.

cause of mineral degradation (Table 2).

These minerals

are stable in

oxic environments with pH above 7 (Garrels and


Christ 1965). Of course, ice is often ephemeral (Table
2). The stability fields these minerals correspond to
that of groundwater (Figure 19). Some of these minerals are unstable if the Eh of the surroundings
change (Table 2). A few of the minerals are
metastable (meaning the mineral slowly and naturally changes form over geologic time; Table 2).
Halides.

These

minerals

form

when

water

evapo-

rates and are stable in rather dry environments

with

high temperatures (stability field is not plotted on


Figure 19). These minerals are highly soluble, thus
changes in the moisture content of the air can result
in degradation
of the mineral. Several of these min-

erals are deliquescent and metastable (Table 2).

and form as powders


Dehydration
of some

near

or coatings on the
of the minerals is a

Silicates. Opal is by far the most common of the silicate minerals found in caves. Opal is metastable
(Table 2). In the cave environment, opal forms by
evaporation

of the water

after carbonate

minerals

have been precipitated (this decreases the pH of the


water which is needed for opal to form).
Sulfates. The formation processes and stability
fields of the sulfate minerals are poorly understood
and highly mineral specific. There is not a general
stability field that can be drawn nor is there only one
major mechanism

of mineral

degradation.

The sta-

bility of the sulfate minerals is highly dependent on


the solubility of the mineral in water. Some of the
minerals degrade by dehydration and others by deliquescence (Table 2).

Arsenates. Unlike most other minerals, the stability


fields of the arsenates are not well known.
ed information

available

suggests

The limit-

that these miner-

als are stable between pH of 7 and 8 with an Eh


between

+0.4 and +0.6 volts

(transitional

Vanadates. Garrels and Christ (1965) showed that


that stability field of one of the vanadate minerals is
wide (3.5 < pH < 9.5; -0.1 < Eh < +1.0) (Figure 19).

environ-

Organic minerals. Hill and Forti (1997) include a

ments, Figure 19). These minerals are rather insoluble and are found where the solutions enter the cave

class of minerals

atmosphere.

derived from mainly bird or bat (and other mam-

called Organic

minerals.

mals) guano and urine. These compounds


Borates. There has been only one borate mineral,
tincalconite, found as a cave mineral. Tincalconite is
formed when water evaporates and is therefore sta-

only
dry.

when

the cave

environment

These are
are stable

stays warm

and

20

Cave Protection

Cave Resources and Processes

I(arst Waters Institute Special Publication 8

Dehydrates

Deliquescent

Native Elements
Pyrite

YES

Halides
Halite
Carnallite
Chloromagnesite
Galcite
Kainite

YES
YES
YES

Natron

Nesquehonite
Rhodochrosite
Vaterite
Nitrates
Gewihabaite
Hydromb ob omkulite
Niter
Nitrammite
Nitratite
Nitromagnesite

YES

Phosphates
Brushite
Schertelite
Spencerite
Struvute

Taramakite
Silicates

Opal
Endellite

YES
YES
YES

YES
YES

YES

YES

YES

YES
YES

YES

YES
YES

Fibroferrite
Glauberite
Kieserite
Lonecreekite

Melanterite
Millosevichite

YES

YES

YES
YES
YES
YES

YES
YES

Aphthitalite

YES

YES

YES

Tridymite
Sulfates
Endosomite

YES

YES
YES

Cargonates

Aragonite
Dolomite
Monohydrocalcite

Metastable

YES
YES

Marcasite

Oxides and Hydroxides


Ice
Magnetite
Portlandite

Oxidation-Reduction

YES

YES
YES

YES
YES

YES

Table 2. A listing of the "unstable" and the process by which the minerals degrade.

Cave Protection

Cave Resources and Processes

21

Karst Waters Institute Special Publication 8

CONSERVINGCAVEMINERALS

For any minerals that tend to degrade by deliques-

The actions of humans can easily change the value of


the master variables (pH, Eh, humidity, and temperature of the air and water).

Two

excellent

articles

(Cabrol 1997; Veni 1997) describe how human visitation in caves (commercial and wild) can influence
these

parameters.

Their

findings

are summarized

here.

Humans give off heat, consume oxygen, and exhale


carbon dioxide and water vapor. Heat added to a
cave environment
increases the temperature
of the
cave environment.
Exhaling water vapor increases
the relative humidity
of the cave environment.

Temperature and humidity are two of the master


variables.

As human

activity

changes

the value

of

these parameters, the Eh-pH (or related diagram)


field of a cave environment will shift, whereas the
stability of a mineral field is fixed. Thus a mineral
that was stable in the former environment might
now be in an environment
to human activities.

in which it is unstable due

cence (self dissolving by drawing moisture), increases in humidity in the cave environment
can result in

degradation of the minerals. This is a particularly


complicated

issue for the nitrate minerals

because

of

the known behavior of nitrate minerals to appear


and disappear with the seasons due to natural
changes in humidity. There is a natural process by
which the disappearance of nitrate minerals is easily
explained. The role of humans would be added on
top of that already

complicated

scenario.

Humans

may directly alter the humidity just by their presence in a cave, or by altering the air flow patterns
through a cave by creating or altering entrances.

Monitoring changes in humidity would have to take


place over several years to establish the natural variation in the absence of human visitation. The range
over which

the nitrate minerals

appear

and disap-

pear could be determined. Then visitation could be


allowed with intensive monitoring of humidity. If
the humidity approached the level at which the
nitrate minerals disappeared naturally but at an
unnatural

time, then visitation

could

be curtailed.

The roles of oxygen decreases and carbon dioxide


Our best information
minerals

comes

about degradation

from work

of cave

in France on the degra-

increases on mineral stability in cave environments


due to human exhalation is not well known.

dation of cave paintings. Cabrol (1997) presented


those findings that are summarized
here. In France
several studies have shown that the temperature of
the air in caves rises when tour groups pass by sensors. Further, the amount of time required for the
cave to cool back

down

is much

greater

than that

required for the cave air to be heated up by the passing humans. These changes in temperature of the air
can cause (and have been shown to cause) degradation of minerals and prehistoric art in caves.

The monitoring work that has been undertaken in


France suggests that for both temperature and
humidity of the air in the cave there is a threshold
value below which
and above which

no degradation
seems to occur
degradation
does occur. The

One other component

of humans

is that we tend to

be clumsy. Establishing trails has been shown to help


preserve

cave minerals

from damage.

However

the

trails must be clearly marked and routinely checked


to make

sure the markers

are in the appropriate

places since humans tend to push to the edge of


trails for a better look or for a better angle on the
photo. Heavily trafficked tourist caves usually have
railings to mark the side of the trail and tour guides
or electronic surveillance
access to the minerals.

to try and control

visitor

BIOLOGY
Karst terrains are found

in a variety

of climatic

and

threshold value is highly cave dependent. In some


hot and dry caves, movement of the air through the
cave can easily remove the heat that is given off by

ecological settings. The combination of climate,


topography, and geology has a great impact on what

humans.

ducer). Karst may develop in the tropics on small


limestone islands and in alpine conditions in sub-

In other hot and dry caves, the heat given

off by humans cannot easily be removed because the


flow of air through the cave is naturally limited. The
threshold (how much heat and how quickly can that
heat be dissipated) is not the same for all caves. This
threshold effect has also been noted for changes in
humidity

in caves.

grows

and lives on the surface

arctic regions. Mesic forests,


deserts have karst landforms.

(ask any wine pro-

prairies, swamps, and


The sinkholes, dry val-

leys, caves, and springs provide unique habitats that


can host a variety of unusual flora and fauna and
sometimes species with very restricted ranges.

22

Cave Resources and Processes

Cave Protection
Karst Waters h stitute Special Publication 8

Karst features (particularly caves) are host to unique


communities

at the surface as well as underground.

More than 1,100 highly specialized obligate cave


dwellers (aquatic stygobites and terrestrial troglobites)
inhabit

the nearly

constant

environment

of water

and air filled parts of caves in the United States.


Among

these

endangered

are some

animals

of the most

yet, amazingly,

unusual
cave

and

animals

have received very little study beyond the formal


description of species. Inadequate information is
available about the distribution of species and their
limiting factors. Also, the nutrient dynamics of caves
is poorly

understood.

Obligate

cavernicoles

repre-

sent more than half of the rare (G1-G2) species listed


in the Natural Heritage Program but less that 4%
have federal protection status. Note that the Natural
Heritage

Program

rankings

are based upon the num-

ber of known populations without considering


threats (or lack of threats) to the species. Species on
the Federal list of endangered and threatened
species were determined

to be vulnerable

and quali-

fy for addition to the list based not just on rarity but


upon a series of factors that include human and
other threats to the species continued

existence.

Surface Karst Habitat


One of the most important

reasons to study and pro-

tect caves is their link with, and their dependence


upon, the surface watersheds that they drain. A cave
ecosystem
cannot flourish below an impacted
or

unprotected watershed and certainly a polluted


aquifer cannot meet the water needs of overlying
human

communities.

Figure 20. Photo showing tree roots anchored in


soil-filled joints in the epikarst, Prince of Wales
Island, Alaska (Jones).

Those peculiar

organisms

liv-

ing within caves have limited tolerance to subsurface environmental changes imposed primarily by
anthropogenic
surface disturbances.
Those invertebrate and vertebrate species that are endemic to a
specific cave or cave system are particularly vulnerable and as many as ten species in the U.S. have been

demonstrated as probably extinct due to human


activities (Elliott, 1997). These organisms and the
distinct environments in which they dwell can be
protected by determining drainage basins for those
karst features, and by preparing and implementing
effective management
plans. Proper management
and protection of karst resources are critical for their
survival and have numerous
far-reaching
environmental implications.
Surface soils in karst areas are often thin and
nutrient-poor
except for calcium and magnesium.

The chemical weathering of karst rocks results in


much of the weathered rock being removed in solution and very slow accretion rates for soil. The high

percolation rates make many karst soils susceptible


to leaching of the nutrients. The thin soils and rapid
percolation of precipitation also combine to dry the
soils and make many karst areas somewhat
ble to droughts.
perate humid

Historically,
regions

vulnera-

many karst areas in tem-

were

used

for pastures.

amount of exposed bedrock discouraged

The

plowing

and row crops in many areas. In spite of these weakwith minimal

nesses, many temperate karst regions


soil losses are productive.

Most of the world's karst lands located in humid climates were originally forested. Now, relatively few
of these forests remain.

In some areas deforestation

resulted in excessive soil loss and the creation of a


bare karst or stone forest. The old-growth
forests

found on the karst of southeast Alaska provide a picture of the original type of vegetative cover in this
climatic type. The wind-firmness of trees growing on
epikarst with thin soil cover may actually be somewhat greater than for areas with deep soils.
Windthrown trees in deep soils tend to fall when the
root ball fails and is pulled from the ground. Mature
trees growing

on epikarst

tend to have roots pene-

trating deeply into fissures and fall when the trunk


snaps (Figure 20).

Cave Resources and Processes

Cave Protection

23

Karst Waters Institute Special Publication 8

The biological and agricultural productivity of karst


terrains

relative

to adjacent

non-carbonate

areas is

quite variable. In many parts of the world, karst


regions are too rugged for much agriculture and the
areas have lagged economically behind those with
better soils. However,

many

of the areas of the cen-

tral Appalachians show more productive farms on


the karst. The central Kentucky bluegrass region has
valuable

farmland

on a subdued

karst surface. Steep

mountain slopes in the Appalachians are typically


forested except for benches covered by bluegrass

tions make caves unattractive


and inhospitable
to
normal surface fauna. Most of the animals found in
caves have had to adapt to the dark and food-poor
underground
environment
and evolutionary
biologists have used caves as natural laboratories to study
the mechanisms
of adaptation. The transition from
surface dweller to cave dweller involves: 1) subterranean

ness, and other


tions.
becomes

more developed

ancestor.

The flora of karst areas may be dominated by species


with a preference for alkaline soils. Eastern Red
Cedar (Juniperus virginiana L.) (Cupressaceae) and
Chinkapin oak (Quercus muehlenbergii Engelm)
(Fagaceae) are found almost exclusively on areas
with carbonate outcrop in the central Appalachians.
Limestone
glades"

areas

known

are found

as "glades"

in the southeastern

or

"cedar

states. These

sites are fragmented and form island-like habitats


within naturally forested regions (Baskauf, 1997).
These sites have unusually high numbers of rare
plant species and are important in the study of population genetics.

Some of the endemic

species occur-

ring on these limestone glades in Tennessee include


the federally endangered Tennessee Coneflower,
Echinacea tennesseensis (Beadle) (Asteraceae, Lime
stone Glade Bladderpod, Lesquerellafiliformis Rollins
(Brassicaceae), Pyne's ground plum, Astragalus bibullatis, and leafy prairie-clover,
Vegetation

Daleafoliosa.

cover in less humid

areas may be sparse

and patchy with xeric (dry site) species dominating


the epigean (surface)

communities.

These

environ-

by

the founder

populations,

features

of the cave

environment,

and 3) cessation of gene flow with surface popula-

pastures where limestones crop out. The productivity of karst seems to decline as the karst becomes
and pronounced.

colonization

2) adaptation to low food supply, perpetual dark-

The

adapted

a separate

cave

animal

at some

species

distinct

from its surface

Most of the obligate species dwelling


ranean environments
that are adaptations
tems. Cave adapted

point

in subter-

exhibit a suite of certain traits


to life in such extreme ecosysanimals frequently

show one or

more of the following traits: 1) reduction or loss of


eyes and pigments as well as wings in hexapods and
other insects, 2) elongation of appendages, 3)
increased chemical and tactile sensitivity, 4) degeneration of circadian rhythms and water regulatory
processes,

5) lowered

fecundity

and lowered

meta-

bolic rates, 6) increased longevity, and 7) increased


ovum

volume

and development

time. In terms

of

evolutionary biology these are generally classic


"K-strategies" for adaptation that typically include a
low reproductive

rate and larger eggs. Clearly, these

embody behavioral, ecological, morphological, and


physiological modifications that include the reduction or loss of characters

(regressive

well as the augmentation

evolution)

as

of others (constructive

evolution).
These various adaptations
generate the convergent
characteristics,

combine
referred

to
to

collectively as troglomorphy, observed in most obligate, cave-adapted

organisms

(Christiansen,

1961).

ments may be highly alkaline and offer limited

Theories accounting for many of these adaptations

shade.

focus on genetic change involving natural selection


and on genetic drift and neutral mutation.

Karst

features

such

as

sinkholes,

canyons, the upper portions of fissures,


entrances can afford moist, well shaded,

deep

and cave
and pro-

tected habitats within this otherwise unpromising

Caves

and their associated

fauna

are a mixture

of

environment.
An example of an organism dwelling
in these habitats in the American
Hart's-Tongue

species at different stages of adaptation to under-

Fern, Asplenium scolopendrium val: americanum.

ecosystems

Cave Animals

ferent ecological and biogeographical origins coexist


following multiple and sequential colonization

ground

processes.

As a habitat, caves are dark, relatively uniform with


regard to temperature, have generally high relative
humidity, high physical fragmentation in space, and
a low and irregularly distributed energy (food) supply. These limited or biologically "extreme" condi-

environments.

In essence,

are melting

Most,

pots where

subterranean

species from dif-

if not all, of these species

are the

product of independent invasion and subsequent


isolation of prior surface populations.
Species

making

up

communities

in subterranean

environments are traditionally classified on the basis

24

Cave Resources and Processes

Cave Protection
Karst Waters h stitute Special Publication 8

HABITAT

OBLIGATE
CAVE
DWELLERS

FACULITATIVE
CAVE
DWELLERS

SURFACE
REFUGE
SEEKERS

TERRESTRIAL

Troglobites

Troglophiles

Trogloxenes

AQUATIC

Stygobites

Stygophiles

Stygoxenes

Table 3. Terminology

for animals found

in caves.

of whether they live in water (aquatic) or in air filled


passages

(terrestrial).

The

animals

are then

sub-

grouped by their dependence on cave habitats. Some


species are full time inhabitants (stygobites and stygophiles in aquatic environments and troglobites
and troglophiles in terrestrial environments). Some
animals,

such as bats, shelter in the cave and return

to the surface to feed (stygoxenes and trogloxenes),


and some are essentially

surface species that may be

able to live in the dark zone but also are found in


surface

environments

(some

salamanders

and cave

rats for example) (Figure 21). These groups are summarized in Table 3. Only the obligate category
demonstrates

the extreme

cal, and physiological

behavioral,

morphologi-

adaptations for true subter-

ranean life.

Cave Ecology
Caves are one part of an interconnected

complex

of

subsurface voids and fractures of varying sizes that


make up the hypogean or subsurface
environment.
This combination
of micro to macro-sized
openings

provides

habitats for generally unique organisms

and serves as pathways

for the movement

of water

Figure 21. Photo showing

an eastern wood

rat

(Neotoma) from X Cave, Kentucky, an example


of a trogloxene (Hobbs).

and nutrients. The hypogean habitat includes voids


in the soil, dry spaces under talus slopes called
Miliue Souterrain Superficiel, the epikarst zone, the
underflow

zone of stream channels,

and even inter-

occurring

in caves and allows

for the cave environ-

stitial openings in the primary rock matrix. Because


of the interconnectiveness of these habitats, all these

ment to be subdivided conveniently into zones. The

zones may require protection


the biota of the caves.

sitional interface between

in order

to conserve

and determining

parameters

for

all biota associated with caves and other variously


sized voids in karst. The variation in biological,
chemical, and physical properties influences the
diversity,

distribution,

and

area is an ecotone, that is, the contact/tranthe surface and subsurface

(productive and consumptive) worlds (Gibert, 1997).

Perpetual darkness and extreme food limitations are


the most restrictive

entrance

abundance

of

fauna

Here there is more diversity

and larger environmen-

tal variability than in any other section of the cave


(Figure 22). On both horizontal and vertical scales
entrances provide

a transition

of characteristics

(e.g.,

light, humidity, temperature) that may afford conditions for entry or survival for preadapted
species or
for relict species that are rare or have become extinct

Cave Resources and Processes

Cave Protection
Karst Waters h stitute Special Publication 8

on the surface because of climatic changes. They are


important
windows
into the subterranean
realm

through which pass migrating trogloxenes (e.g.,


crickets, bats, woodrats) and can be the point of
entry of substantial organic material primarily car-

25

dominated mostly by obligate cave dwellers. Here


seasonal information

to these organisms

is transmit-

ted via physicochemical and hydrodynamic

fluctua-

tions

waters.

associated

primarily

with

recharge

ried by sinking surface streams. The main feature of

These variations potentially function as cues to initiate the reproductive cycle and to trigger molting of

this transition zone is its mixing of permeability, connectivity, and biodiversity as well as the important

darkness virtually no food is produced and organ-

productive

process,

photosynthesis,

that is carried

some

aquatic

arthropods.

isms are consequently

In this zone

dependent

of perpetual

upon input of car-

out by a variety of plants. It should be noted that

bon from the surface that supplies energy (food) for

pathways too small for human entry may connect


passages to the surface at points far removed from
the main entrance. Pockets of nutrients and animals

cricket guano).

utilizing these routes will sometimes exhibit nearentrance

characteristics

deep in the cave.

Farther into the cave but still within the bounds of


indirect light penetration is the twilight zone where
influences of surface conditions are still felt yet variation of meteorological elements is significantly less
than on the surface
and abundance

or in entrance

of organisms

areas. Diversity

decrease

and the plant

community is dominated by species that are intolerant of intense


mosses,

solar radiation

(for example,

algae,

ferns).

The dark zone is totally devoid of light and initially


demonstrates

considerable

influences

of

surface

ambient factors, but as distance increases from the


entrance it grades into a much less variable environment. Fluctuations

of relative humidity

and atmos-

pheric and water temperatures are reduced. Farther


:into the deep interior of caves, characterized by even
more

environmental

constancy,

the community

is

most

cave

ecosystems

(e.g., plant

debris,

bat and

Exceptions to the generalization that food is scarce in


caves occurs

in two situations

in the United

States.

The large piles of bat guano, especially in caves in


the desert southwest, harbor a distinct fauna that
lives in and feeds, directly or indirectly, on guano.
These caves include Carlsbad Caverns (New
Mexico) and Bracken Cave (Texas). The second is the
highly unusual case where energy ultimately
depends on the harvesting of the energy of chemical
bonds, especially of sulfur compounds. Key to the
development of these chemoautotrophic ecosystems
are sulfur-reducing

and sulfur-oxidizing

few

this

caves

where

process

bacteria.

is active

include

Cesspool Cave in Allegheny County, Virginia; Lower


Kane Cave, Big Horn County, Wyoming; and ground
waters and springs in Yellowstone National Park,
northwestern

Wyoming.

ues to grow indicating

Although

evidence

that autotrophic

contin-

microorgan-

isms may contribute more than thought previously


to the food base of cave ecosystems
(e.g., artesian
wells in Texas, Lechugulla Cave, New Mexico), surface derived materials remain the primary source of
energy for most subterranean

Deprived

of photosynthetic

herbivores

are mostly

communities.

primary

producers,

absent in subterranean

envi-

ronments except for those relatively uncommon


situations
where
animals
feed on plant roots or

chemoautotrophic bacteria. This absence of primary


producers and herbivores helps define the cave as an
incomplete ecosystem and the classical organization
of functional feeding groups (primary producers,
herbivores,

predators/parasites,

and decomposers)

utilized in most ecosystems is not possible in subterranean

systems.

On the surface,

photosynthesizers

and herbivores usually constitute the highest species


richness.

Their absence

in caves

represents

a func-

tional shortage at the base of the food web resulting


in a biodiversity that is strongly truncated at the base
(Gibert and Deharveng, 2002).
Figure 22. Photo showing the "high energy"
entrance zone of a cave (Hobbs).

26

Cave Resources and Processes

Cave Protection
Karst Waters hlstitute Special Publication 8

Food resources in caves are not necessarily rare but


tend to be unevenly available in space and time. Bat

guano and flood vegetative debris are examples of

from the surface. Aquatic phreatic communities are


found in water-filled
fractures and fissures below
the water table.

sometimes enormous and relatively permanent food


sources found mainly in terrestrial cave habitats and

Distribution and Biodiversity of Cave Animals

that can support high density and often diverse


invertebrate

communities.

posers are abundant

Predators

and

decom-

in the large guano communities

but these patches of energy and life are islands in


what are otherwise

extreme

conditions

that sustain

little life. Many caves are not rich in food but consist
of low energy, low density, and low diversity habitats. Their food webs are fundamentally detritus
communities
to assimilate

that rely on microbes

and invertebrates

and enhance the few organics

available.

There is evidence to suggest that obligate predators


decrease

in importance

in cave

communities

and

that in many they may not even be present. This is


not solely because of paucity of prey but probably is
a consequence
of an evolutionary
shift in preference
of a broader diet. This results in subterranean trophic webs

demonstrating

expansive

omnivory

and

The general distribution of caves of the coterminous


lower 48 States are shown in Figure 2. This is a plot
of approximately 45,000 caves. Obviously, the distribution of cavernicoles is influenced by the distribution and abundance

of caves available for habitation.

Although it is useful to examine the number of cavernicoles

in states or within

various

karst areas, the

availability of habitat as expressed by the number of


caves in a region is the best predictor of the biodiversify of cave-dwelling organisms. Additionally,
the distribution of cavernicoles within caves is
patchy and associated primarily with concentrations
of food sources. Species diversity within caves is
affected by resource availability and variety (e.g.,
organic

plant

debris,

bat or cricket

guano,

mam-

thus they are often truncated not only basally but


also at the top with few predators.

malian scat). Stygobites and troglobites tend to be


less diverse due in part to the lack of specialization
on a particular food type. Although it is not unusual

Cave animals also may be grouped according to


their more specific habitat within the cave.

epigean community of a region is examined, it is

Cavernicoles

gle cave and it is certainly exceptional for more than


20 obligate species to dwell in any cave. Mammoth

are represented

by a wide range of tax-

onomic groups and most caves have three relatively


distinct and permanent communities,
all consisting

primarily of obligate species that are characterized


by small populations that are separated by habitat
and resource base. Terrestrial riparian communities are
found On stream banks and have a resource base of

surface derived particulate organic matter deposited


as a stream recedes following

flood events. Terrestrial

transitory organic matter (dung) communities are situated usually within a few hundred meters of the surface with

a resource

base of organic

matter

(often

fecal material) that is derived from the activities of


animals (for example, bats, rats, crickets) moving in
and out of caves. These communities
can be found
throughout
a cave as long as there is reasonably
close access to the surface for migrating
cavernicoles. Terrestrial epikarst communities are found pri-

marily in the network of small, air-filled cavities


overlying the cave. Aquatic epikarst communities
inhabit primarily the network of small immersed or
partially flooded cavities above the cave and are
sampled most easily within the cave by examining
drip pools fed by water percolating through the
epikarst. Aquatic stream communities live primarily in
cave streams and are dependent
solved

and particulate

organic

ultimately
matter

on dis-

transported

to encounter
extremely

more than 100 species

rare to observe

Cave, Kentucky,

when

the entire

50-60 species within a sin-

is the exception

and is the most bio-

logically diverse cave in North America with 45 obligate cave species reported.

In the United States, groups with cave adapted


species include flatworms,
doscorpions,

spiders,

oligochaetes,

harvestmen,

snails, pseu-

mites,

ostracods,

isopods, amphipods, shrimps, crayfishes, diplurans,


springtails, beetles, flies, centipedes, millipedes,
fishes, and salamanders (Figures 23 and 24).
Additionally,
brates
[e.g.,
cricket]

and

numerous
other groups
Hadenoecus
subterraneus
vertebrates

[e.g.,

Myotis

of inverte(Scudder)grisescens

(Howell)-bat] occupy caves periodically but are


unable to complete their life history within the spelean environment.

However,

these groups

can have

critically important impacts on the energy dynamics


of cave ecosystems by introducing significant
amounts

of food in the form of guano.

Biodiversity is a field of biology that studies the variety and number of different species or types of animals (species richness) present in a given study area.
Even though caves may have many species represented, the actual number of animals may be low

Cave Resources and Processes

Cave Protection
Karst Waters h stitute Special Publication 8

27

--

.................
,,,...........
,.........................
, ..............................

Figure 23. Photo showing a cave-adapted crayfish


(Orconectes inermis testii), an example of a
Stygobite from a cave in Missouri(Hobbs).

Figure 24. Photo showing

and the distribution within the cave concentrated in

well

a few small areas. The highest

concentration

of ani-

mals in most caves is in the entrance and twilight


zones. Although stygobites and troglobites are usually living deep in the cave, they can be in low concentrations and very difficult to find and study.
Arthropods

are the most

diverse

among

all organ-

isms (specifically Coleoptera) in both surface and


subsurface
constitute

environments.
the dominant

Of those,
component

aquatic

insects

of surface water

biodiversity yet they are nearly absent from most


ground

waters.

Conversely,

biodiversity

a cave salamander

(Eurycea lucifuga), an example of a Troglophile and


common

in caves in the eastern United States

(Hobbs).

as in Hawaii)

and limestone

caves

are devel-

oped in numerous smaller karst areas in most of the


western states. However, the following brief discussions of cave fauna are restricted

to: Appalachians,

Black Hills (South Dakota), Driftless Area (parts of


Illinois, Iowa, Minnesota, and Wisconsin), Edwards
Aquifer & Balcones Escarpment (Texas), Florida
Lime Sinks, Guadalupe Mountains (New Mexico),
Interior Lowland Plateaus (Kentucky, Tennessee),
Mother Lode (California), and the Ozarks (Missouri
and Arkansas).

of subter-

Fragmentation, due in part to folding of strata, has


led to isolation of fauna, resulting in elevated species
of surface species in the same region. Twenty-seven
richness (particularly of troglobites and specifically
crustacean orders are represented in global subsurbeetles)
in the Appalachians and to a lesser extent in
face environments
and seven of those are formally
the
Interior
Lowlands. The Black Hills support the
stygobitic or are restricted to ground waters.
lowest number of obligate cavernicoles and lowest
overall biodiversity of any of the major karst regions.
The approximately 1,125 described obligate hypoThe
Ozarks are dominated by stygobites as are the
gean species currently known from the 50 states repFlorida
Lime sinks. Arachnids and beetles are the
resents the largest known subterranean fauna of any
prominent
fauna of the Edwards Plateau & Balcones
country in the world even though many countries
Escarpment
and troglobites outnumber stygobites
smaller in area (e.g., those of the western Balkans)
(20:3)
in
the
Mother
Lode region. Most obligate cavhave more species per unit area. Available and suiternicoles
are
found
south of the southern limits of
able karst habitats for subterranean
fauna are not
the
Pleistocene
continental
glacial ice sheets; howevcontinuous within the continental United States,
er,
some
were
able
to
survive
subglacial conditions
thus cave-inhabiting organisms are found in distinct
in
the
northern
states
and
are
represented
today priareas. Some species are widely distributed while
marily
by
groundwater
amphipods
and
isopods.
In
others are isolated to a single cave. Due to these septhe
Driftless
Area
and
other
smaller
karst
regions
arations and each area having a unique geologic setting, history, and climate, substantial differences are above the glacial boundary, low biodiversity in

ranean crustaceans

noted

in regional

may equal and even exceed

fauna and in variances

that

expressed

by species richness and population densities. Lava


tube caves are found in the western United States (as

caves is attributed

to inadequate

time for coloniza-

tion and isolation due to the effects of glaciers. Also,


the karst of the Guadalupe Mountains of New

28

Cave Resources and Processes

Cave Protection
Karst Waters h stitute Special Publication 8

MAJOR KARST REGIONS OF U.S.

NUMBEROF
TROGLOBITS

178
2
11
108
0
13
257
20
31

Appalachians

Black Hills
Driftless Area
Edwards/Balcones
Florida Lime Sinks
Guadalupes
Interior Lowland Plateau
Mother Lode
Ozarks

NUMBEROF
STYGOBITES

(2)
(8)
(7)
(3)
(9)
(6)
(1)
(5)
(4)

Table 4. Biodiversity

water

(1)
(9)
(7)
(3
(5)
(8)
(2)
(6)
(4)

263 (2)
2 (9)
13 (8)
164 (3)
24 (5)
14 (7)
319 (1)
23 (6)
82 (4)

7,441 (2)

284

9O4

inputs

to the caves.

Caves

of the

Guadalupe Mountains and the Black Hills appear to


be predominately of hypogenic origin and are not as
directly connected to surface water inputs
of the more species rich caves.
patterns

2,011 (4)

627 (6)
1,379 (5)
11,928 (1)

179 (8)
6,964 (3)
31,304

as many

of the cave obligate species are endemic


region

such as these and those summa-

rized in Table 4 help in developing an understanding


of the patterns of subterranean biodiversity. Using
these data in conjunction with the distribution of the
nearly 45,000 cave entrances plotted in Figure 1, it
becomes clear that obligate
concentrated
in various

subterranean
biodiversity

and

more

than

one-third

to this

are single

cave

endemics). High incidence of endemism generally is


related to the degree of fragmentation of subterranean habitats. This fragmentation

isolates popula-

tions and nurtures genetic drift. These hotspots of


biodiversity make species particularly vulnerable to
various

Regional

160 (9)
615 (7)

of some major karst areas of the United States. Ranks are in parentheses.

Mexico demonstrates low cave biodiversity likely


resulting from the aridity of the region and the lack
of surface

NUMBEROF
CAVES

85
0
2
56
24
1
62
3
51

620

Total

TOTAL
SPECIES

perturbations

but also allow

for the oppor-

tunity to preserve a large percentage of endemic/


at-risk

species

by

focusing

habitat

conservation

efforts in those areas of high concentrations


obligate

of

cave fauna.

CAVEPALEONTOLOGY

species are
hotspots.

Troglobitic species are especially abundant in northeastern Alabama (particularly Jackson County) and

Caves may contain rich concentrations


of fossil
remains. Caves and vertical shafts are sometimes

other

natural traps for surface animals that wander

smaller

clusters

occur

in Kentucky,

Texas,

too far

Virginia, and West Virginia. Stygobites are aggregated in southcentral Texas (Hays County) with other

into the dark zone or fall down shafts. Once the

concentrations

disturbance
by scavengers
is probable.
The cave
roof provides protection from weathering,
and the
alkaline conditions associated with carbonate caves

in Florida,

Oklahoma,

elsewhere

in

Texas, Virginia, and West Virginia.


Levels of endemism in the cave fauna are unparalleled in any other fauna or flora. For example, 239 of

594 cave-dwelling species east of the Mississippi are


known from a single cave. More than 60% of all the
obligate

cavernicoles

are

county

endemics

and

approximately 300 of these also are single site


endemics (e.g., in the Appalachians more than 90%

remains

have

been

favor the preservation

deposited

in a cave,

of bones.

minimal

Fossil remains

may

be found lying on the surface in cave passages,


covered by cave sediments, and sometimes incased

in calcite.

Paleontological

undisturbed
lecting.

and protected

sites should
from

be left

unauthorized

col-

Cave Protection

Cave Resources and Processes

29

Karst Waters h stitute Special Publication 8

Fossil animals reported

from North American

caves

include: saber-toothed cat (Smilodon gracilis), bears,


ground

sloths,

mammoth,

tapir, peccary,

reindeer,

bison, and other animals (Sutcliffe and others, 1976).


The majority of fossil remains reported from caves in
the United States are of Upper and Middle
Pleistocene age (about 70,000 to 1,000,000 years
before present)..

There has been relatively little investigation of the


potential

of North

ately reported

American

caves.

The oldest archaeological record of a cave visit is


from a cave in Tennessee visited about 4500 years
ago. In general, it does not appear that Native
Americans lived deep in limestone caves. Although
pictographs and "glyphs" are found in some US
caves, the rich cave art of certain European caves is
not known from North American
caves. Split-twig

to law enforcement

authorities

and

the site left undisturbed. There have been several


cases where the age of the remains was in doubt and
considerable
debate occurred on rather the site was
a crime seen or an archeological
find. Any remains of
Native Americans must be reported to state or federal agencies

ARCHEOLOGY
archeological

evidence is very important. Any human (or parts


thereof) remains found in a cave should be immedi-

for Native American

affairs.

Archeological investigations should only be conducted by qualified personnel that have all the
required state and federal authorizations. Study
methods may include looking for any signs of camping in the cave or drawings or markings on the
walls, excavating

the site, digging

trenches,

collect-

ing any material containing carbon such as old


campfires
paleofeces.
for

or torches, and even


Photo documentation

archeological

doing analysis of
is very important

investigations.

In many

cases,

figurines (about 4000 years old) have been found in

material should be left in the cave if the site is secure

some caves in the Grand Canyon.

from

Some shelter caves

are certainly significant archeological sites, although


these small, often sandstone

caves are of little inter-

est to cavers and may not appear on the typical cave


inventory.
Native

Americans

underground

did

on

occasion

venture

deep

using simple cane torches for light.

One of the best-studied

areas is in Mammoth

Cave,

Kentucky where mining for gypsum was conducted


for medicines

and as a source

of salt. It appears

that

the main reason for aboriginal visitation deep in the


cave was the extraction

of sulfate minerals,

especial-

ly mirabilite that has a salty taste. The earliest dates


from the cave suggest Mammoth Cave was being
explored in Archaic times (ca. 8000 to 3000 years
ago) at least 4000 years ago. Aboriginal activity in
the caves continued through the Woodland Period
and was probably still continuing through 200 A.D.
Several human remains and at least two "mummies"
have been

found

in caves

area. One of the mummies

in the Mammoth
appears

Cave

to have suffered

a head injury in the cave and may represent the first


documented caving fatality in North America. A few
vertical shafts in Kentucky appear to have been used
as disposal

usually

provide

excellent

protec-

tion from weathering and decay for archaeological


artifacts. Any cave suspected of having archeological
interest should be left untouched until trained archeologists can visit the site. Archeological sites are
similar

to crime

scenes

where

or vandalism.

Any

material

removed

environment

similar to that found

in the cave.

Caves containing any archeological significance


should have visitation of the archeological site
restricted to trained archeologists and will often
require gating or other protective

measures,

at least

until the archeological investigation is completed.


Looting at archeological sites is a major risk.
Archeological sites are protected under many state
laws and if public or Indian lands by the
"Archaeological Resources Protection Act (ARPA) of
1979."

CAVEHISTORY
Many caves have been used by European

settlers to

supply raw materials, especially saltpeter (potassium nitrate, KNO3)) for the manufacture of gunpowder and bat guano for fertilizer. Saltpeter mining
operations were highly organized by the confederate
army during the American Civil War and numerous
caves

in the southern

Appalachians

contain

traces

and artifacts from this period. Evidence of saltpeter


mining may include: tool marks and evidence of

sites for human remains.

Dry cave passages

looting

should be curated in a facility that can store the


material in a constant temperature and humidity

undisturbed

trace

sediment removal, modification


of the cave passages
for access and removal of sediments,
and artifacts

such as leaching vats and hoppers (Figure 25) associated with mining and processing
nitrates
(Hubbard, in press). Names and tally marks dating
from the time of mining may sometimes be found on

30

Cave Resources and Processes

Cave Protection
Karst Waters Institute Special Publication 8

Figure 25. Photo showing saltpeter hoppers in Organ Cave, West Virginia (Jones).

the walls of passages. Cultural artifacts are often


subject to vandalism (Figure 26) and should be pro-

been written

tected within

such as the connection of Mammoth Cave with Flint

the cave or removed

to a secure loca-

tion if absolutely necessary.


Some caves were commercial

attractions

long before

history of

some of these early tourist caves is an important

part

of the history of the communities. Probably the first


electric lights in Huntsville Alabama were those
installed in Shelta Cave in 1888. Interestingl some
found

about milestones

Ridge Cave in Kentucky.

electric lights, and the socioeconomic

old signatures

trip and the accomplishments of the trip. Books have

on cave walls

may have his-

toric importance while recent graffiti is considered


vandalism.

The history of the discovery and exploration of any


cave is also of interest and should be recorded. Trip
report logs are kept for some caves in national parks.

These logs should contain a list of everyone on the

of cave exploration,

Many trip reports

are con-

tained in the newsletters of the various caving clubs


or "Grottos" of the National Speleological Society
(NSS). These reports are available at the NSS library
and many are collected in the annually issued
"Speleo Digest" of the National Speleological
Society.

ANTHROPOGENIC
THREATSTO
CAVESAND KARST
The activities of humans (anthropogenic threats)
may impact caves directly through cave visitation or
more indirectly through surface disturbance. Most
caves are low energy environments
relative to the
surface and alterations are generally permanent in

Cave Resources and Processes

Cave Protection

31

Karst Waters h stitute Special Publication 8

Some anthropogenic
disturbances lead to alterations
of or complete losses of habitats. These disturbances

include: 1) pollution from agriculture and industry


including input of pesticides (e.g., atrazine, dieldrin,
heptachlor epoxide) and heavy metals (e.g., chromium, lead, mercury);
2) nutrient
enrichment
nitrates,
nitrites
and various
other
fertilizers;

3) creamery wastes; 4) hog and poultry farms and


feedlots; 5) development, construction, road building,
and other infrastructure projects within karst areas
leading to alteration of drainage basin land use and
decreased water quality and siltation; 6) deforestation
and logging resulting in increased runoff and inputs
of

slash

and

sediments

7) construction

Figure 26. Photo showing a calcite encrusted saltpeter vat that was destroyed by vandals about one
month after this picture was taken in 1964 (Robert
Bergad).

the human
the

time scale. Because

surface,

any

external

caves

adverse

are linked

to

environmental

changes will likely have subsurface effects. The main


threats to caves are summarized
al, cave protection

in Table 5. In gener-

entails the protection

of:

The physical contents of the cave. This


:includes speleothems,

minerals,

archeological

artifacts, and the void itself. Most of this vulnerability is due to intentional or accidental
activities
.

of visitors

to the cave.

The animals and microorganisms living in the


cave. This includes protecting the habitat and
food supply for these organisms. Cave life
may be harmed by visitors to the cave or by
alterations

in the surface environment

and

inputs to the cave. Modifications


to cave
entrances may restrict animal movement or
result in adverse changes to the microclimate

The quality and quantity of water flowing


through the caves. This is mostly controlled
by what happens on the surface. Groundwater protection will also help conserve sur-

face water resources fed by the karst aquifer


and may help prevent engineering problems
to roads and structures
cave collapse.

caused by sinkhole

or

subterranean

voids;

and subsequent

flooding

of caves as well as back flooding

dammed

rivers;

8) dams

at cave

entrances

from
and at

heads of large springs for enhancing water supplies


and hydroelectric generating systems; 9) decline in
water quantity (spring flow cessation) and quality
resulting from loss of recharge to and over-pumping
of a karst aquifer (in some areas this results in saltwater intrusion into the karst aquifer); 10) indiscriminant
sewage disposal (sewage-contaminated runoff and
direct inputs) that increases BOD (Biological Oxygen
Demand) and introduces pathogens (viruses and bacteria) such as Sphaerotilusnatans (a bacterium called
"sewage fungus") and tubificid worms; 11) septic
tanks; 12) solid waste dumping into sinkholes and
cave entrances 13) hazardous road spills; 14) use of
deicing salts on roads and runoff from highways and
parking lots; 15) gasoline and diesel fuel leaking from
service stations and leaky underground

storage tanks;

16) landfill leachates; 17) mining caves for saltpeter,


bat guano, minerals; 18) quarrying for limestone;
19) sealing or altering entrances (gates, enlargement)
resulting in loss or reduction of air flow and particulate organic matter; 20) senseless killing of bats (fires,
shooting, crushing); 21) collecting and handling of
cavernicoles by overzealous individuals; 22) invasion
by exotic species (fire ant, terrestrial isopods,
millipedes, earthworms, microbes); 23) show caves
enrichment by litter, lint, food, sewage, garbage, lighting that promotes growth of lampenflora, soil
compaction,

of the cave.

into

of surface reservoirs

alteration

of normal

air flow

as well as

humidity and temperature; 24) impact of cavers spent


carbide (calcium hydroxide), trash, batteries, urine,
and feces; 25) impacts from air pollution; and
26) impacts from nearby oil and gas drilling and
recovery.

Caves

are fragile

ecosystems

that can be seriously

disturbed and altered even by minor perturbations.


The preservation

of cave entrances

and some

32

Cave Resources and Processes

Cave Protection
Karst Waters h stitute Special Publication 8

ACTIVITY

THREATS

Construction and Earth Moving

Sedimentation,

Increased

Oil and gas spills


Logging

Increase storm runoff,

storm runoff,

Possible

flooding,

Soil loss and sedimentation,

Slash and

debris inputs
Agriculture

Increased

nutrient load, increased

bacteria, Increased

storm

runoff, Soil loss and sedimentation, Pesticides, Sinkhole dumping


Urbanization

General decline in quality of recharge water, Decline in spring


discharge Septic system failure, Induced sinkhole collapse by
over pumping,

Cave Visitation

Cave visitation

increase

Vandalism, Mineral or biological sample collecting, General


degradation from human wastes and litter, Light-promoted
flora growth

Quarrying and Mineral Extraction

Damage from blasting and heavy equipment operation, Actual


destruction

of caves or passages

Oil and Gas Drilling

Contamination by lost drilling fluids and by hydrocarbons from


spills or leaks from well casings, storage tanks or from pipelines

Heavy Equipment Operation

Danger from sinkhole collapse or collapse of shallow cave


passages

Table 5. Threats to cave and karst resources

prescribed

means

small areas around

of

approach:

conservation
Preservation

the entrances

is

a totally

tactics should

due to the activities

as a sole

deficient

include

ade-

of man.

Inventories of biological, geological, mineralogical,


and cave

and

other

surface

and subsurface

karst

as the water quality and quantity on which subter-

resources are crucial to their preservation


and conservation. These baseline data can be used to help
monitor the success of the cave and karst manage-

ranean ecosystems

ment program

quate land area to conserve

agement
ecosystems,

the energy bases as well

are dependent.

is crucial

to

the

Because soil man-

maintenance

a stable natural vegetation

of

karst

cover should

be maintained within the basin. Disturbed areas


should be replanted with native vegetation and not
an exotic

community

demands or whose
retain soil.
These surface

that may have


root systems

disturbances

greater

water

may inadequately

can affect not only sur-

face and cave communities


but entire species. The
biodiversity
of surface
and subterranean
karst

ecosystems is highly restricted and endemic species


are often key constituents

of these environments.

At

a minimum,
local populations
of various invertebrates, fishes, salamanders, and bats have been extripared and up to 10 species are known or expected to

be extinct with a high probability that others have


disappeared without our knowledge.

and provide

a standard

of compari-

son if problems appear in the future. Data from these


inventories

can be maintained

in secure

databases.

Analyses of these data should result in the establishment and employment of appropriate management
techniques.

Any

subsequent

recognition

of general

deterioration or of specific impacts should then


result in amelioration steps being taken. These steps
range from prevention of disturbance via public
education to such approaches as limiting visitation,
closing

caves

to entry for various

periods

of time

(accomplished in the extreme by gating entrances),


site restoration including depollution, speleothem
repair, cleaning graffiti, and habitat restoration (see
Watson et al. 1997 and Tercafs 2001 for more detailed
treatments of restoration). However, most damage to
cave features and cave life will result in a permanent
deterioration of the cave resource.

PART2
Management

Guidelines for Cave Protection

Management Guidelinesfor Cave Protection 35

Cave Protection
Karst Waters h stitute Special Publication 8

PART2
MANAGEMENTGUIDELINESFOR CAVEPROTECTION

CAVEPROTECTION

Lechuguilla Cave Protection Act of 1993 was passed


to conserve

Cave protection

ultimately

comes

down

ling access to the cave and controlling

to control-

land-use

prac-

tices not only directly above the cave but also for the
entire watershed.

Preparing

a cave protection

plan to

meet the goals of the FCRPA should involve the following steps:
1. Identify all cave entrances on the federally
protected

which

caves are significant.

3. Identify the significant features and potential


threats to the caves, or more specifically to the
inhabitants
4. Document

and contents
the condition

of the caves.
of the caves and their

associated resources (baseline data collection).


5. Determine

the surface area that controls

water

inputs to the caves (usually the drainage


basin for the cave(s)).

1. Wilderness Act of 1964 (P.L. 88-577)


2. National Environment Policy Act of 1969
(P.L. 91-184)
4. Wild and Scenic Rivers Act of 1968
(P.L. 90-542)
5. Archaeological Resources Protection Act of
1979 (P.L. 96-95)
6. Antiquities Act of 1906 (P.L. 59-209)
7. Multiple Use Sustained Yield Act of 1960
(P.L. 86-517)
Graves Protection

.... Act of

1990 (P.L. 101-601)

lands.

7. Identify appropriate user and interest groups


for the cave.

Implement any needed controls on visitor


access to the caves or to specific

Several

acts include:

8. Native American

6. Identify jurisdictional boundaries and the part


of the cave catchment within the protected

cave in New Mexico.

3. Endangered Species Act of 1973 (P.L. 93-205)

lands.

2. Determine

this unique

other federal acts may have a bearing


on cave
resources on both federal and private lands. These

parts of the

caves.

Several of the "clean water acts" may be used to help


protect

karst aquifers.

These

include

the Resource

Conservation Recovery Act as amended by the


Hazardous Substance Waste Act (RCRA, 1976), the
Comprehensive

Environmental

Resource

Compen-

sation Liability Act (CERCLA, 1980), and the Safe


Drinking WaterAct (SDWA).
In addition to the federal laws, 22 states, Puerto Rico,

9. Manage

surface activities within

and the Cherokee Nation have cave protection laws.


Reviews of cave protection legislation were present-

the cave

catchment area to protect the quality and


quantity

of water entering

the cave.

10. Establish a long-term monitoring protocol to


track any degradation

of the cave resources

over time and as a tool for adjusting

manage-

ment policies.

ed by Huppert (1995) and LaMoreaux and others


(1997). State cave protection laws generally apply
only on state land and do not cover

activities

of pri-

vate landowners
or damage done to a privately
owned cave with the landowners
consent.

CAVEPROTECTIONLAWS

JURISDICTIONAL
BOUNDARIESAND
CAVEOWNERSHIP

The main federal law dealing with cave protection is


the Federal Cave Resources Protection Act of 1988
(P.L. 100-691). The text of this act is in Appendix 1.
The National Park Service Act of 1916 (P.L. 64-235)

From a practical but not necessarily a legal standpoint, whoever


owns the entrance
to a singleentrance cave can control visitation to the entire

resulted

in several

caves becoming

of America's

National

most

magnificent

Parks or Monuments.

The

cave. Among cavers, the owner of the entrance is


considered the owner of the cave. State laws in many
states (Kentucky,

for example)

treat caves the same

36 Management Guidelinesfor Cave Protection

Cave Protection
Karst Waters h stitute Special Publication 8

as mineral rights and the landowner owns only the

resource.

part of the cave under his/her

lands are not subject to the Freedom of Information


Act because of the sensitive and potentially haz-

property.

The owner-

ship question may be even more confusing if different owners hold the land surface and the mineral
rights below the surface. However, once inside the
cave, the boundaries are usually unknown. An inter-

esting exception to this is the Domica/Baradla cave


that passes under the international boundary
between Slovakia and Hungary. Sections of the cave
in both countries are commercialized
and the inter-

national border is marked underground by an iron


gate across the passage.
The federal government
considers only caves or the
parts of caves under federal land as federally owned.
In many cases the federal land manager will have no
control on the upstream drainage to the cave, and in
some cases entrances may be situated on private

land. Establishing good relations with the neighboring landowners and public education may help protect the caves.

The cave

resource

inventories

ardous nature of caves. It is important


inventory

information,

especially

of federal

that the cave

entrance

locations,

should not be released to the general public.


A major use of the cave inventory should be to identify caves that are suitable for different user groups.
Caves are an important

recreational

asset, but appro-

priate groups should visit the appropriate caves. A


few caves will have electric lights and maintained
trails and be open to the general public on guided
tours. These "highly developed
caves"
to provide maximum
visitor comfort
ience.

These

speleothems

caves

are often

well

are managed
and conven-

decorated

and attract large numbers

with

of visitors.

Some degradation to the caves inevitably occurs


over time. Just installing the paths, handrails, and
lighting is a disturbance to the natural cave. A sort of
"browse line" develops along the sides of the trail.
Lint and dirt collect on the speleothems. Green algae

Many states now have cave protection laws that give


the landowner some power to deter mineral collect-

and fungus may appear near the lights. Rest rooms


may have to be provided for longer cave tours. The

ing and vandalism

advantage of the highly developed cave is that it satisfies most visitors, permits large numbers of people

in privately

owned

caves. Also,

state and federal water pollution laws may help protect the quality of water reaching the boundary of
government

ownership.

Real

protection

of many

caves is only possible if the water quality of the


entire drainage
drainage

basin for the cave is protected.

basins are often a hundred

Karst

or more square

to tour the cave, and provides


an opportunity
for
education about the need for cave and karst protec-

tion. The primary objective of several natural parks


is to provide this type of experience to the public
while minimizing the impact on the cave. Well

kilometers and many different landowners are apt to

known

own parts of the watershed.


Community
involvement and education
of the landowners
about the

are probably better protected by using tourist trails


and guided trips than if left wild but open to a lot of

value of cave and karst protection may be the best

visitation.

caves that attract a large number

of visitors

approach.

Minimally developed caves are managed to provide


relatively easy access with minimal modification of

INVENTORY

cave
The

cave

inventory

is a list of

caves

and

cave

locations, but just as important it is a catalog of the


contents of the caves. The inventory should identify

resources.

These

less sensitive

caves

(not

as

well decorated and or easily damaged) may have a


designated
provides

trail over
a more

an easy-to-walk

natural

cave

route.

experience

This

without

of the
cave.

requiring special skill or equipment other than lights

Management decisions about the significance and


vulnerability of any particular cave should be based

efit from receiving less traffic but may suffer due to

the nature,
resources

extent, and relative


actually
present

on information

and support

significance
within
a

and hardhats for non-lighted


less supervision

caves. These caves ben-

of the groups.

data in the inventory.

More details on what should be in the inventories

The vast majority

are given in the section under "methods."

veloped. Agencies such as the National Park Service

Many cavers feel strongly that the only way to protect

evaluate the undeveloped caves as to suitability for


visitation by different categories of visitors. Caves
that are deemed highly sensitive to perturbation,

generally
some caves is to keep its location, if not its existence,
secret. This may be true in some cases, but a land
manager cannot be expected to protect an unknown

contain

have

of caves on federal lands are undemore

number

control

of

over

unusual

access

and may

minerals

and

Cave Protection

Management Guidelinesfor Cave Protection 37

Karst Waters h stitute Special Publication 8

speleothems,
or have an unusually hazardous
feature should be closed to all except minimum administrative and research visits. Access to inadequately
inventoried
caves or caves currently being mapped

should be limited until the significance and vulnerability of the cave can be determined.

of the resource

and the nonrenewable

nature of any

damage or collecting, guided tours, photo monitoring of sensitive areas of the cave, keeping cave loca-

tions away from the general public, and gating the


cave

entrances.

The cave inventory should be used to identify caves


All visitation to caves presents the risk of some
degradation of the resource. Caves have differing
carrying capacities in terms of the number of visitors
and the time the visitors spend underground. The
cave paintings in Lascaux Cave (France) had become
spoiled by the high number of visitors and the
accompanying

increase

in the temperature

of the

cave. The cave was closed to the public in 1963 and


an artificial replica of the cave and the paintings was
built on the site. The replica is still an important
tourist attraction in the region.

PUBLICACCESSTO PROTECTEDCAVES
Control of visitor access to caves will vary widely on
federal lands. The cave inventory should identify the
sensitivity of the caves to accidental or deliberate
damage

by visitors.

Cave access decisions

should be

based on the significance and vulnerability of the


cave resources.

Caves that have the entrances

gated

or are situated in heavily patrolled parks are much


more

secure

forests

than caves

or rangelands.

situated

in large national

The best control

of undesir-

appropriate

for development

as show

caves,

open

for wild caving trips, and closed to the general


public. A number of people or groups may have an
interest in visiting

caves. Not counting

collectors

or

people looking for an unusual place for a party, a


rough breakdown of undeveloped
cave interest
groups includes:
1. Sport or recreational
caves

cavers interested

2. General tourists interested


famous cave

in wild

in a tour of a

3. Cave divers
4. Cave mappers

and serious explorers

5. Cave scientists
6. Cave for pay operators
schools"

and "adventure

7. Rock climbers
8. Inexperienced
Because

adventurers

of the great variety

of caves and the differ-

ing levels of sensitivity to visitor damage of different

able visitation on these caves is keeping the location

caves,

from the general public. Most serious cavers are


careful users of the cave resource and generally

right cave to the right group. The manager should


also keep in mind the potential conflicts between the
various user groups (Trout, 2001).

respect and support cave closure to protect


animal life, delicate mineral formations,
important

sensitive
or other

are a curiosity

for the general

caves

also

public,

some-

attract vandals,

mineral

collectors,
and souvenir hunters. Caves are sometimes called an "underground
wilderness"
and visi-

tors should be expected to treat caves as a highly


sensitive

wilderness

should

area.

The control of visitors and identifying

who has

be properly equipped

and hopefully

explore

cave.

the particular

At

the

qualified to

a minimum

this

means helmets, adequate lights, and appropriate


shoes and clothes for the cave. Cavers entering

caves

requiring ropes should be properly trained in "vertical caving" techniques. Cave diving is a highly specialized and often hazardous sport. All divers
should

be "cave

certified,"

not just "cavern

certi-

fied." The majority of US cavers are members of the


National Speleological Society. These cavers have
generally worked cooperatively with government
agencies and have provided invaluable help with
cave inventory

and mapping.

agement plan. Strategies to minimize the impact

Cave mappers

are often territorial

from cave visitors include

exclusive

access to a particular

try to match

unsupervised
user groups are aware of any agency
regulations concerning
the cave. All cavers should

times places of great natural beauty, a scientific laboratory, and a recreational opportunity.
Caves present one of the last places on earth where an explorer
can "walk
where
no one has walked
before."
Unfortunately,

manager

The federal cave specialist should make sure all

natural or cultural resources.

CAVEUSERGROUPS
Caves

the cave

cave should be part of the maneducation

about the value

control

over who

visits

and want
a cave

some

currently

38 Management Guidelinesfor Cave Protection

Cave Protection
Karst Waters h stitute Special Publication 8

under exploration.

This is understandable

cance of the cave or the extent of the as yet unexplored

passages

Scientists,
caves

often

on federal

can be determined.
from

universities,

lands

for many

have

studied

years.

Scientific

investigations often require leaving instruments and


recorders in the cave and maintaining undisturbed
conditions

in the cave. Control

CAVINGSAFETYAND RESCUEAND
EVACUATION
CONSIDERATIONS

but, with-

in reason, public caves should be accessible to all


qualified groups. The temporary limiting of access
during mapping may be justified until the signifi-

on cave visitation

is

often crucial for these studies and usually at least


temporary restriction on access will be justified.

A number of excellent books are available on the


techniques and equipment required for safe cave
exploration (see Rea, 1992; Smith and Padgett, 1996).
Judgment and experience are probably the most
important requisites. The caver should be physically
fit and experienced for the technical challenges presented by the particular cave. A few generalizations
on cave safety include:

1. No solo caving. Many people consider a party


of four to be optimum for safe caving and
general survey work in caves. Groups

Rock climbing, usually done in the entrance arch of

caves.

caves, is a controversial
subject. This is a relatively
new use of caves and the damage associated with

Some caves are susceptible to flooding and


should be closed to all visitors if the water

the placement of aids (bolts, pitons) is becoming well


established. In terms of the number of participants,
there are more

rock

climbers

entrance that becomes


probably

than cavers.

popular

be a management

levels are high or storms are expected.

A cave

for some time.

Again, the national parks have more direct control


over the majority of their caves than most of the
other agencies. Setting a firm policy on the use of
chalk, bolts or drilling in caves should help limit
damage

caves may contain airborne

Cave-for-pay

diseases

there is a real need for scientific

operations

are similar

rafting ventures.

information.

Diving in flooded passages should only be


done by properly equipped and certified

to commercial

The outfitters

or dan-

gerous gases such as high levels of ammonia


or carbon dioxide and should not be entered
except by experts using special equipment if

to the caves.

white-water

Other

characteristics of caves relating to safety


include: Complexity of the cave; Tightness
and extent of crawls; Vertical drops; Loose
rock; Length and overall difficulty. A few

for climbing will

headache

of more

than five may be hard to manage in many

provide

cave divers.

equipment, guides, and hopefully training for


groups wanting to try a wild cave trip. These groups
should be closely monitored and matched to an
appropriate cave. The current liability climate keeps

Helmets (construction type hard hats do not


provide adequate protection for caving) meeting UIAA standards should be required for

these operations

entering

to a limited number

at the present.

Obviously it is desirable to keep unqualified people


and thrill seekers out of all caves. This will sometimes involve a judgment call on the part of the cave
specialist
themselves

or resource

manager.

Do the visitors

cavers or spelunkers?

call

Is their equipment

adequate? Is all their gear brand new? Are they carrying a rock hammer? Is the group size reasonable?
These people may be difficult to deal with, but a
clear policy on qualifications expected for people
seeking entry to wild caves should be developed
and consistently

fairly

enforced.

and equitably

resources.

Everyone

while

must be treated

protecting

the cave

all undeveloped

caves.

Helmet mountable lights. At least one back up


light for the helmet and probably some sort of
flashlight for each person. Electric lights, especially systems using an array of LED bulbs, are
becoming

the standard.

"Traditional"

carbide

lamps are still in use, but the spent carbide


must be carried out of the cave and the heat
generated by carbide lamps may cause
unwanted

temperature

rises in some situa-

tions. The European style carbide lamp with a


belt generator and large open flame on the
helmet has been nicknamed
because

a "ceiling-burner"

they can leave soot on the roofs of low

passages. A "no carbide lights" policy is


appropriate

for some caves.

Cave Protection

Management Guidelinesfor Cave Protection 39

Karst Waters h stitute Special Publication 8

5. Clothing and footwear must be adequate for


the conditions of the cave and should be
appropriately clean.
Several potentially serious diseases transmitted by
animals

are associated

with the cave environment.

The most serious is rabies (caused by the ribonucleic


acid virus in the family Rhabdoviridae).The principle
reservoir of rabies in North America is infected wild
mammals including bats. In 1996, 8509 cases of rabies
were reported

in animals and four cases in humans in

the United States. Bats accounted

for 11.3 per cent of

these animal cases (Weiss, 2001). Rabies is always


fatal in humans if clinical symptoms develop. The
disease is usually transmitted through saliva in the
bite from an infected animal. It is possible to be
exposed to the disease by breathing aerosols of the
rabies virus from excretions

from infected

animals.

The risk of exposure to rabies by visiting North


American caves is very slight, but not totally absent.
There are no known cases of rabies being transmit-

ted to humans while visiting North American caves.


Two potential

bat cave

associated

rabies

cases are

reported in the literature (Weiss, 2001). There is considerable controversy about the degree of risk of
exposure to rabies in caves. Anyone bitten by a bat
must assume rabies exposure and contact a doctor

immediately. If possible, the bat should be captured


for testing. Peopled who are handling bats for banding or scientific studies should receive the rabies
vaccine prior to working with bats. Some medical
authorities suggest people spending time in caves
should

receive

rabies vaccine.

nation

for all cave workers

mally

recommended,

Routine

rabies vacci-

or explorers

but cave

resource

is not normanagers

should be alert for any notices from local health


authorities concerning incidence of rabies or any
indication of infected bats.
Histoplasmosis is a fungus infection caused by the
organism Histoplasma capsutatum which is worldwide in distribution in temperate and tropical
regions and which lives in soils supplemented with
bird or bat guano. The disease is typically spread or
caught indirectly from soil enriched with droppings
that favor the growth of the fungus in a mycelial
form,
producing
Symptoms usually

spores
that can be inhaled.
range from none, to a condition

resembling a cold, to a chronic form of pulmonary


histoplasmosis (less than one-tenth of 1%) that can
lead to death (Lavoie 1984, Barton 1995).

Another medical/safety

aspect that needs address-

ing in any management plan for caves are assessing


the risk of radon exposure for cavers, tour guides,
and tourists. Radon is a colorless, odorless, tasteless

gas that is produced by radioactive decay of uranium that is present naturally in small concentration in
most soils and rocks. Radon is mostly a concern for
people accumulating long exposure times to cave air.

Radiation detection typically is made using a


Geiger-Mueller tube and when radiation hits the
tube it registers by a pulse or "count"

and the num-

ber of hits is averaged over a period of time in order


to obtain CPM or Counts-Per-Minute.

Although

rel-

atively few data exist for caves, Crystal (1992)


reported a maximum of 174CPM for one of the large
passages

in Mammoth

Cave,

KY and a minimum

level of 1CPM in the entrance passage of Shasta


Caverns, CA. She also indicated that significantly
higher radon levels are routinely

measured

in caves

in the midwestern and southern states. Additional


data are needed

for caves on federal

(as well as pri-

vate) lands. For those caves found to be high-risk


sites, restricted exposure (time in the cave) as well as
gating or posting informative signs may be appropriate

management

responses

(see

Sperrin

et al.

2000).
Caving safety is very much a cave protection issue
because recovering
an injured caver from a deep

cave may be a major operation requiring a large


number of people over several days or even weeks.
Cavers who have received training in underground
rescue techniques

carry out most cave rescues. Cave

rescue procedures are covered in detail by Hempel


and Fregeau-Conover

(2001). Any cave rescue poss-

es risks to the safety of the rescue party and also the


potential

for

damage

to the cave

Having a large number of people


hours in a confined
situation.

environment

resource

working

itself.

long

is never a desirable

Preplanning for possible cave rescue situations


should be part of the cave management plan. Tourist
caves with a large number of visitors should have a
good evacuation plan in place. The agency personnel will usually do evacuation for someone from a
tour

group.

Of course

the logistics

of evacuation

from a show cave are generally simpler than for a


typical undeveloped cave.
Cave rescue call outs in wild caves may include
searching

for lost cavers in a complex

series of pas-

sages, rigging hauling systems on vertical drops,


carrying an injured caver through long twisting

Cave Protection

40 Management Guidelinesfor Cave Protection

Karst Waters Institute Special Publication 8

crawlways, and dealing with a flooded


passage.

section of

In the case of minor injuries the victim

can

usually leave the cave with help from members of


his/her own party. More serious rescues can require
a staggering
amount of manpower.
The National

Speleological Society is well organized in its different regions across the country and cavers with cave
rescue training often volunteer for assistance in rescue operations.

The NSS also offers training

courses

on a regular basis for cave rescue.

Arrangements should be kept in place for a call out


procedure
and a means of coordinating
the various
federal, state, and local agencies that may become

involved. A plan should include:


1. Incident

assessment

-- location

2. First notice -- who should

and injuries

be called and in

what order
3. Incident

commander

(Park ranger, State Police

Field Coordinator)
4. Medical

team -- rescue squad

Figure 27. Photo showing a cave gate under


construction in Bat Cave, Kentucky (Hobbs).

5. Cave operations team -- qualified employees


and regional cave rescue volunteers
6. Logistics

however, so routine patrolling or monitoring of the


area will still be required.

-- Food, shelter, sanitation

7. Media liaison
8. Someone

to monitor

the cave resources

dur-

ing all the commotion of the rescue


Areas popular with cave divers will have unique
safety

concerns.

Because

divers

carry a limited

air

The design and construction of cave gates is highly


specialized (Figure 27). Gates must be constructed in
order to prevent unwanted human entry but still
allow access by animals living part-time

in the cave.

supply, body recovery


operations
are much more
common than rescue situations. By the time a call for

The gate should not restrict airflow in or out of the

help goes out it is usually too late. Any recovery will


be conducted by certified cave divers and does not
usually require the kind of logistical planning need-

rial needed as food for the cave fauna. In many cases


a fence around the perimeter may be more environ-

ed for rescues in air filled caves.

dalism. A cave biologist should be consulted about

speleothems or sites of minimal scientific or cultural


value should be open for qualified cavers. There is
no evidence to suggest that moderate traffic by
responsible cavers causes significant damage to the
(Carlson,

1994). Caves

or areas of

caves containing maternity colonies of bats should


have restricted visitation. Caves with highly delicate
or vulnerable

resources

should

have

closely

con-

trolled visitation. Gating or fencing the entrance to


the cave may be the only way
rized

entry.

Gates

are not

to control

always

unautho-

vandal

sound

although

mate-

not as secure against van-

EDUCATIONAND INTERPRETATION

Recreational
cave exploring is an important use of
cave resources and caves with few easily damaged

ecosystem

mentally

entry of organic

the design of any cave gate.

CAVECLOSUREAND GATING

cave

cave, and must allow normal

proof

Managers of public lands are in a unique position in


their potential ability to educate a broad cross section of people
about the need to protect caves.
Considering
the thousands
of caves with uncon-

trolled visitor access, an educated public may be the


best possible

protection

for many

caves.

Education

and interpretive material should emphasize the


many scientific and esthetic values of caves and the
fact that damage to the caves is essentially permanent. Caves simply do not have the self-healing
capabilities typical of surface environments and
landscapes.

Management Guidelinesfor Cave Protection 41

Cave Protection
Karst Waters Institute Special Publication 8

Opportunities for visitor education include:

handle emergency spills in areas where major highways

or railway

lines cross

a karst area. Unfortu-

1. Interpretive signs at roadside rest points and


along trails

nately, spills entering directly into the cave system


will probably be impossible to intercept and treat

2. A conservation

due to the rapid travel rates. Contaminants


that
become "lodged"
in the epikarst may have a resi-

message

as part of the hand-

out material at the gate


3. Warning signs prohibiting any vandalism or
collecting placed just inside the cave
entrances

4. Visitor center display

dence

time

of several

years

or longer.

Great

care

should be exercised in cleaning up contamination in


the epikarst zone, for disturbance may trigger an
additional release of contaminants to the underlying
caves.

5. Presentation given to guided groups

possible protection for cave and karst resources. The


American
Cave Conservation
Association
and the

Standard household septic systems may not work


well in karst areas with typically thin soil cover and
high infiltration rates. The standard rules used by
many state health departments that require a 25 or
33 meter (75 or 100 feet) spacing between septic
fields and wells may also be woefully inadequate in

National Speleological Society have active cave con-

these regions.

servation programs and experience in public education on cave related issues. Two booklets written for

caves is how to disposed of the effluent generated by


the large number of visitors. Ideally, this material
should be treated by an advanced sewage treatment

6. Museum
and

exhibits on the cave environment

conservation

,.

In the long run, an informed public may be the best

the general public with a strong environmental

mes-

sage are "Living with Karst" (Veni and others, 2001)


produced by the American Geological Institute and
"Living on Karst" (Zokaities, 1997) from the Cave
Conservancy of the Virginias.

URBANIZATIONEFFECTS
ON
CAVESAND KARST

plant

and

A major

discharged

concern

for popular

to a surface

stream

show

down-

stream of the soluble rock outcrop area. In some


cases highway rest areas and even towns discharge

their treated (or untreated) waste products into sinkholes. This obviously degrades the environment of
the receiving

caves.

Most karst springs and many wells completed


Some of the normal
tration of people
products,

side effects of having

a concen-

karst aquifers

are "surface

water

influenced."

on an area are an increase in waste

an increased

risk of accidental

chemical

spills, and alteration of the characteristics of storm


runoff.

Because

caves

are connected

to the surface

and ground-water
recharge
occurs so rapidly in
karst terrains, the effects of concentrations
of people
are magnified in these areas.

Runoff from highways and parking lots is typically


diverted

into sinkholes

that act as natural storm sew-

ers. Road salts and deicing chemicals may be carried


directly

into the caves.

This can lead to water

con-

tamination problems in the cave passages that must


act as the drains (Figure 28). All storm runoff from
visitor parking lots must be carefully managed.
In general, solid waste landfills should not be situated on karst terrains. Even well maintained landfill
with liners have failed in karst areas and caused
major contamination of the underlying aquifer
(Quinlan and others, 1991). Hazardous wastes
should

never be stored or disposed

of in karst areas.

Some contingency plans should be kept in place to

in

This

Figure 28. Photo showing construction of storm


water sewers to divert runoff from a parking lot
into a cave entrance in West Virginia (Jones).

42 Management Guidelinesfor Cave Protection

Cave Protection
Karst Waters h stitute Special Publication 8

means probable

contamination

by bacteria

AGRICULTURAL
IMPACTSTO CAVES
AND KARST

and sedi-

ments, especially during or immediately following


storms. This water is often required

to be filtered in

addition to standard disinfection for serving the


public. High rates of pumping from karst aquifers

Limestone soils in the eastern United States often

can lower the water levels in the aquifers and reduce


flow in the caves and at springs. In some cases the
decline in ground water levels results in a loss of

monly in agriculture than forests. Although most


people like seeing the rolling country typical of hay

buoyant support of passages


mation of collapse sinkholes.

not a benign activity. The high infiltration rates on


the karst and the direct inputs to caves by sinking

and accelerates

the for-

support

and pastures

streams

Urbanization entails building and earthmoving. This


can result in increased

sedimentation

in the caves.

Sediment control measures must consider the high


infiltration rates and the possible interception of
runoff

waters

by sinkholes.

Excavation

work

may

expose open fractures previously protected by soil


cover. This may result in a new cave entrance and/or
a new

cave being

discovered,

but it may

impervious

also tends

to increase

the amount

of

area of the watershed. This results in

faster and greater volumes

pastures

and are more

on karst lands, modern

mean

that agricultural

com-

agriculture

contaminants

is

are

quickly carried into and through the caves.


Contaminants associated with agriculture include:
pesticide (herbicides and insecticides) application
and disposal,

animal wastes,

sedimentation,

dispos-

al of dead animals. Studies by Boyer and Pasquarell


(1995) have documented the effect of pastures on
karst in Greenbrier County, West Virginia.

increase

sedimentation in the underlying passages.


Urbanization

rich bluegrass

of runoff from a particu-

lar storm. This can lead to an increase in flooding

of

Best management practices should be used on all


farms situated on karst rocks. High densities of
animals should be avoided, and the runoff from
feedlots should be controlled and treated. In areas
without high sinkhole density, a setback area may be
established around the sinkhole to minimize the

the cave passages and the flooding may back up into

amount

sinkholes some distance away from the impervious


areas. If sediments or collapse breakdown
block a

This is typically a fence allowing a vegetated buffer


to grow up around the sinkhole. Sinking streams
should also have a buffer established along the

cave passage, water rising upstream of the blockage


may cause flooding in sinkholes and low-lying
areas.

of animal waste that washes

into the caves.

stream banks. Caves with large entrances and blowing cold air in the summer can attract a lot of livestock to the entrance area.

Leaking gasoline and oil storage tanks, many buried


underground,
have been a major problem in many
karst areas. These "non-aqueous
phase liquids" may

be released directly into the karst aquifer and caves,


be stored in the epikarst, or both. Cleanup of these
sites is expensive
tiveness.

and often

of questionable

effec-

Storage tanks situated in karst areas should

be as protected as possible from leakage. A gasoline


spill into a cave is very damaging to the cave environment

and a major safety concern

to anyone

ing the cave and to the surrounding

enter-

solvents

have

contaminated

a surprising

number of karst aquifers. These are typically chlorinated


water

hydrocarbons
and do not

that are much denser than


dissolve
(Dense Non-Aqueous

Phase Liquids). These compounds are usually found


around industrial (or former industrial) sites and are
especially

troublesome

amount

of practical

control

over

the animal

cant caves

or obvious

points

of surface

inputs

to

these caves. The density of the herd should not be


allowed to exceed the carrying capacity of the available forage.

LOGGINGAND FORESTRY
IN KARSTAREAS

community

(Hobbs, 1987).
Organic

The

usage of open rangeland is limited. Still, animals


should be kept away from the entrances of signifi-

in karst situations.

The principle impacts of logging on caves are sedimentation and debris load. Alteration of the storm
pulse through the cave is another potential problem.
Alteration of the root zone may affect carbon dioxide
production
forested

in the soil. The protection

areas is complex

tors. The degree

and depends

of surface

of caves

on

on many fac-

karst development

and

the spacing of input points (sinkholes and epikarst


features) will control the amount of acceptable disturbance of the site. The steepness of the slope and

Cave Protection

Management Guidelinesfor Cave Protection 43

Karst Waters Institute Special Publication 8

the

duration

--

intensity

--

frequency

of storm

the actual karst part of the watershed but also on any

events must be considered. The sensitivity of the


caves and the water quality requirements for spring

nificant caves are present on the high vulnerability

fed surface

sites,

streams

are factors.

This means

that a

non-karst

part that drains onto the karst. If any sig-

a no

road

construction

and

no

harvest

complete hydrologic study of the site, not just a cave


inventory, should be conducted before any logging

approach will be the best protection. This is especially true for high vulnerability karst with mature

or road construction

or old growth

is done

in a karst watershed.

The hydrologic study should delineate the drainage


basins (usually by water tracing studies) catalog the
nature and location

of water inputs on the karst sur-

face, and characterize

the discharge

and water qual-

ity of the springs.

Areas where trees have been killed by windthrow or


insect damage should be assessed carefully to see if
salvage cutting can be done without damage to significant
should

The inventory of cave and karst features in forested


areas is much more difficult than for open, cleared
land. The lack of visibility and rough land surface
make it easy to miss significant features. The cave
and karst inventory should be conducted by people
familiar with karst features in general and the specific type of karst present in the study area. The
inventory should identify significant features and
present an initial assessment of the susceptibility
(vulnerability) of the karst area to the effects of cutting and different forestry practices.
Methods for rating the vulnerability of forested karst
lands are presented in Kiernan (2002) and the Forest
Practices Branch, Ministry of Forests (2002).
Suggested logging practices and restrictions are
given for low to medium vulnerability, high vulnerability, and severe vulnerability karst lands. Areas of
low to medium vulnerability will generally have
good

soil cover, little or no exposed

epikarst,

occa-

sional and widely spaced sinkholes, few or no sinking or loosing streams, and moderate
slopes. The
standard practice for these areas has been to leave

buffer strip (or buffer circles) of two tree lengths (20


to 100 meters)

around

sinkholes,

stream sinks, and springs.

cave

Set back systems

entrances,
can pro-

vide fair protection for the caves if no major depressions are missed and if the buffer strips remain
windfirm.

Trying to protect

ing individual
between

cave resources

karst features

conservation

and

by isolat-

is a compromise

commercial

interests.

Cave protection may be achieved, but if subsequent


monitoring reveals damage to the underground
resource, remediation will be difficult or impossible.
Creating reserves around specific karst features will
only work

on karst with modest

surface expression.

Mature karst areas with numerous


closely spaced
depressions or a continuous epikarst surface should
be protected as a unit -- usually a drainage basin.

This may mean essentially no harvesting on either

forests.

caves. Buffers,
be left around

even if it is downed
sinkholes

timber,

and cave entrances.

If a thinning or salvage cut will help speed up the


restoration

of the forest

to a mature

condition,

it

could be argued that this will help protect the cave


features in the long run.

The real management decision for protecting caves


and karst on forested lands will be deciding whether
or not it is feasible to identify and work around individual karst features or if the entire area should be
treated as a large unit and essentially removed from
timber harvest. This is a decision that must be made
by a cave and karst specialist on a site by site basis.
As a rough guide for forest operations on low to
medium vulnerability karst, all karst features should
be treated

as streams

and given

protection

as required

for streams.

as much

or more

Some basic guidelines include:


1. Roads should avoid karst features and the
drainage from roads should not be allowed to
flow directly into closed depressions or caves
Figure 29). Use existing roads and landings as
much as possible.

Maintain

roadside

vegeta-

tion.

2. Avoid blasting and heavy equipment operation over known

caves.

Encourage early revegetation but avoid


hydro-seeding with chemical binding agents.
Site preparation for reseeding or regeneration
should minimize soil disturbance.
Minimize soil disturbance as much as possible
and retain non-merchantable
vegetation.
Partial cutting systems and maximum suspen-

sion of the logs are desirable. Helicopter logging may be useful in particularly sensitive
areas. Equipment

with low-pressure

tires and

the use of rubber mats can help protect the


soils.

Cave Protection

44 Management Guidelinesfor Cave Protection

Karst Waters Institute Special Publication 8

Figure 29. Photo showing a collapse sinkhole


developed in a logging road, Tongas National
Forest, Alaska (Jones).

Figure 30. Sketch showing general threats to the


underling caves from construction,
earth moving activities.

away from karst features.


not be located

on karst terrains.

7. Pesticides should not be used in areas of


medium and high vulnerability karst.
8. Be aware of the potential clogging of cave
entrances and sinkholes with debris generated
by the logging operation (Figure 30). Fine
debris may be carried far into the cave system
and overwhelm the nattiral ecosystem with
organic decay products (Culver and others,
1992) (Figure 31). Caves situated in colder
areas may take centuries

to breakdown

woody debris.
9. The fire control policy should maintain as
much as possible the natural burning frequency and intensity for the area. Avoid burning
on areas with thin soil cover or exposed

epikarst surfaces. Avoid piling and burning


slash in or near sinkholes

and cave entrances.

and

SPILLSAND WATER
CONTAMINATION
EPISODES

5. Skid trails should be kept to a minimum and


6. Storage areas for fuels and chemicals should

logging,

Karst lands crossed by highways or railway lines are


at risk for accidental chemical spills. Significant
caves that could be exposed to a chemical spill
should be identified and a contingency plan established for responding to a spill incident. If drainage
basins have been identified in advance by water
tracing techniques, it should be possible to predict
the potential dispersion of an agent from the spill
site and make an estimate of the time of travel from

the spill site to the caves and springs. Records of all


tracer tests within the area should be kept available
for consultation in the event of a chemical spill.
Spills that release the contaminant into a sinking
stream or open sinkhole may reach the cave within a
matter of minutes or hours. There may not be time to
do any more than evacuate all visitors from the cave.

Spills that enter the epikarst zone may be sorted and


slowly

released

over

a period

of months

or years.

Tracer tests from the spill site may be used to identify the likely flow routes if the contaminant itself
does not act as a reliable tracer.

Management Guidelinesfor Cave Protection 45

Cave Protection
Karst Waters Institute Special Publication 8

Any

suspicion

of a water

contamination

problem

should immediately be reported to state and federal


water quality agencies.

QUARRIESAND MINES

Previously

unknown

ist can evaluate


mined

However,

quarries may actually mine away the cave

blasting. Haul roads for the quarry may cross sensitive karst areas and runoff from the quarry may enter
at some

point.

Deep

quarries

often

go

below the water table and require steady pumping of


ground water to prevent flooding of the quarry. The
cave resource manager may have little control over
quarries and mines on non federal land, but the environmental assessment or impact statement for any

quarry should give consideration to the presence of


any significant cave resources within a couple of kilometers of the proposed quarry. The potential hydrologic impacts to the cave and possible threats from
blasting should be addressed. State laws regulating
quarrying and mining should be enforced as rigorously as possible.
Deep mining for carbonate rocks poses essentially
the same threats to cave resources

as discussed

for

quarries.
Mines may intercept
and alter underground streams and create excessive sediment loads.

All dust and sediments from washing operations


should be carefully controlled. Leach ponds and
leachate-type mining can degrade water quality and
introduce

chemicals

are

the significance

of the cave. At least

OILAND GAS WELLS

of chemicals.

or damage it by the effects of blasting and general


operation of the quarry. During the late 1960's most
of the passages in Zink Cave, Washington County,
Indiana were completely removed, resulting in the
extirpation of a population of the Northern Cavefish
(Amblyopsis spelaea).Bat colonies may be disturbed by

the caves

passages

away.

aggregate, building stone, agricultural lime, a flux in


and for a number

or cave

four caves on federal land have been completely

Quarries are surface mines for the extraction of rock.


Limestone and dolomite are valuable rocks for road
steel production,

caves

occasionally exposed by mining and quarrying. If


this should occur on protected lands, the mining
operation should be suspended until a cave special-

into caves.

Deep carbonate units are often important oil and gas


reservoirs.

Hydrocarbons

may actually

be stored in

buried paleokarst features at depth. Oil and gas


drilling

in cave and karst areas exposes

those fea-

tures to possible contamination from lost drilling


fluids,

cements

or grouts,

and hydrocarbon

leaks or

spills. Grouting operations may also restrict groundwater movement and alter water quality and quantity. Vented or escaped gases such as natural gases or
hydrogen
sulfide may enter the caves. Some problems may occur in the future as the well casings
deteriorate.

A BLM/Industry Cave and Karst Task Force developed standards for minimizing the potential impacts
of oil and gas drilling on caves (Goodbar, 1991). A
three-step

procedure

was presented:

1. Detect cave and karst features


2. Design

operations

to avoid the features

3. Implement a mitigation protocol for spills or


other problems
Various

field

and geophysical

measures

were

pro-

posed to detect voids before drilling operations start,


but none

of the procedures

are certain to detect all

caves. Drilling in karst areas will always entail some


risks.

Directional drilling may be used to avoid near-surface


caves and hit a deep downhole

target. Recommended

surface mitigations included:


1. Use of steel tanks and leak-proofing any
storage pits
2. Leak detection systems for pipelines
3. Berming

and permanent

liners to contain

spills
4. Use of stock tank vapor recovery

systems

5. Flaring rather than venting of gas for better


dispersion of gases
A more detailed

Figure 31. Photo showing a sawdust pile completely surrounding a cave entrance, Virginia (Jones)

discussion

of the BLM recommen-

dations for oil and gas drilling in cave and karst


areas is presented in Goodbar (1991).

PART3
Management

and Investigative Methods

i
Cave Protection

Management and InvestigativeMethods

49

Karst Waters Institute Special Publication 8

PART 3

MANAGEMENTAND INVESTIGATIVEMETHODS

CAVEINVENTORY

from the basic data file. Pertinent information could


include:

The FCRPA mandates that an inventory of cave


resources be completed and updated periodically for
federal lands. Ultimately, the purpose of the cave
inventory is to identify cave locations and note each
cave's

contents,

significance,

exploration

hazards,

and the potential threats to the cave. This task is initially a search for cave entrances.

Major surface karst

features (sinkholes, areas of exposed epikarst)


should also be noted during these field surveys. This
is especially important in areas with heavy forest
cover.

In many cases the local caving groups will have lists


and locations

of known

caves.

Cave entrances

may

also be reported in the course of forest survey work.


Some cave entrances may be identified on air photos, and, in the case of large well-known
caves, the

topographic maps may already show the location.


Still, the time-honored method for locating caves is
walking through an area and investigating every
possible opening. This is called "ridge walking" by
cavers. However, caver-compiled
ented toward explorable
caves

lists tend to be oriand may overlook

small shelter caves (especially caves in non karst


rocks) that could be of archeological significance.
Good

communications

must be maintained

the cavers and the resource

between

managers.

databases

or' spreadsheets.

Fields

include some or all of the following information:


1. Cave identification

number

-- usually

estab-

lished with a park or forest ID code.


2. Name of cave --

feature or named

for

the landowner at the time of discovery.


3. Location

-- UTM coordinates

and/or

latitude

and longitude, usually from GPS, and


elevation.

It is suggested that an additional file be maintained


separately to record and store as much detailed
information

about the caves as possible.

for reaching

Any maps

or surveys of the caves should also be kept separate

the cave

3. Description of the entrance and the setting


4. Detailed description of the cave passages,
known

hazards,

equipment

required

5. Descriptions of significant features of the cave


(cave contents inventory) including
speleothems,

minerals,

fauna, streams, archeo-

logical interest, ethnographic interest, and


geologic features
6. Recommendations
restrictions

on type and amount

of use

7. Trip reports
8. Photographs
showing
major features;

the cave entrance

and

9. Cave survey notes and maps of the cave

10. Bibliography of published papers and reports


concerning

the cave

Noting the cave contents and condition is important


in establishing the baseline for monitoring the future
effectiveness

of the cave management

program.

Many cavers believe that the best way to protect a


if not its existence,

secret.

Some caves are susceptible to irreparable damage by


the activities of mineral and artifact collectors.
Excessive collecting or vandalism may hurt cave animal populations.
Any human visitation to a cave

may potentially cause some degradation to the cave


environment

often given by the discoverer

after some geographic

2. Directions

the cave and when

cave is to keep its location,

Most of the cave inventories for federal lands are


kept on computer

1. Who found

and contents,

so the need for secrecy is

probably real in many cases (Hose, 1993). On the


other hand, it is difficult to protect an unknown
resource. The wording of the FCRPA encourages
cooperation

between

ested user groups.

the federal

agencies

and inter-

For the most part, this coopera-

tion will be essential for the successful completion of


the cave inventory.

Most caver groups

consider

cave

location information confidential and will only share


their knowledge with the understanding that the
Federal Agencies keep the database and cave location maps secure. The act states that location

infor-

Cave Protection

50 Management and h vestigative Methods

Karst Waters h stitute Special Publication 8

mation for significant caves may not generally be


made available to the public and is not subject to disclosure through the Freedom of Information Act.
The agency's master topographic map or overlay
layer showing cave locations should be kept secure
and not made available to the general public.

CAVEMAPPING

"grotto." Some states also have officially recognized


cave surveys -- at least recognized
by the NSS. The

Cave Research Foundation (CRF) has conducted surveys

of caves

in several

National

Parks. State and

federal Geological Surveys may be able to provide


geologic data and maps for most areas, but most of
the specific information
on cave locations, length,

and maps will probably come from local or regional


caving clubs organized within the NSS. With few

aquifer. Most cave mapping is done by unpaid vol-

exceptions, the cooperation between the various caving groups and the federal cave resource managers
has been very good. Problems
have occasionally

unteer cave explorers or "cavers" (cavers usually do


not call themselves
"spelunkers.")
In fact, unpaid

arisen when
competing
groups
want exclusive
access to the same cave. Cavers are always hoping to

cavers have gathered most of the information on the

find "virgin cave" and the accepted policy (at least

cave resources

among

Cave maps provide the most accurate picture of the


cave resource

and the actual flow route through

on federal

land. Cave surveying

the

is a

serious hobby for many people, and some of the


maps are real works

of art.

The basic technique of cave surveying is to establish


a series of line-of-sight

"stations"

through

out the

mappers)

is usually

to "survey

as you go."

DRAINAGEBASINDELINEATION
The fundamental unit for protecting a cave is the
area contributing

input waters to the cave. This area

cave starting with a point at the entrance. Survey par-

is called the drainage basin or catchment for the

ties generally require three to four people. A compass

cave. Normally

is used to measure the horizontal


angle and a clinometer to measure the vertical angle. The distance

between the stations is measured with a fiberglass

the drainage

basin

for a stream

is

defined by the topography of the land upstream of


the point of interest. The drainage divides for the
stream are traced on a topographic map and the

book along with a sketch of the passage showing


points of interest and the location of the survey sta-

potential ground-water
contributing area is assumed
to be roughly the same as the surface catchment.
However, subsurface streams in karst areas are noto-

tions: The data are usually

rious for crossing under topographic

tape. These measurements

are recorded

processed

in a survey

using

a cave

survey computer program such as Compass but the


final product is often drawn by hand using the sketch
from the survey book as a guide. Notes are recorded

at each station regarding passage height and width.


The book by Dasher (1994) provides detailed instructions for cave surveying.

interbasin
floodwater

ment to change with different water levels. There is


often some uncertainty about karst drainage divides
and sometimes the divides cannot be defined.
Many caves are fed by streams originating

Some parks have very detailed standards for cave


survey parties and for handling the cave survey data
(Pate, 1995). Cave surveying must be conducted

non-soluble

rocks,

contributing

without damaging the cave. Few, if any, of the incave stations are permanent. Some parks establish a
small brass "bench mark" at the entrance station

with the cave identification number stamped on it


for easy identification in the field. The survey party
must be able to safely meet the rigors of exploration
required for the cave. Long trips underground will

(allogenic water).

require

some

consideration

for

the

removal

of

wastes from the cave.

Most of the cave surveyors in the United States are


members of the National Speleological Society (NSS)
and are often members of a local group called a

so the actual

karst part

on

of the

catchment may be relatively small compared to the


non-karst

made between

human

divides and

transfer of water is common.


Subsurface
overflow
routes may cause the catch-

area. Usually

a distinction

is

water entering the cave by direct per-

colation from overhead epikarst drainage (autogenic


water) and water entering as sinking surface streams

A karst hydrologist should make the drainage basin


determination

for more complex

hydrogeologic

set-

tings. The basic procedure includes:


1. Overlay a map of the cave onto topographic
and geologic

maps.

2. Determine the topographic divides for the


most downstream

point in the cave.

Cave Protection

Management and InvestigativeMethods

51

Karst Waters Institute Special Publication 8

1(2.59)

10(25.9)

DRAINAGE
AREASQUARE
MILES
(SQUARE
KM)

(259) 100

Figure 32. Graph for estimating the drainage basin area of a spring if average annual runoff and recharge
are known

3. Determine the geologic setting for the cave


and the apparent topographic catchment.
4. Identify all significant points within the cave
where water enters the cave.

5. Identify surface sinks, especially in relation to


cave inputs.

6. Collect discharge data and estimate the


drainage

area based on water balance for the

area.

Conduct water-tracing tests as needed to find


the source of the water.

Draw the drainage basin on a topographic


mapping using all of the available information.

The drainage basin may have to be redrawn in the


future as more information becomes available. This
is not an exact science and some guessing about
some of the divides is common.

One helpful technique if the average discharge


through the cave or spring is known is to estimate
the drainage area from the water budget equation
(Figure 32). This also requires a local estimate of
annual runoff. The estimate does not reveal anything
about the shape of the basin, but it is a rough check
to see if the drainage

area seems reasonable

tion to the flow through the cave.

in rela-

52

Cave Protection

Management and h vestigativeMethods

Karst Waters h stitute Special Publication 8

WATERTRACING

conditions at the time of the test. Cavernous aquifers


may have older "overflow"
cave passages that only

Water tracing in karst regions is usually done using


fluorescent dyes. Dyes are injected in cave streams or
at stream sinks and all of the springs and karst win-

dows in the area are sampled until the dye is detected or until some

prescribed

time has passed.

The

rapid flow rates through cave conduits usually


entails a sampling period of a few hours to a few
weeks depending on the distance from sink to
spring, the discharge at the time of the test, and the
hydrological characteristics of the karst aquifer.
Worthington and others (2000) examined data from
2877 tracer tests (worldwide) and reported a log-normal velocity distribution with a median velocity of
0.022 m/s or about 1.9 kilometers per day. Ninety
percent of the velocities fell between 0.3 km/d and
3.5 km/d. Even the lower velocities are sufficient to
establish that the flow through the conduits is turbulent as opposed to the laminar flow conditions
characteristic

of diffuse-flow

function during high flow conditions and may discharge to a different spring or karst basin at these
times. Also,

tracer test results

are usually

depicted

on a map as a straight line from the injection point to


the resurgence. This is a bit misleading because the
actual flow route is unknown and probably longer
and more complex.

DIGGINGFORAND WITHINCAVES
Some highly significant caves, such as Lechuguilla,
are

accessible

Although

only

through

artificial

entrances.

cavers generally agree that digging

is

often a productive
way to find new caves or reopen
caves whose entrances have collapsed or been silted
shut, there are some environmental
risks and
changes to the cave environment
associated
with
opening

a new entrance.

aquifers.

Tests may be designed to establish the hydrologic

Entrances provide
the cave chambers

a point for air exchange between


and the outside. Caves with mul-

connections between two points and rely on passive


detectors that adsorb and retain dye from the pass-

tiple entrances at different elevations often have air

ing dye cloud. Depending on the tracer, packets of

the lower

activated

considerable volume of underground


passages often
"breath" as the air pressure in the cave adjusts to

carbon

or unbleached

cotton

are often

used. This type of test usually provides adequate


information for delineating the karst drainage basin.
If more detailed data to establish travel times or the
distribution of the tracer between different springs
are needed,

a quantitative

test will

be necessary.

Quantitative tests require direct sampling or monitoring of the spring waters for the duration of dye
recovery and graphically plotting the "breakthrough"

curve

(time/concentration

curve).

Discharge at the various springs will also be needed


to determine the relative partitioning of dye between
different resurgences.
Several references describing
water-tracing
techniques
include
Alexander
and

Quinlan (1996), Kass (1998), Aley (1999), Jones (in


press). A discussion of the interpretation of water
tracing tests was presented by Jones (1984).

moving

into the lower entrance in winter and out of


entrance

changes

in

the

in summer.

barometric

Caves

containing

pressure

outside.

Although the temperature deep inside most caves


remains

fairly

constant

year round,

air movement

may affect the humidity of the cave and impact mineral growth

and the cave fauna.

The actual technique of digging may range from


simply moving a few stones out of the way, to
"micro blasting,"

to full explosive

charges, to using a

trackhoe or bulldozer. Anything other then the simplest dig should only be undertaken by experienced
people after an evaluation of the risk and benefits
associated with the project. Obviously blasting and
heavy equipment operations will not be suitable in
many protected

environments.

Professional hydrologists who are specialists in karst

Well drilling equipment has been used to gain access

tracer tests should

to remote parts of some caves to establish

conduct

the tracing

studies.

The

and serv-

tests must be approved by and coordinated with the

ice monitoring

state water

through drilled entrances, so this option should be


evaluated in the same light as other digging techniques. A monitoring well drilled into a cave stream

require

and health

permits

departments.

to conduct

Some

water-tracing

states

tests. In

many cases some or all of the injection points or


monitoring springs will lie outside of the agency
boundaries.

Arrangements

will

have

to be made

with adjacent landowners for this type of study to be


successful.

Water tracing tests are valid for the flow

sensors.

A few

may be an environmentally

caves

preferable

are accessible

option

quent long trips into the cave to collect data.

to fre-

Management and h vestigative Methods

Cave Protection

53

Karst Waters h stitute Special Publication 8

The land manager will probably not be able to exer-

humidity,

cise total control

gas concentration.

on what parties

of cave explorers

do while underground, but digging within the cave


is not suitable in most protected caves. The simple
moving

of a couple

to the cave.

However,

any blasting

within the cave has considerable risks for the cave


environment

and possibly

to the safety of future cav-

open passage

MONITORING
Regular

reassessment

of the cave resources

should

be an integral
part of any management
plan.
Monitoring is a regular or continuous observation or

measurement to establish and quantify changes to


the cave features being protected. The monitoring
program should be designed to allow statistical
analysis of the data and to establish any relationships between human activities and impacts to the
caves.

Monitoring

should

document

the successes

and failures of the management plan and guide any


needed changes to the plan.
Cave resource
tor capacity"
maximum

managers

should

for each cave.

allowable

number

establish

This may

the "visi-

include

of visitors

the

per hour,

per day, per month, and per year (Kranjc, 2002).


Ideally, it should be possible to establish an initial
state for the cave --

the condition

prior

to human

visitation or at least the condition when the cave


became protected. This base line is the standard for
comparison
cave

to evaluate

the future

condition

of the

resources.

The actual monitoring

design for each cave will

depend on the resources present in the cave, the


nature of threats to the resource, and the hydrogeo-

logic setting of the cave. Obviously, the monitoring


method

should

be as non-invasive

to the cave

as

possible. Descriptions of cave monitoring methods


are presented in Kranjc (2002) and Tercafs (2001).
Monitoring

may include

regular

photo

documenta-

tion of a specific feature, records of visitation to the


cave

and

activities

in the catchment,

continuous

recording of chemical and physical variables, and


population

surveys

(2002) recommended
monitored

of various

cave animals.

Cigna

that show (tourist) caves be

for: air and water

temperature,

relative

methods

and radon
include:

Visitor counts. This may be collected by ticket

Air temperature and humidity. These are


continuously
using electronand the data may be corre-

lated with visitor group times and numbers to


help establish the visitor capacity for the cave.
Temperature data logging in bat caves was
described by Elliott and Clawson (1999).

is found.

How can we tell if the management plan is working?

concentration,

Monitoring

usually recorded
ic "data loggers"

ing groups in the cave. Dug out passages may also


alter air movement and require the placement of an
air-tight gate if extensive

dioxide

sales for commercial caves, sign-in registers at


wild caves, or electronic counters or camera
surveillance.

of rocks to gain access to more

passage is a common practice and probably does


little damage

carbon

Discharge or flow. This is usually measured


at an established "gaging station" that records
the stage (depth) of the stream. Discharge
measurements at different flows are plotted
against stage to establish a rating curve
(stage-discharge relationship) for the station.
Precipitation

measurements

within

the catch-

ment may be used to establish precipitation


and discharge
.

patterns.

Water quality monitoring. Contaminants may


enter a cave stream as a continuous

discharg-

ing source such as a leaking storage tank, or


as an isolated accident or "spill." In general,
many cave streams and karst springs show
contaminant maximums or spikes that correlate to some extent with storm events. The

timing of the sampling may be critical in


many karst areas and "event based sampling"

is generally more productive than a routine


time or date assigned sampling schedule. The
interpretation of water quality data from karst
areas is often frustrating because of a wide
range in values from a single sampling sta-

tion. Discharge should be noted at the time


the water quality samples are collected.
Photographic monitoring. A regular photographic record of a feature may document
possible degradation to specific mineral formations

or passage

sections.

A consistent

camera position and lighting should be used


for each photograph.
Biologic monitoring. This should establish
any changes in the quantity of fauna and the
taxonomic

composition

in the cave. Sampling

should be done by cave biologists and include


a minimum time sampling, baiting in both
terrestrial and aquatic habitats, and pitfall

54

Cave Protection

Management and Investigative Methods

Karst Waters Institute Special Publication 8

traps in terrestrial habitats (Culver and Sket,


2002). Bat populations are often checked by
counts during periods of dormancy or by
automated

counters

or cameras

at the cave

entrances (Buecher, 1993). Additional batmonitoring

methods

include

direct observa-

tion at entrances using night vision equipment, acoustical

monitoring

equipment,

and

indirect methods such as measuring the deposition of fresh guano after bats have emerged
from the cave.

7. Dust fall and lint monitoring. A method to


capture dust and lint particles on glass Petri
dishes placed along tourist routes in caves
was described by Michie (1999). The dishes
are collected at regular intervals and the dust
film was quantified using an optical densitometer.

Information
from
must be reviewed

the various monitoring


stations
and compared
to earlier data to

study any changes or deterioration


resources.

of the cave

SUMMARY
Cave Resource Protection Guidelines

Cave Protection

Summary of Cave Resource Protection Guidelines 57

Karst Waters hlstitute Special Publication 8

SUMMARYOF CAVERESOURCEPROTECTIONGUIDELINES

The Federal Cave Resources Protection Act of

may develop

1988 (FCRPA) requires the identification and


protection of significant caves on Federal lands
administered by the U.S. Department of Agriculture

or the U.S. Department

a topography

logic and hydrologic

Caves are usually identified as "significant" due

around

they house. These resources


geologic/mineral

resources,

the cave passages.

An understanding

of the geo-

process that created the

cave and mineral resources


should
help the
resource manager to identify the area above and
the cave that requires protection.

may

include animals and bacteria adapted to the cave


environment,

by

usually requires protection of the land overlying


the cave and the watershed contributing input to

of the Interior.

Caves are defined as any naturally occurring


void or cavity beneath the surface of the earth
large enough for an individual to enter.

to the resources

characterized

sinking streams, sinkholes, and springs to form a


karst landscape.
Protection
of cave resources

cul-

tural and archaeological


resources, paleontologic
resources, recreational potential, and many asso-

Surface karst features usually function as input


points for water and possibly pollutants to enter
caves. These features should be identified, and

ciated values such as water quality protection

an important management
decision will involve
the protection of surface karst features. If sink-

and

holes are few or widely

educational

and

scientific

uses.

The

cave

inventory is a list of caves, their location, and


their contents.
The nature, vulnerability,
and
uniqueness of these resources should be evaluat-

ed by specialists in the various fields and guide


the management
each

and

protection

protocols

for

cave.

the surface or changes in the exchange of air and


water between the surface and subsurface environment. Caves are protected from most surface
weathering process, so damage to caves is usual-

ly permanent, at least on the scale of human life


spans.

Cavers belonging to the non-profit


Speleological Society in Huntsville,

National
Alabama

have collected

on caves

most of the information

or the caves are

then

protection

of

the

area

around

the cave

entrances or sinkholes may be adequate. In many


cases, land-use practices on the entire surface

catchment of the cave should be controlled so as


not to alter the quality, sediment and debris load,
and quantity

Cave resources may be threatened directly by


human visitation, and indirectly by activities on

spaced,

deep and/or indirectly connected to the surface,

of water entering

the caves.

The circulation of air is critical to many mineral


and

biological

processes

in the

cave.

Surface

alterations may influence the levels of carbon


dioxide in the soil zone and the mineral content
of

water

entering

the

cave.

Changes

to the

entrances may change the humidity and temperature of the air in different passages. The presence
of people or lights may increase the temperature
underground.
The cave resource manager should
try and maintain natural circulation and transfer
rates in the underground
environment.

in the United States. Cave locations are generally


not made available to the public and the loca-

The cave resource

tions

extent and nature of public access to significant

of

caves

inventoried

on

Federal

lands

manager

under the FCRPA are not subject to release under

caves. Human

the Freedom

dation of the cave resources,

of Information

Act.

visitation

should

control

the

will cause some degraso it is important

to

match the different caves to appropriate visitor


The majority of caves are formed by the dissolution of soluble rocks and are directly connected

groups. Visitors to caves may include tourists,


recreational cavers of differing interests and abil-

to the surface

ities, cave mappers


and inexperienced

by numerous,

but often

unseen,

pathways. The land surface overlying the cave

and scientists, rock climbers,


adventurers.
Mineral collec-

58

Summary of Cave Resource Protection Guidelines

Cave Protection
Karst Waters Institute Special Publication 8

tors and vandals

are also occasional

visitors

caves. The first line of visitor control


keeping the location of the cave secret.
Most caves not developed
its should be managed

may

to
be

12. Any

construction

damage

for general tourist visas an "underground

wilderness."
Education of visitors to good caving
practices and explanation of the rules and regula-

projects

near caves should

be

carefully planned and supervised so as not to


the underground

environment.

As much

as possible, visitor facilities and sanitation plants


should be sited well away from the cave
resources.

13. Logging (and agricultural operations in general)

tions regarding the resource should be part of the

may

visitor contact
cave entrances

and debris load. Soil erosion or changes to the


soil biota should be avoided. Road construction,
pesticides, and fuel spills may also represent sig-

procedure.
The opening of new
or "digging"
for additional pas-

sage should not be allowed on protected lands.


10. Gating or fencing
be necessary

around

to control

the cave entrance

visitor

may

access. The gates

should be constructed so as not to hinder the


movement

of animals

to and

from

the

impact

caves

nificant

threats

reserves

around

always provide

by increased

to

cave

surface

resources.

adequate

protection

11. Cave management


plans should consider
any
unusual hazards present in the cave as well as
possible rescue and evacuation plans in the event
an underground

emergency.

amount

Cave

rescues

skills and a large

of time and manpower.

may not

for the

caves.

14. Cave resources

should

be carefully

in any areas where mining,


effects from the extractive
damaging

inventoried

quarrying,

gas drilling are proposed.

often require specialized

Creating

karst features

cave,

change air circulation patterns, or alter inputs of


nutrients or energy to the cave.

of

sedimentation

or oil and

Direct and indirect


industries

can be very

to cave resources.

15. Monitoring

of the condition

of the cave resources

should be a part of the management plan. The


monitoring
pared

results should

at regular

tiveness

intervals

be reviewed

and com-

to evaluate

the effec-

of the cave protection

protocols.

REFERENCES

Cave Protection

References 61

Karst Waters h stitute Special Publication 8

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Alexander,

E.C., Jr. and Quinlan,

J.F., 1996, Practical

tracing of groundwater with emphasis on karst


terranes: in Guidelines
for Wellhead
and
Springhead Protection Area Delineation
in
Carbonate Rocks (Prepared by Eckenfelder Inc.)
EPA 904-B-97-003, Appendix B, 1-38.
Aley, T., 1999, Groundwater tracing handbook: The
Ozark

Underground

Laboratory,

Protein,

limestone

glades

of Tennessee:

in Sasowsky,

I.D.,

Fong, D.W., and White, E.L., (Eds.), Conservation

and protection of the biota of karst: Karst Waters


Institute Special Publication 3, 2-4.
Bass-Becking,

L.G.M.,

Kaplan,

I.R.,

and

Moore,

D.,

1969, Limits of the natural environment in terms


of pH and oxidation-reduction potentials: Journal
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Aley, T., and Aley, C., 1993, Delineation

and hazard

mapping of areas contributing water to significant caves:

in Foster, D.L., (Ed.), Proceedings

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of

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Aley, T.H., Williams, J.H., and Massello, J.W., 1972,


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col-

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rock terrain: Engineering Geology Series No. 5,
Missouri
Baichtal,

233-264.

Bogli, A., 1980, Karst hydrology and physical speleology: Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 284p.

Aley, T., Aley, C., and Rhodes,


Missouri

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Mexico:

Bilbo, B, and Bilbo, M, 1995, Management implications of historic writings and rock art in caves:
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J.F., 1995, Evolution

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on the Ketchikan Area of the Tongass National


Forest: development of an ecologically sound
approach: in Pate, D.L, (Ed.), Proceedings of the
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L.,

(Ed.),

1986,

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of the world fauna inhabiting subterranean
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B., 1993, Automated

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Duran,
J.J., 2002, Control
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J.A., and Simons,


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Christiansen,
K.A., 1961, Convergence
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and Culver,

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Culver, D.C.,
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and Pulson, T.L., 1970, Community


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APPENDICES
A. FCRPAof 1988
B. Non-Government

Resources

C. Significant Cave Designation


U.S. Park Service

D. NPS 2001 Management Policies


E. Regulations and Legislation
Related to NPS Cave Management
F. BLM Cave and Karst Circular

Cave Protection

AppendixA

I(arst Waters h stitute Special Publication 8

Appendix

71

A.

THEFEDERALCAVERESOURCESPROTECTIONACT OF 1988

The Federal Cave Resources Protection Act of 1988


be it enacted by the Senate and the House of
Representatives of the United States of America in
Congress Assembled

(c) Policy. It is the policy of the United States that


Federal

lands be managed

tects and maintains,


cant

pro-

signifi-

SECTION 3. DEFINITIONS
For purposes of this Act::

Section 1. Short Title


Section 2. Findings, Purposes, and Policy
Section 3. Definitions
Section 4. Management

1. CAVE
The

Actions

Section 5. Confidentiality of Information Concerning


Nature and Location of Significant Caves
Section 6. Collection and Removal from Federal
Caves

Section 7. Prohibited Acts and Criminal Penalties


Section 8. Civil Penalties
Section 9. Miscellaneous

means

any

naturally

occurring

recess, or system of interconnected

pas-

sages which occurs beneath the surface of the earth


or within a cliff or ledge (including any cave
resource therein, but not including any vug, mine,
tunnel, aqueduct,
or other manmade
excavation)

and which is large enough to permit an individual to

extension

This Act may be referred to as the "Federal Cave


Resources Protection Act of 1988"

SECTION 2. FINDINGS, PURPOSES,

AND POLICY

(a) Findings. The Congress finds and declares that-caves on Federal lands are an

invaluable and irreplaceable part of the


Nation's natural heritage; and
these significant

caves are

threatened due to improper use, increased


recreational demand, urban spread, and a lack

of specific statutory protection


and preserve

of the entrance.

2. FEDERALLANDS
The term "Federal lands" means lands the fee title to
which is owned by the United States and administered by the Secretary of Agriculture or the Secretary
of the Interior.

3. INDIAN LANDS.
The term "Indian lands" means lands of Indian
tribes or Indian individuals which are either held in
trust by the United States for the benefit of an Indian
tribe or subject to a restriction against alienation
imposed by the United States.
4. INDIAN TRIBE.
The term

"Indian

tribe"

significant

caves on Federal lands for the perpetual use,


enjoyment, and benefit of all people;

5. CAVE RESOURCE.

ities and those who utilize caves located on

The term "cave

Federal lands for scientific,


recreational purposes.

substance

or

any
group

Indian

tribe,

or communi-

ty of Indians, including any Alaska Native village or


regional or village corporation as defined in, or
established pursuant to, the Alaska Native Claims
Settlement Act (43 U.S.C. 1601 et seq.).

to foster increased cooperation


and exchange
of information between governmental
authoreducation,

means

band, nation, or other organized

(b) Purposes. The purposes of this Act are-to secure, protect,

"cave"

natural pit, sinkhole, or other feature which is an

SECTION 1. SHORT TITLE

2. in some instances,

term

void, cavit

enter, whether
or not the entrance
is naturally
formed or manmade.
Such term shall include any

Provisions

Section 10. Savings Provisions

which

caves.

Table of Contents

1. significant

in a manner

to the extent practical,

resource"

occurring

includes

naturally

any material

in caves

or

on Federal

lands, such as animal life, plant life, paleontological

72

Cave Protection

AppendixA

deposits,

Karst Waters Institute Special Publication 8

sediments,

minerals,

speleogens,

and

speleothems.

assure that caves under consideration

term

cave

"Secretary"

Agriculture

means

the

Secretary

of

or the Secretary of the Interior, as appro-

priate.

recommended

to the Secretary

by interested

groups for possible inclusion on the list of significant


caves shall be considered by the Secretary according
to the requirements

prescribed

pursuant

to this para-

graph and shall be added to the list if the Secretary


determines

7. SPELEOTHEM.
The term "speleothem"
formation

or deposit

means

any natural

occurring

mineral

in a cave

or lava

lagmite,

helictite,

caveflower,

drapery, rimstone,

flowstone,

or formation

concretion,

of clay or mud.

2. regulation

means

and floor

relief features

of any cave

on the

to anastomoses,

scallops,

meander

niches, petromorphs and rock pendants in solution


caves and similar features unique

to volcanic

the

purposes

of

caves.

the

shall

cooperate

and

consult

with

Secretaries

should

ensure that significant

foster communication,

Act.

and

caves are considered

in

cooperation,

and

exchange of information between land


managers,

those who utilize caves, and the

public.

one

be similar.

community;

the preparation or implementation of any


land management plan if the preparation or
revision of the plan began after the enactment
of this Act;

another in preparation of the regulations. To the


extent practical regulations promulgated by the
respective

caving

The Secretary shall-

Regulations shall include, but not be limited to, criteria for the identification of significant caves The
Secretaries

agree-

(c) PLANNINGAND PUBLICPARTICIPATION.

(a) REGULATIONS. J Not later than nine months


after the date of the enactment of this Act, the
Secretary shall issue such regulations as he deems
achieve

management

committees

SECTION 4. MANAGEMENT ACTIONS

to

into volunteer

4. appointment of appropriate advisory

or lava tube

which are part of the surrounding bedrock, including


but not limited

of use of significant

caves, as appropriate;
3. entering

recreational

The term "speleogen"

necessary

or restriction

ments with persons of the scientific and

8. SPELEOGEN.
ceiling,

that the cave meets the criteria for signif-

icance as defined by the regulations.

tube, including but not limited to any stalactite, sta-

walls,

for the list are

protected during the period of consideration. Each

6. SECRETARY.
The

will be updated, including management measures to

SECTION 5. CONFIDENTIALITY OF

INFORMATIONCONCERNINGNATURE

AND LOCATION OF SIGNIFICANT CAVES.

(b) IN GENERAL. -- The secretary shall take such


actions as may be necessary

to further the purposes

of this Act. These actions shall include (but not be


limited

to) --

1. identification of significant caves on federal


lands;
(A) The Secretary shall prepare an initial list of significant caves for lands under his jurisdiction not
later than one year after the publication of final regulations using the significance criteria defined in
such regulations. Such a list shall be developed after
consultation

with

ests, including

appropriate

private

sector

inter-

cavers.

sector

interests,

not

create

a substantial

destruction

of such cave.

risk

of

including

cavers.

The

Secretary shall prescribe by policy or regulation the


requirements and process by which the initial list

harm,

theft,

or

(b) EXCEPTIONS. -- Notwithstanding subsection


(a), the Secretary may make available information
regarding significant caves upon the written request
by Federal and state governmental

(B) The initial list of significant caves shall be updated periodically, after consultation with appropriate
private

(a) IN GENERAL. -- Information concerning the


specific location of any significant cave may not be
made available to the public under section 552 of
title 5, United States Code, unless the Secretary
determines that disclosure of such information
would further the purposes of this Act and would

agencies

or bona

fide educational and research institutions. Any such


written request shall, at a minimum:

1. describe the specific site or area for which


information is sought;

AppendixA

Cave Protection

73

Karst Waters Institute Special Publication 8

explain the purpose for which such information is sought; and


include assurances satisfactory to the
Secretary that adequate measures are being

taken to protect the confidentiality of such


information

and to ensure the protection

the significant cave from destruction


dalism and unauthorized
use.

of

by van-

SECTION 6. COLLECTION AND REMOVAL


FROM FEDERALCAVES.
(a) PERMIT. -- The Secretary is authorized to issue
permits
for the collection
and removal
of cave
resources under such terms and conditions
as the

Secretary may impose, including the posting of


bonds to insure compliance with the provisions of

authority of the Secretary under this section with


respect to issuing and enforcing
lection or removal of any cave

or removal,

(b) REVOCATION OF PERMIT.

8 or upon

from

any

cave

the permittee's

conviction

cant religious

treated as a violation

or cultural importance.

Such

of section 7.

(a) PROHIBITEDACTS.-Any person who, without prior authorization


from the Secretary, knowingly
destroys, disturbs, defaces, mars, alters, removes or harms
any significant cave or alters the free move-

ment of any animal or plant life into or out of


any significant cave located on Federal lands,
or enters a significant cave with the intention
of committing any act described in this paragraph shall be punished in accordance with
subsection (b).

(c) TRANSFERABILITY OF PERMITS. Permits


issued under this act are not transferable.

or

SECTION 7. PROHIBITED ACTS AND


CRIMINAL PENALTIES.

has violated any provision of this Act or who has


failed to comply with any condition of a prior permit.

(A) Upon application by an Indian tribe, the


Secretary is authorized to delegate to the tribe all

of, any religious

(e) EFFECT OF PERMIT. -- No action specifically


authorized by a permit under this section shall be

who

LANDS.--

on

3. Indian lands or activities associated with such


collection, by the Indian or Indian tribe owning or having jurisdiction over such lands.

under

(d) CAVE RESOURCES


LOCATEDON INDIAN

located

notice shall not be deemed a disclosure to the


public for purposes of section 5.

section 7 of this Act. The Secretary may refuse to


issue a permit under this section to any person

resource

cultural site, the Secretary, prior to issuing


such permit, shall notify any Indian tribe
which may consider the site as having signifi-

Any permit

issued under this section shall be revoked by the


Secretary upon a determination by the Secretary that
the permittee has violated any provision of this Act,
or has failed to comply with any other condition
upon which the permit was issued. Any such permit
shall be revoked by the Secretary upon assessment
of a civil penalty against the permittee pursuant to

or

2. If the Secretary determines that issuance of a


permit pursuant to this section may result in

proposed collection, removal or associated


activity, and the manner in which such collec-

this subsection only if he determines that the


proposed collection or removal activities are
consistent with the purposes of this Act and
with other applicable provisions of law.

of any cave resource,

Indian lands (other than permits issued pursuant to


subparagraph (A)), the permit may be issued only
after obtaining the consent of the Indian or Indian
tribe owning or having jurisdiction over such lands.
The permit shall include such reasonable terms and
conditions as may be requested by such Indian or
Indian tribe.

1. Any permit issued pursuant to this section


shall include information concerning the time,
scope, location, and specific purpose of the

section

or removal

to carry out activities associated with such collection

harm to, or destruction

2. The Secretary may issue a permit pursuant

for the col-

(B) In the case of any permit issued by the Secretary


for the collection

any permit.

tion, removal, or associated activity is to be


performed must be provided.

permits

Any person who possesses, consumes, sells,


barters or exchanges, or offers for sale, barter
or exchange, any cave resource from a significant cave with knowledge
or reason to know
that such resource was removed from a signif-

icant cave located on Federal lands shall be


punished in accordance with subsection (b).

74

Cave Protection

AppendixA

Karst Waters Institute Special Publication 8

Any person who counsels,


or employs

procures,

any other person

violation occurred. Such a petition shall be filed


within the 30-day period beginning on the date the

solicits,

to violate

any

provisions of this subsection shall be punished in accordance with subsection (b).


.

order assessing

Nothing in this section shall be deemed applicable to any person who was in lawful possession of a cave resource from a significant
cave prior to the date of enactment

of this Act.

(b) PUNISHMENT. -- The punishment for violating


any provision of subsection (a) shall be imprisonment of not more than one year or a fine in accor-

dance with the applicable provisions of title 18 of the


United States Code, or both. In the case of a second
or subsequent violation, the punishment shall be
imprisonment

of not more than 3 years or a fine in

accordance with the applicable provisions of title 18


of the United States Code, or both.

1. within 30 days after the order was issued


under subsection (a), or
2. if the order is appealed within such 30-day
period, within 10 days after the court has
entered a final judgment in favor of the
Secretary under subsection(b), the Secretary
shall notify the Attorney General and the
Attorney General shall bring a civil action in
an appropriate United States district court to
recover the amount of penalty assessed (plus
costs, attorneys'

the case may be). In such an action, the validity, amount,

and appropriateness

of such

penalty shall not be subject to review.

The Secretary may issue an order assessing

civil penalty against any person who violates


any prohibition contained in this Act, any regulation promulgated pursuant to this Act, or
any permit issued under this Act. Before issu-

ing such an order, the Secretary shall provide


such person written notice and the opportuni-

ty to request a hearing on the record within 30


days. Each violation shall be a separate

fees, and interest at currently

prevailing rates from the date the order was


issued or the date of such final judgment, as

(a) ASSESSMENT.-

offense,

was issued.

(c) COLLECTION. -- If any person fails to pay an


assessment of a civil penalty

SECTION 8. CIVIL PENALTIES.

same

the civil penalty

even if such violations

occurred

at the

time.

The amount of such civil penalty shall be


determined by the Secretary taking into
account appropriate factors, including

(d) SUBPOENAS. -- The Secretary may issue subpoenas in connection with proceedings under this
subsection compelling the attendance and testimony
of witnesses

and subpoenas

duces

tecum,

and may

request the Attorney General to bring an action to


enforce any subpoena

under this section. The district

courts shall have jurisdiction to enforce such subpoena

and impose

sanctions.

SECTION 9. MISCELLANEOUSPROVISIONS.
(a) AUTHORIZATION. -- There are authorized to
be appropriated $100,000 to carry out the purposes
of this Act.

(b)EFFECTON LAND MANAGEMENT PLANS. --

(A) the seriousness of the violation;

Nothing in this act shall require the amendment or

(B) the economic benefit(if any) resulting from the


violation;

revision

of any land management

plan, the prepara-

tion of which began prior to the enactment of this


Act.

(C) any history of such violations; and


(D) such other matters as the Secretary deems appropriate. The maximum fine permissible under this
section is $10,000.
(b) JUDICIAL REVIEW. -- Any person aggrieved by
an assessment

of a civil penalty

under

this section

may file a petition for judicial review of such assessment with the United States District Court for the
District of Columbia or for the district in which the

(c) FUND. -- Any money collected by the United


States as permit fees for collection and removal of
cave resources;

received

by the United

States as a

result of the forfeiture of a bond or other security by


a permittee who does not comply with the requirements of such permit issued under section

7; or col-

lected by the United States by way of civil penalties


or criminal fines for violations of this Act shall be
placed

in a special fund in the Treasury. Such mon-

eys shall be available for obligation or expenditure

AppendixA

Cave Protection

75

Karst Waters h stitute Special Publication 8

(to the extent provided for in advance in appropriation Acts) as determined by the Secretary for the

affect the rights or jurisdiction of the United

improved

ties over water of any river or stream or over

management,

benefit,

repair,

or restora-

tion of significant caves located on Federal lands.


(d) Nothing in this act shall be deemed to affect the
full operation of the mining and mineral leasing
laws of the United States, or otherwise affect valid
existing rights.

SECTION 10. SAVINGS PROVISIONS.

States, the States, Indian tribes, or other entiany groundwater


alter, amend,

resource;

repeal, interpret,

modify,

or be in

conflict with any interstate compact made by


the States; or
alter or establish the respective rights of
States, the United States, Indian tribes, or any
person with respect to any water or water-

related right.
(a) WATER. -- Nothing in this Act shall be construed
as authorizing the appropriation of water by any
Federal,

State, or local agency,

Indian

tribe, or any

other entity or individual. Nor shall any provision of


this Act-

(b) FISH AND WILDLIFE.-- Nothing in this Act


shall be construed as affecting the jurisdiction or
responsibilities of the States with respect to fish and
wildlife.

Cave Protection

AppendixB 77

Karst Waters Institute Special Publication 8

Appendix
Cave Management

Considerable cave and karst expertise exists within


the Departments of Agriculture and Interior. Most of
the Parks and National

Forests

that contain

have cave specialists knowledgeable


management

concerns.

caves

with the local

Many parks and forests have

ongoing
research programs,
often in cooperation
with various universities.
The U.S. Geological
and

Biological
resources.

Surveys have cave and karst related


All of the states have state geological

sur-

veys that can provide detailed geologic information


on various sites. Several universities, or at least professors at the universities, have programs involving
cave and karst research. Private consultants conduct
many

of the water tracing

studies

in karst regions.

The following list is representative of some of the


non-profit

private

cave protection
American

organizations

with an interest in

and management

Cave Conservation

problems.

Kentucky,
dedicated

Association

headquartered

structs cave gates and can provide technical


tance on cave management problems.

assis-

Association

Promotes

(www.batcon.org)
research and pub-

lic understanding of the value of bats.


Bat Conservation

National Cave and Karst Research Institute


(www2.nature.nps.gov/nckri)

Although headquartered in Carlsbad, New Mexico,


this research and education

scien-

Park Service
government

and other
agencies.

academic,

non-profit,

and

The institute is in the process

of establishing a national karst reference library.

National Speleological Society (www.caves.org)


This is the national organization representing most
cavers and speleologists in the United States.
Member cave surveys or regional groups within the
NSS hold most of the information

on caves. The sociin cave protec-

with different government

agencies for some years. The NSS also has an internal network of volunteers in the event of an accident
deep in a cave. A list of "cave rescue phone num-

bers" for different regions is available from the NSS


office. The NSS publishes a monthly newsletter, a
scientific journal, and numerous books on caves and
cave science. The NSS bookstore also sells the vari-

and conducts

A reference

library

on cave

related

subjects is maintained. Suppliers of caving equipment and books related to caves may be found in
advertisements in the NSS News.

(www.karstwaters.org)

karst research topics

institute provides

tific guidance on cave management problems to all


agencies. NCKRI is a partnership of the National

Symposiums.

This is a group of karst scientists interested in multidisciplinary karst research at the graduate level. The
Karst Waters Institute hosts international symposia
on various

Charles Town, WV 25414

ous proceedings of the National Cave Management

International

P. O. Box 162603
Austin, TX 78716
Karst Waters Institute

P. O. Box 537

tion and has worked

This is the main clearinghouse for information on


bats and bat protection.

Karst Water Institute

ety has a strong interest and tradition

Horse Cave, KY 42749


International

cave and karst related issues.

in Horse Cave

agement and sponsors workshops


and training programs for teachers and students. It designs and con-

Bat Conservation

ing seminars for groups and agencies dealing with

Carlsbad,NM 88220

operates an educational
museum.
It is
to cave and karst conservation
and man-

American Cave Conservation


P. O. Box 409

Resources

National Cave and Karst Research Institute


1400 University Drive

(www.cavern.org)

This organization,

B.

train-

National Speleological Society


2813 Cave Avenue
Huntsville, AL 35810-4431

AppendixC 79

Cave Protection
Karst Waters Institute Special Publication 8

Appendix C.
Significant

Cave Designation-

U.S. Park Service

37.11 Nomination, evaluation, and designation of

for inclusion in the National Register of

significant

Historic

caves.

Places because

of their research

importance for history or prehistory, historical


(a) Nominations for initial and subsequent listings.
The authorized officer will give governmental agencies and the public, including those who utilize
caves

for

scientific,

educational,

and

recreational

purposes, the opportunity to nominate potential significant caves. The authorized officer will give public notice, including a notice published in the Federal
Register, calling for nominations for the initial listing, including procedures for preparing and submitting the nominations.

Nominations

land where the cave is located as new cave discoveries are made or as new information
becomes avail-

able. Nominations not approved for designation


during the listing process may be resubmitted if betor new

information

becomes

and use of cave resources,

within

the limits

imposed by the confidentiality provisions of 37.12


of this part. Nominations will be evaluated using the
criteria in 37.11(c).
(c) Criteria for significant caves. A significant cave
on Federal lands shall possess one or more of the following features, characteristics, or values.
(1) Biota. The cave provides seasonal or yearlong habitat for organisms or animals, or contains species or subspecies of flora or fauna
that are native to caves, or are sensitive to
disturbance, or are found on State or Federal
sensitive,
lists.

threatened,

or endangered

species

(2) Cultural. The cave contains historic


properties

or traditional

(3) Geologic/Mineralogic/Paleontologic.
cave possesses
features:

The

one or more of the following

(i) Geologic or mineralogic features that are fragile, or that exhibit interesting

formation

processes,

or

that are otherwise useful for study.


(ii) Deposits of sediments or features useful for
evaluating

past events.

(iii) Paleontologic resources with potential to contribute useful educational and scientific information.
(4) Hydrologic. The cave is a part of a hydrologic system or contains water that is important to humans, biota, or development
of cave

(b) Evaluation for initial and subsequent listings.


The evaluation of the nominations for significant
caves will be carried out in Consultation with individuals and organizations interested in the management

or other historical

for subsequent

listings will be accepted from governmental agencies and the public by the agency that manages the

ter documentation
available.

associations,
significance.

or archaeological

resources

resources.

(5) Recreational. The cave provides or could


provide recreational opportunities or scenic
values.

(6) Educational or Scientific. The cave offers


opportunities for educational or scientific use;
or, the cave is virtually in a pristine state,
lacking evidence of contemporary
human disturbance

or impact;

or, the length, volume,

total depth, pit depth, height, or similar measurements

are notable.

(d) National Park Service policy. The policy of the


National Park Service, pursuant to its Organic Act of
1916 (16 U.S.C. 1, et seq.) and Management Policies
(Chapter 4:20, Dec. 1988), is that all caves are afforded protection and will be managed in compliance
with approved

resource

management

plans. Accord-

ingly, all caves on National Park Service administered lands are deemed to fall within the definition
of "significant

cave."

(as

described in 36 CFR 60.4 and 43 CFR 7.3) or


other features that are included in or eligible

(e) Special management areas. Within special management areas that are designated wholly or in part

80

Cave Protection

AppendixC

Karst Waters Institute Special Publication 8

due to cave resources

found

as a permanent

therein, all caves within

the so designated special management area shall be


determined to be significant.
(f) Designation and documentation. If the authorized

officer

determines

that a cave nominated

and

evaluated under paragraphs (a) and (b) of this section meets one or more of the criteria in paragraph

(c), the authorized officer will designate the cave as


significant. The authorized officer will designate all
caves identified in paragraphs (d) and (e) of this section to be significant. The authorized officer will
notify the nominating party of the results of the evaluation and designation. Each agency Field Office
will retain appropriate documentation for all significant caves located
aries. At a minimum,

within its administrative


documentation

bound-

shall include

statement of finding signed and dated by the authorized officer, and the information used to make the
determination. This documentation will be retained

record in accordance

with the confi-

dentiality provision in 37.12 of this part.


(g) Decision final. Decisions to designate or not
designate
discretion

a cave as significant are made at the sole


of the authorized officer and are not sub-

ject to further administrative review or appeal under


43 CFR part 4.
(h) If a cave is determined to be significant, its
entire extent, including

passages

not mapped

or dis-

covered at the time of the determination, is deemed


significant. This includes caves that extend from
lands managed by any Federal agency into lands
managed by one or more other bureaus or agencies
of the Department
of the Interior, as well as caves

initially believed to be separate for which interconnecting passages are discovered after significance is
determined.

AppendixD 81

Cave Protection
Karst Waters h stitute Special Publication 8

Appendix D.
2001 NPS Management Policies

Referencing

(See Natural Resources

Caves

(Compiled by Ronal C. Kerbo from the newly


revised and published NPS Management Policies.
Available on the Internet at http://www.nps.gov/
refdesk/mp/index.html)
Chapter 1: The Foundation

Information

4.1.3; Studies and

Collections 4.2; Caves 4.8.2.2; Research 5.1; Confidentiality


5.2.3; Interpretation and Education Services Beyond Park
Boundaries 7.5.2. Also see Director's Orders #5: Paper and
Electronic Communications, #19: Records Management,
#84: NPS Library Programs, and #70: Internet and Intranet
Publishing. Also see Reference Manual 53, Chapter 5)

Chapter 4: Natural Resource Management

1.7.3 Information Confidentiality

The National Park Service will preserve the natural

While it is the general policy of the NPS to share


information widely, the Service also realizes that
providing information about the location of park

resources,

processes,

systems,

and values

of units of

those resources at
This can occur, for

the national park system in an unimpaired condition, to perpetuate their inherent integrity and to
provide present and future generations with the
opportunity to enjoy them.

sites,
example, with regard to caves, archeological
and rare plant and animal species. Some types of
personnel
and law enforcement
matters are other

The National Park Service will strive to understand,


maintain, restore, and protect the inherent integrity

examples of information that may be inappropriate


for release to the public. Therefore, information will
be withheld when the Service foresees that disclosure would be harmful to an interest protected by an
exemption under the Freedom of Information Act

processes

resources may sometimes


place
risk of harm, theft, or destruction.

(FOIA).
Information will also be withheld when the NPS has
entered into a written agreement (e. g., deed of gift,
interview
release, or similar written contract) to

withhold data for a fixed period of time at the time


of acquisition of the information. Such information
will not be provided unless required by FOIA or
other applicable

law, a subpoena,

a court order, or a

federal audit.

of the natural resources, processes, systems, and values of the parks. The Service recognizes that natural
and species

are evolving,

and will allow

this evolution to continue, minimally influenced by


human

actions.

systems,

The

and values

natural

resources,

that the Service

processes,

preserves

are

described generally in the 1916 NPS Organic Act and


in the enabling legislation or Presidential proclamation establishing each park. They are described in
greater detail in management plans specific to each
park. Natural resources,

processes,

systems,

and val-

ues found in parks include:


Physical

resources

topographic
ontological

such as water, air, soils,

features,
resources,

geologic features, palenatural soundscapes,

and clear skies;


NPS managers will use these exemptions sparingly,
and only to the extent allowed by law. In general, if
information is withheld from one requesting party, it
must be withheld from anyone else who requests it,
and if information is provided to one requesting
party, it must be provided to anyone else who
requests it. Procedures

contained

in Director's

Order

#66: FOIA and Protected Resource Information, will


be followed to document any decisions to release
information or to withhold information from the
public.

Physical

processes

such as weather,

erosion,

cave formation, and wildland fire;


Biological

resources

such as native plants, ani-

mals, and communities;

Biological processes such as photosynthesis,


succession,
Ecosystems;

and evolution;
and

Highly valued associated characteristics such


as scenic views.

82

Cave Protection

AppendixD

Karst Waters h stitute Special Publication 8

4.8.1.2 Karst

Developments already in place above caves will be


removed if they are impairing or threatening to

The Service will manage karst terrain to maintain the


:inherent integrity of its water quality, spring flow,

impair natural conditions

drainage

Parks will strive to close caves or portions

patterns,

and caves.

Karst processes

(the

or resources.
of caves to

processes by which water dissolves soluble rock


such as limestone) create areas typified by sinkholes,

public use, or to control such use, when such actions


are required for the protection of cave resources or

underground

for human safety. Some caves


may be managed
exclusively

streams, caves, and springs.

Local and regional hydrological systems resulting


from karst processes can be directly influenced by

or portions of caves
for research, with

access limited to permitted research personnel. All


recreational

use of undeveloped

caves will be gov-

developments
do or will significantly alter or
adversely impact karst processes, these impacts will
be mitigated. Where practicable, these developments
will be placed where they will not have an effect on

erned by a permit system. "Significant" caves will be


identified using the criteria established in the 43 CFR
Part 37 regulations for the Federal Cave Resources
Protection Act of 1988 (FCRPA). As further established by the FCRPA, specific locations of significant

the karst system.

cave

surface

land use practices.

If existing

or proposed

entrances

exempted
4.8.2 Management

of Geologic

processes

features"

describes

to continue.
the products

be

kept

confidential

and

Features

The Service will protect geologic features from the


adverse effects of human activity, while allowing
natural

may

from FIA requests.

The term

(See Decision-making Requirements to Avoid hnpairmerits 1.4.7; h formation Confidentiality 1.7.3; Caves
6.3.11.2)

"geologic

and physical

com-

4.10 Lightscape Management

ponents of geologic processes. Examples of geologic


features

in parks include

rocks, soils, and minerals;

The Service will preserve,

to the greatest extent pos-

geysers and hot springs in geothermal systems; cave

sible, the natural lightscapes of parks, which are nat-

and karst systems; canyons and arches in erosional


landscapes;
sand dunes, moraines, and terraces in
depositional
landscapes;
dramatic or unusual rock

human-caused

outcrops and formations; and paleontological


paleoecological

resources

such as fossilized

and

plants or

ural resources

and values that exist in the absence


light. The absence

and at the bottom of deep bodies of water influences biological processes and the evolution of
species--.

The phosphorescence

The stars, planets,


Caves

As used here, the term "caves"


as limestone

and gypsum

includes

karst (such

caves) and non-karst

caves

(such as lava tubes, littoral caves, and talus caves).


The Service will manage caves in accordance
with
approved cave management plans to perpetuate the
natural systems associated with the caves, such as
karst and other drainage patterns, air flows, mineral
deposition,
and plant and animal communities.
Wilderness
and cultural resources and values will
also be protected.

No developments or uses, including those that allow


for general public entry, such as pathways, lighting,
and elevator

shafts, will be allowed

on dark

in, above,

or

Recognizing

seek the cooperation


of park visitors, neighbors, and
local government
agencies to prevent or minimize

the intrusion of artificial light into the night scene of


the ecosystems

of parks.

The Service

will not use

artificial lighting in areas such as sea turtle nesting


locations, where the presence of the artificial lighting
ponents

movements.

the roles that light and dark periods

lightscape in parks. To prevent the loss of dark conditions and of natural night skies, the Service will

will disrupt

water

that are visible

and darkness play in natural resource processes and


the evolution of species, the Service will protect natural darkness and other components
of the natural

ditions,

sub-surface

and earth's moon

during clear nights influence humans and many


other species of animals, such as birds that navigate
by the stars or prey animals that reduce their activities during moonlit nights.

adjacent to caves until it can be demonstrated that


they will not unacceptably impact natural cave con
including

of waves

nights helps hatchling sea turtles orient to the ocean.

animals, or their traces.


4.8.2.2

of

of light in caves

dark-dependent

of a park.

natural

resource

com-

AppendixD 83

Cave Protection
Karst Waters h stitute Special Publication 8

The Service will:


Restrict the use of artificial lighting in parks
to those areas where security, basic human
safety, and specific cultural resource requirements must be met;

Utilize minimal impact lighting techniques;


and
Shield the use of artificial lighting where necessary to prevent the disruption of the night
sky, natural cave processes, physiological
processes of living organisms, and similar
natural processes.

The decision about whether or not to install artificial


lighting in particular circumstances is left to the discretion of the superintendent, and is made through
the planning

process.

(See Visitor Safety and Emergency Response 8.2.5,


Facility Planning and Design 9.1.1; Integration of
Facilities into the Park Environment 9.1.1.2; Energy
Management 9.1.7)

Chapter 6: Wilderness Preservation and


Management
6.3.11.2 Caves

All cave passages located totally within the surface


wilderness boundary will be managed as wilderness. Caves

that have

entrances

within

wilderness

but contain passages that may extend outside the


surface wilderness boundary will be managed as
wilderness.

Caves that may have multiple

entrances

located both within and exterior to the surface


wilderness boundary will be managed consistent
with the surface boundary; those portions of the
cave within the wilderness boundary will be managed as wilderness.

AppendixE 85

Cave Protection
Karst Waters Institute Special Publication 8

Appendix

E.

REGULATIONS, LEGISLATION, AND POLICY RELATEDTO

NATIONALPARKSERVICECAVERESOURCESMANAGEMENT

The following

is an annotated

list of cave manage-

ment regulation, policies, and legislation applicable


to the management,
conservation,
and protection of
cave resources. Unfortunately
most of the following

is applicable specifically to the hollow portions of


karst and do not offer much in the way of managing
and protecting

while fostering increased cooperation


and information exchange among those who use caves for scientific,

educational,

purposes.

The

caves to ensure their protection.


Cultural

AGEMENTOBJECTIVES

National

Park

Service's

Natural

Resources

Management Guideline (NPS-77) provides basic guidance for cave resources

management

and protection

within the NPS system. (Paleontological resources


are included within NPS-77 coverage). NPS-28, the
Cultural Resource Management Guideline, provides
general

recreational

karst terrain.

NPS POLICY AND CAVE RESOURCESMAN-

The

or

FCRPA also specifically addresses confidentiality of


information regarding the nature and location of

guidance

for cultural

resources,

including

resources

within

the caves

are generally

within the scope


of the National
Historic
Preservation Act of 1966 (PL 89-665) and the
Archeological Resources Protection Act of 1974 (PL
93-291). The 1906 Antiquities Act (PL 59-209) provides for the protection of historic, prehistoric, and
scientific
features
(including
paleontological
resources).

The management

of some caves may also

regulated by the provisions of the Wilderness Act

(PL 88-577).
LAWS, REGULATIONS, AND POLICIES

those in caves. NPS-14, the Cave Radiation Safety and


Occupational Health Guideline, describes procedures
to be followed by parks to protect visitors and
employees

PL 59-209, The 1906 Antiquities Act

The NPS Management Policies (1988) state that caves


will be managed to perpetuate their atmospheric,
geologic,
biological,
ecological,
and cultural

PL 89-665, The National Historic Preservation Act of

resources
agement

in accordance
with approved
cave manplans .... Natural
drainage
patterns,
air

flows, and plant and animal communities will be


protected (4:20).

PL 64-235, NPS Organic Act

1966

PL 91-383 and PL 94-458, General Authorities Act as


amended

PL 93-291, Archeological Resources Protection Act of

LEGISLATIVE
MANDATES/REGULATORY 1974
REQUIREMENTS

PL 100-691, Federal Cave Resources Protection Act

National Park Service (NPS) authority for the man-

of 1988

agement
resources

36 CFR Chapter 1, Section 1.6 Permits.

of natural, cultural, and paleontological


in caves comes from three basic laws: the

1916 NPS Organic Act (PL 64-235), the General


Authorities Act of 1970 and its 1978 revision (PL 91383 and PL 94-458), and the Federal Cave Resources
Protection Act of 1988 (FRCPA, PL 100-691). This act
recognizes

that significant

caves

are an invaluable

and irreplaceable part of our natural heritage, and


that caves may be threatened by improper use and
increased recreational demand. The purpose of the
act is to secure and protect significant caves on fed-

eral land for the benefit and enjoyment of all people

36 CFR Chapter

1, Section 2.1 Preservation

ral, cultural and archeological

of natu-

resources

36 CFR Chapter 2.21 (B) Smoking


36 CFR Chapter 1, Section 2.5 Research Specimens

r-AppendixF 87

Cave Protection
Karst Waters h stitute Special Publication 8

Appendix F.
Bureau of Land Management Cave and Karst Circular

The Bureau of Land Management (BLM), an agency


within the U.S. Department

The BLM cave resource

ters 264 million acres of America's public lands,


located primarily in 12 Western States. The BLM sustains the health, diversity, and productivity of the
public lands for the use and enjoyment of present
and future generations. The BLM is responsible for a
wide variety of programs on public lands including
minerals,

grazing,

recreation,

and managing

responsible

for supervising

opment

and

resources

on both

responsible

production

for

Federal
solid

the exploration,

operations
and Indian

minerals

damage; and ensure that they are maintained


for the use of the public, both now and in the
future.
4. Establish surface and subsurface
ensure long-term

It is

of recreational

opportunities.

These

complex

environmental

activity

5. Ensure the listing of caves meeting the significance criteria and the confidentiality of cave
locations.
Promote consistency among Federal agencies
with cave management
responsibilities,
where

include

hunting, fishing, camping, hiking, boating, hang


gliding, off-highway vehicle driving, mountain biking, birding, and visiting natural and cultural heritage sites. The BLM strives to realize healthier and
more productive
public lands through better
informed citizens who are willing to participate and
assist in solving

or other multi-resource

plans and, as applicable, in NEPA documents.

The BLM public lands provide visitors with a vast


array

for cave and

agement plans including recreation, wildlife,


watershed

Federal jurisdiction. Solid minerals include coal and

erals.

protection

karst systems. Address cave and karst


resources and issues in all appropriate man-

under

non-energy leasable minerals, hardrock minerals on


acquired lands, locatable minerals, and salable min-

management

practices and policies that are adequate to

these

lands.

resources

is

Protect sensitive, fragile, biological, ecological,

devel-

of

program

hydrological,
geological, scientific, recreational, cultural, and other cave values from

wildlife

habitat. It is responsible for the leasing of Federal oil


and gas and geothermal minerals. The BLM is also

management

designed to:

of the Interior, adminis-

appropriate; and facilitate the efficient and


effective

exchange

of information

between

Federal, State, and local agencies, private


organizations,
research institutions, and individuals concerned with the management,
protection,

problems.

or scientific

investigation

of cave

resources.

The BLMs Cave and Karst Resources Management


Program is interactive with all of these other programs and is involved directly with management
decisions

that may effect cave or karst resources.

The objectives of the BLM Cave and Karst Management

Program

are:

Carry out the direction provided by the


Federal Cave Resources Protection Act of 1988

(FCRPA,PL 100-691)and the FCRPA


Implementation Regulations at 43 CFR, Part
37, Cave Management.

It is BLM policy to:


A. Identify, evaluate,
manage,
and protect cave
resources on public lands for the purpose of main-

taining their unique, nonrenewable, and fragile


biological, geological, hydrological, cultural, paleontological,

scientific,

and

recreational

values

for

present and future uses.


B. Encourage

volunteer

involvement

of qualified

maintain their biologic, geologic, mineralogic,

and experienced
individuals
and caving organizations in cave management
projects, through the use
of volunteer
and cooperative
management
agree-

paleontologic,

ments.

Manage

cave and karst systems

al, scientific,

hydrologic,

to protect and

cultural,

and recreational

values.

education-

88

AppendixF

Cave Protection
Karst Waters h stitute Special Publication 8

C. Work closely with interested parties to identify


and

address

cave

management

opportunities

and

resources. These actions have the potential to pollute


karst ground waters and harm the natural ecosystem

of cave systems. Drilling and mining operations may

issues.

open new

D. Integrate the identification and management of


the caves and their associated
resource management
planning
efforts, and avoid or minimize

resource

values

into

and management
conflicts between

cave resource management


and other surface
subsurface resource management
activities.

and

E. Provide user opportunities which are compatible


and consistent with objectives set forth in Resource
Management and Activity Plans. These might

entrances

into cave systems

and change

the air flow patterns and temperatures within the


cave thus effecting the speleothem growth and biological
communities.
Linear rights-of-way
may
channel run-off, sediments, and any spills or pollutants directly into sinkholes
and cave entrances.

Certain timbering practices may decrease soil stability and increase siltation and runoff into sinkholes
and

cave

entrances.

If slash

is piled

into

cave

entrances and sinkholes it can change the pH of the


water filtering into the karst system thus effecting

include: Recreation, education, research, or commercial activities, when those activities can be adequate-

the caves ecosystem.

ly managed.

The need

to expand

awareness

and understanding

of cave and karst resource within the BLM and


F. Promote

an awareness

among

users and managers

of caves on public lands through development


informational
conservation

of

and educational materials concerning


methods and potential hazards.

Land use actions on public lands sometimes


have
the potential to have adverse impacts on caves and
karst lands. Such actions as oil and gas exploration

industry

is a current challenge.

New training

cours-

es and information sites are being developed to fill


this need. The BLM actively works with industries
doing business on public lands to detect, avoid, or
mitigate the impacts that these and other activities
may have on cave and karst resources.

The BLM, in

and production, installation of roads, pipelines, and

cooperation
with industry, academia,
researchers,
volunteers, and other agencies, develops techniques
and methods to protect caves and karst resources on

power

public lands. The application of new technology to

lines, timber

harvesting,

mining

operations,

locating industrial sites and landfills in karst areas


can all create

adverse

impacts

to caves

and karst

detect caves is expensive

it might be.

and not applied

as often as

Cave Protection

Glossary 91

Karst Waters Institute Special Publication 8

GLOSSARY

Aggressive
water -- Water having
solve rocks.

Allogenic

recharge

the ability to dis-

Recharge from runoff that

flows onto the karst surface from adjacent non-karst


rocks and usually enters the aquifer at stream sinks.
Aquifer

-- A ground-water

reservoir.

Pervious

satu-

rated rock that will yield significant amounts of


water to wells or springs.
Autogenic

recharge

Deliquescent

-- A mineral

that is "self dissolving"

by drawing water to itself.


Dissolution
Doline

-- The process

-- A sinkhole.

of dissolving

rock.

A basin or funnel-shaped

sur-

face hollow. Dolines may be formed by the direct


dissolution of the limestone surface, by collapse of
an underlying cave or soil arch, or by a combination
of these processes.

-- Recharge

from precipitation

falling directly on a karst surface and often entering


the aquifer through dolines.

Drainage

basin

--

The land

area that contributes

water to a given point on a stream or to a spring.


Also called a watershed,
catchment,
or recharge
area.

Aquatic

-- Organisms

that live in water.


Eh --

Base flow -- The flow of a stream or cave passage


when storm runoff is absent. Low flow.

Blind Valley -- A valley that ends suddenly at the


point where its stream disappears forming a closed
basin. A stream sink at the base of a cliff.
Carbonate

rocks

--

one or more carbonate

Sedimentary
minerals.

rock consisting
Primarily

of

limestone

(calcium carbonate) and dolomite (calcium magnesium carbonate).

A measure

to

Caver -- A person who explores caves. The term


"spelunker"
is not generally used by cave explorers

in the United States.

oxidation

or reduction

Endemic

--

Of limited
endemics

Collapse sink -- A sinkhole caused by the collapse


of a cave roof or by the collapse of an arch formed in
the soil layer following soil loss by piping at the soil-

Diffuse

flow

--

Movement

of

ground

water

in

aquifers under conditions in which all or almost all


of the

interconnecting

cavities

are full

of water.

Slowly circulating ground water that is not restricted to conduits.

in volts.

The

Known

process.
only from

geographic

are known

a restricted

distribution.

locality.

Single-cave

from only one cave.

Epigean -- Surface communities


plants. Living on the surface.

of animals

recharge comes from surface or near-surface

and

sources.

Epikarst -- A zone of enhanced solutional development in soluble rocks at or near the soil -- bedrock
interface.
Estavelle

Cavernicoles
-- Animals living or found in caves.
are only found in caves.
Obligate cavernicoles

contact.

potential

Epigenic caves -- Caves formed mostly by carbonic


acid produced
by near-surface
sources.
Most

Cave -- A natural void in the earth large enough


be entered by a person.

bedrock

of redox

ability of a natural environment to bring about any

--

A reversing

spring/sink.

Discharges

water as a spring during high flow conditions and


acts as a stream sink during
Hypogenic

caves

--

Caves

low flow conditions.


formed

by

water

in

which the aggressiveness (often from sulfuric acid)


has been produced at depth. These caves may be less
influenced by surface processes than are epigenic
caves and tend to receive
culating waters.

recharge

from deeply

cir-

Karren -- Surface (or soil covered) exposures of bare


limestone and the associated solution furrows and
channels.

92

Cave Protection

Glossary

Karst

--

Karst Waters hlstitute Special Publication 8

A landscape,

underlain

by

limestone

or

other soluble rocks, in which the topography is


chiefly formed by the dissolution of rock, and is
characterized

by karren, closed

ranean drainage,

depressions,

Recharge
-- That part of precipitation
or surface
water that penetrates the Earth's surface and eventually reaches the aquifers.

subterSpeleothems

and caves.

--

General

term for all cave mineral

Karst plain (sinkhole plain) -- A land surface on


which most of the local relief is due to closed depres-

deposits, especially those caused by the re-crystallisation or precipitation of dissolved minerals. Also
called cave formations and includes stalactites

sions and nearly all drainage

growing

is subterranean.

down

from a cave roof, stalagmites

ing up from a cave floor, flowstone,


Karst

window

--

closed

depression

grow-

etc.

usually

revealing
part of a subterranean
stream
across its floor. An unroofed part of a cave.

flowing

Spring

-- Any natural discharge

of water from rock

or soil onto the surface of the land or into a body of


surface water. A spring may be called a resurgence

if

pH -- The negative logarithm of the hydrogen-ion

the recharge area has been determined, usually by

concentration

water tracing tests.

in water.

The range

is from

0 to 14

with a pH of 7 being neutral, values below 7 acidic,


Stream sink -- The point at which

and above 7 alkaline.

enters the subsurface.


Phreatic -- The saturated zone below
where

all voids

are water filled.

caves

are

caves is confined

--

age forces.

Terrestrial

of soil particles

In geomorphology,

the removal

by seepof soil

particles by percolating water and the creation of


pipe-like voids within the soil.

caves.

ing water or underground


streams above
water table. Unconfined
water in caves.

Uvala
depression

sion.

on land. Not living in water in

Vadose -- The unsaturated


zone above the water
table. Vadose caves are formed mainly by free flow-

Internal erosion

Polje (karst)-

-- Living

and

under pressure.
Piping

or swallet.

the water table

Phreatic

believed to have formed by dissolution below the


water table. Water in phreatic

a surface stream

Also called a ponor

A large, flat-floored

closed

depres-

dolines.

A compound
formed

by

or at the

sinkhole. A large closed


the coalescence

of several

BIOGRAPHICAL
SKETCHES

Cave Protection

Biographical Sketches 95

Karst Waters Institute Special Publication 8

BIOGRAPHICALSKETCHES

Robert

R. Currie -- U.S. Fish and Wildlife

Service,

William

Ashville NC
Mr.

Currie

is a specialist

on

endangered

cave

dependent bats. He holds a BS degree in Botany and


Ecology from North Carolina State University. He
has worked for the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service in
Asheville, North Carolina for the past 25 years and
has been active in designing
ing programs

to protect

structures

and monitor-

endangered

cave animals.

He is on the board of directors of the American Cave


Conservation

Association.

James R. Goodbar

-- U.S. Bureau of Land

K. Jones -- Karst Waters Institute,

Charles Town, WV
Mr. Jones is a consulting hydrologist and Adjunct
Professor of Hydrology at American University,
Washington, DC. He has published numerous papers
on karst hydrology and water tracing and has studied
caves and karst areas in North America,

Europe, and

Asia. He holds a BSF in Forest Management from


West Virginia University and an MS in Environmental
Sciences (Hydrology) from the University of Virginia.
He is a director of the Karst Waters Institute.
Ronal

Kerbo

-- National

Park Service, Denver,

CO

Management (BLM), Carlsbad, NM


Jim Goodbar has been involved with the develop-

Mr. Kerbo is the National Cave Management


Coordinator for the National Park Service, Geologic

ment of the BLM's Cave Management

Resources

Program

over

Division.

He was

the cave

specialist

at

the past 25 years. He has dealt with a wide range of

Carlsbad Caverns National Park for a number of

cave

years and has extensive experience in managing visitor impacts to caves. He has written several books

management

problems

including

visitor

use,

impacts of the oil and gas industry, mining impacts,


and cave search and rescue

operations.

He holds

BS degree in Park and Recreation Management from


Texas A&M University and conducted his graduate
work in Karst Geology and Geomorphology
at
Western Kentucky University.
Horton H Hobbs III -- Wittenberg University,
Dr. Hobbs is a Professor of Biology at Wittenberg
University. He has published over 182 papers on
cave ecology and biology. He has studied over 1000
and Europe. He

is on the board of directors of the American Cave


Conservation

Association

and

the

Karst

D. Hose -- National

Cave and Karst

Research Institute, Carlsbad, NM


Dr. Hose became

the Director

of the National

Cave

and Karst Research Institute in December 2002 following

a 13 year teaching

and research career in aca-

demics. She earned her MSc degree in geology from


California State University, Los Angeles, and her
PhD from Louisiana State University. She has an
extensive

publication

research extending

record

in

cave

and

over the past thirty years.

papers

on cave

management

Jerry Trout -- U.S. Forest Service, Tucson, AZ


Dr. Trout
Coordinator

is the National
Cave
Management
for the U.S. Forest Service and has been

of years and has studied the impacts of timber harvesting on cave resources.

He administers

and teach-

es workshops
and symposiums
on cave and karst
management and protection, bat education, and var-

ious related subjects throughout the United States.

Waters

Institute. He received a BA in Biology from the


University of Richmond, an MS in Zoology from
Mississippi State University, and a Ph.D in Zoology/
Limnology from Indiana University.
Louise

and many

exploring
caves for over 50 years. He has been
involved with cave management issues for a number

Springfield, OH

caves in North and Central America

on caves
protocols.

karst

Carol M. Wicks

-- University

of Missouri,

Columbia, MO
Dr. Wicks is a Professor of Geology at the University
of Missouri.

Her research interests include

the link-

ages between hydrology and biology of karst systems. She studies the spatial and temporal changes in
the rates and mechanism of recharge in karst basins
and the changes in the geochemistry that occur along
discrete flowpaths. She holds a BS in Chemical
Engineering from Clarkson University, an MS in
Chemical Engineering and a Ph.D in Environmental
Sciences from the University

of Virginia.

She is cur-

rently president of the Karst Waters Institute.

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