Atlantic Basin History

Marine and Petroleum Geology 30 (2012) 1e25
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Marine and Petroleum Geology

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/marpetgeo
Review article
Relating petroleum system and play development to basin evolution: West

African South Atlantic basins
Suzanne E. Beglinger*, Harry Doust, Sierd Cloetingh
Netherlands Research Centre for Integrated Solid Earth Sciences, Department of Tectonics, VU University Amsterdam, de Boelelaan 1085, 1081 HV Amsterdam, The Netherlands
a r t i c l e i n f o
a b s t r a c t
Article history:
Received 14 March 2011
Received in revised form
17 June 2011
Accepted 12 August 2011
Available online 18 August 2011
Sedimentary basins can be classied according to their structural genesis and evolutionary history and
the latter can be linked to petroleum system and play development. We propose an approach in which
we use the established concepts in a new way: breaking basins down into their natural basin cycle
division, then dening the characteristics of each basin cycle (including the type of petroleum systems
and plays they may contain) and comparing them with similar basin cycles in other basins, thereby
providing a means to learn through a greater population of (perhaps not immediately obvious)
analogues. Furthermore, we introduce the use of the trajectory plot as a new tool in such an analysis. This
methodology has been applied to the West African South Atlantic marginal basins between Cameroon
and Angola, and we demonstrate that the similar tectonostratigraphic evolution of the individual basins
along this margin has led to the development of similar types of petroleum systems and play (level)s.
Consequently, we can make analogue comparisons among these basins in order to evaluate and predict
the presence of potential, yet undiscovered, hydrocarbon accumulations in less well explored parts of the
margin.
2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords:
West African margin
Petroleum system type
Play level
Basin cycle
Analogue comparison
Future exploration
1. Introduction
As most oil and gas provinces become increasingly mature with
respect to exploration, understanding the petroleum prospectivity
of less well explored basins becomes more important. In such
areas, the use of well-explored basins as analogues can contribute
to the identication of new hydrocarbon discoveries, and we
anticipate therefore that they will become increasingly valuable in
exploration.
Despite the generally complex sedimentary and tectonic
development of basins, we can often distinguish phases in tectonostratigraphic development or mega-sequences separated by
unconformities. Similarly, although the depositional environment
and tectonic situation may change considerably over short
distances, basic sedimentary patterns and structural styles can
usually be recognized. If the development of hydrocarbon habitats
can be related to these basic patterns, we can make broad scale
comparisons of petroleum systems between different basins with
a similar geological history. This can aid us in recognising common
petroleum system types with related parameters, as well as the
plays likely to be associated with them, and thus assist in the
* Corresponding author. Tel.: 31 20 5987374.

E-mail address: s.e.beglinger@vu.nl (S.E. Beglinger).
0264-8172/$ e see front matter 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2011.08.008
evaluation of opportunities in un- or under-explored rift basins

(e.g. see Doust and Sumner, 2007).
In this study, we review the potential for yet undiscovered
hydrocarbon accumulations in basins along the West African South
Atlantic margin, extending from Cameroon to Angola, and comprising
the Douala, Rio Muni, Gabon Coastal, Lower Congo, Congo Fan,
Kwanza and Namibe basins (Fig.1). The area is a very prolic producer
of oil and gas, is currently under active exploration in deep water and
contains a number of other areas which remain under-explored.
2. Methodology
To predict the presence of potential, yet undiscovered, hydrocarbon accumulations in sedimentary basins, we use the methodology as developed by Doust and Sumner (2007). This methodology
is anchored in the notion that sedimentary basins can be classied
according to their structural genesis and evolutionary history.
The rst step in this methodology is to establish a tectonostratigraphic framework. Kingston et al. (1983) recognized that
basins can be divided into relatively standard tectonostratigraphic
cycles. Such a cycle (i.e. basin cycle e see Appendix A) consists of
sediments deposited during one tectonic episode. Some simple
basins have experienced only one tectonic episode, and hence
contain only one cycle, but most rifted basins contain more than
one cycle and are called polyphase basins (Ziegler and Cloetingh,
S.E. Beglinger et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 30 (2012) 1e25
Fig. 1. Basin location maps of the individual West African South Atlantic salt basins. From north to south: Douala, Rio Muni, Gabon Coastal, Lower Congo, Congo Fan, Kwanza and
Namibe basin (Google Earth, 2010). (a) Basin location map with present-day ocean bathymetry (Yeh and Liu, 2006; Liu and Dittert, 2010). (b) Interpreted margin edges for Brazil
(green) and West Africa (orange) during Cenomanian-Turonian times. OCS: Outer continental shelf. COB: continent-ocean boundary. Note the variation in margin width along both
margins. Gaps between green and orange lines reect varying extension along strike (Versfelt, 2010).
2004; Cloetingh and Ziegler, 2007). Basins, both simple and

complex, may be classied by analysing their geologic history in the
context of plate location and -movement. Each basin cycle may
contain one or more fully developed (super-)sequences (Appendix
A). These depositional (super-) sequences are dened as distinct
phases in basin history often bounded by regional unconformities,
and may contain source-, reservoir- and seal rock intervals
(Posamentier and Allen, 1999).
The second step includes the identication of different types of
petroleum systems and plays (Appendix A), and putting them in
the tectonostratigraphic framework established earlier. Petroleum
systems are placed in this framework based on the tectonostratigraphic location of the associated source rock, while the plays
stratigraphic location is dened by the position of the reservoir
formation (i.e. play level).
The third step comprises the identication of the basinmodifying tectonics, such as extension, subsidence, uplift/inversion and compression (Johnson et al., 2008). Most trap types are
a consequence of ongoing tectonics affecting the basin ll. Therefore, a relationship exists between their development and that of
the basin cycle, such that specic trap types are often characteristic
of the various cycles in basin evolution.
In this paper, we introduce the concept of the trajectory plot
(Fig. 2) to be used in such an analysis. The trajectory path in the
trajectory plot illustrates the sedimentary and tectonic development of a basin through time (Doust, 2003): on the horizontal axis,
the main tectonic basin cycles are plotted, and on the vertical axis,
deepening depositional environment. Each basin describes a characteristic trajectory path in the diagram. It is suggested that where
the trajectories of different basins coincide, comparable
Fig. 2. Trajectory plots, describing sedimentary basin evolution versus tectonic basin evolution through time. (a) Douala, (b) Rio Muni, (c) Gabon Coastal, (d) Lower Congo, (e) Congo
Fan, (f) Kwanza, (g) Namibe. Timing of (potential) source- and reservoir rock deposition is indicated, as well as the associated sedimentary environment. (!), (*) or (?): Source rocks
and associated petroleum system with a proven, hypothetical or speculative status, respectively (references: Tables 1 and 2). (h) Summary trajectory plot, describing the general
evolutionary trend of each basin. Note the trend from a continental syn-rift mega-sequence to a dominantly marine post-rift mega-sequence. Where the trajectories overlap, it can
be anticipated that similar deposits developed.
(generative) source rocks and (productive) play levels (dened by

reservoir-seal couple) may exist.
Note that the timescales depicted in this paper are based on the
geological data table from Gradstein et al. (2008).
3. Tectonostratigraphic development
3.1. Geodynamic models
Many different geodynamic models exist for the development
of the South Atlantic. We will discuss three of these models with
respect to their differences (Fig. 3a). Cainelli and Mohriak (1999)
distinguished ve main phases (Fig. 3a and b) in the sequential
evolution of the South Atlantic, each characterized by different
patterns of tectonics and sedimentation. Break-up is postulated to
have occurred at the end of the rifting episode (w120 Ma), when
oceanic crust intruded the crust at the presently known MidOcean Ridge. In some basins, it is associated with subaerial
volcanism responsible for the development of thick wedges of
sea-ward dipping reectors observed in seismic reection proles
(HInz, 1981; Mutter et al., 1982; Mutter, 1985; Mohriak et al.,
1998; Cainelli and Mohriak, 1999). The mechanism proposed for
this episode involves focussing of lithospheric stretching, previously distributed over a wider region, to a locus in the region of
the Mid-Atlantic Ridge (Harry and Sawyer, 1992; Cainelli and
Mohriak, 1999). This phase is dominated by continental and
oceanic volcanism, reactivation of large faults, and erosion of rift
blocks by a regional unconformity that levelled the topography
(i.e. break-up unconformity (Falvey, 1974; Brown et al., 1996;
Jungslager, 1999)). The period following the peneplanation of
the rift blocks (i.e. transitional basin cycle), is characterized by the
cessation of crustal stretching, of rifting and of most basementinvolved fault activity. The ultimate opening of the South
Atlantic was established by further oceanic accretion and continental drifting (i.e. post-rift basin cycle). The observed increase in
bathymetry was caused by cooling and contraction of the lithosphere, as the thermal anomaly created during the stretching
phase decreased and the continents progressively moved further
away from the Mid-Atlantic Ridge.
In recent years, new seismic reection data with reasonable
imaging of the pre-salt section have become available for the
outer parts of the South Atlantic continental margins. Several
authors have used this information, combined with reinterpretation of gravity- and magnetic data, to arrive at new
models for the opening of the South Atlantic. Particularly, the
timing of break-up as well as the nature of the transitional
cycle are subject to debate. Recent papers published by Petrobras (e.g. Dias, 2005; Moreira et al., 2007; Winter et al., 2007)
tend to place the break-up unconformity closer to the AptianAlbian boundary for the Campos and Santos basins. The Early
Aptian clastic sequence is considered part of the syn-rift basin
cycle. The Late Aptian evaporite sequence was deposited under
stable tectonic conditions in a sag basin, characterized by regional
thermal subsidence. This sequence is dened as representing the
lower section of the post-rift mega-sequence (Moreira et al.,
2007; Winter et al., 2007). Break up is postulated to have taken
place directly after evaporite deposition, initiating the drift phase
(Fig. 3a) (Moreira et al., 2007; Winter et al., 2007). This suggests
that the evaporites were deposited in one single basin formed by
the individual Aptian salt basins in the South Atlantic, instead of
accumulating independently on both margins during and after
break up. Furthermore, this means that the post-rift can be
subdivided into two basic basin architectures: an interior sag
followed after break up by a marginal sag.
Torsvik et al. (2009) interpreted COB positions for the Atlantic

margins of South America and Africa, based on gravity- and
magnetic elds, bathymetry, seismic reection data interpretations, the position of SDRs and salt basins, and tested them against
different plate-tting scenarios. They also suggest that the break-up
unconformity is located closer to the Aptian-Albian boundary, postdating evaporite deposition (supported by Moulin et al., 2010),
thereby also implying that the salts were deposited in one single
basin. However, they propose that these evaporites and underlying
clastic sediments are part of the syn-rift cycle (winlling/waning
stage) (Fig. 3a).
Clearly, a lot of uncertainty exists regarding the exact nature of
the transitional cycle. The most important difference between
these models deals with the timing and mode of basin formation
(i.e. active rifting versus thermal subsidence). This may affect the
basin subsidence and heat ow, resulting in different values for
source rock maturation than previously anticipated. Nevertheless,
even the most recent reconstructions of the break up history
present numerous unexplained mists. Therefore, there is still no
general consensus on timing and trends with respect to the
opening of the South Atlantic. However, for the purpose of this
study in which we link the development of petroleum systems and
plays to the basin cycle, it is most important that the model chosen
is applied in a consistent manner. Difculties may arise, when
comparisons are made to other basins outside this particular study
area, where different tectonostratigraphic models are preferred.
This may lead to comparing mistting analogues. In our analysis,
we have chosen for the model of Cainelli and Mohriak (1999).
3.2. Tectonostratigraphy
Cainelli and Mohriaks (1999) geodynamic model for the South
Atlantic can be translated into cycles of basin evolution or megasequences, which can be recognized on both sides of the South
Atlantic (Figs. 4 and 5):
1. The pre-rift basin cycle (or intracratonic sag basins e Late
Proterozoic to Jurassic): subsidence and early stretching during
the Jurassic resulted in the development of regional sags, which
together formed a larger basin known as the Afro-Brazilian
Depression (Garcia, 1991; Chang et al., 1992). The pre-rift
mega-sequence, consisting of continental (alluvial, uvial and
lacustrine) deposits, has only been preserved locally (e.g.
Interior Gabon sub-basin and in the eastern part of the Congo
basin) (Brice et al., 1982; McHargue, 1990; Teisserenc and
Villemin, 1990; Bowneld and Charpentier, 2006). Note that
for the purpose of this discussion, which concentrates on the
Mesozoic to Tertiary basin history of these margins, the prerift encompasses a very long time period that may include
a number of older basin cycles related to other basin histories.
2. The syn-rift basin cycle (or interior fracture basins e Late
Jurassic to Early Cretaceous): several phases of subsidence
resulting in the development of elongated and faulted basins.
In the Namibe basin, this was accompanied by the extrusion of
tholeiitic basalts. In the other basins, the syn-rift megasequence consists of lacustrine black shale- and turbidite
deposits, followed by a shoaling up sequence of prograding
deltaic/uvial sediments (Brink, 1974; Brice et al., 1982;
McHargue, 1990; Robert and Yapaudjian, 1990; Teisserenc
and Villemin, 1990; Baudouy and Legorjus, 1991; Nguene
et al., 1992; Ross, 1993; Turner, 1995; Uncini et al., 1998;
Pasley et al., 1998a; Burwood, 1999; Coward et al., 1999;
Harris, 2000; Schoellkopf and Patterson, 2000; Da Costa
et al., 2001; Sranne and Anka, 2005; Browneld and
Fig. 3. Geodynamic models. (a) Simplied Jurassic to present chronology of the general tectonic basin evolution of the South Atlantic marginal basins, according to three different
models proposed by Cainelli and Mohriak (1999) and Mohriak (2003), Petrobras (e.g. Moreira et al., 2007; Winter et al., 2007) and Torsvik et al. (2009. (b) Detailed summary of the
geodynamic model for South Atlantic rifting as proposed by Cainelli and Mohriak (1999) and Mohriak (2003).
Charpentier, 2006), lling up the remaining topography

(Sranne and Anka, 2005).
3. The transitional basin cycle (or sag basins e Aptian to Early
Albian) marks the cessation of crustal stretching, of rifting and
of most basement-involved fault activity. A period of erosional
peneplanation followed and left a low residual topography. On
top of this peneplanation surface (i.e. break-up
unconformity), the transitional mega-sequence starts with

Early Aptian siliciclastics (Brognon and Verrier, 1966;
Teisserenc and Villemin, 1990; Pasley et al., 1998a, 1998b;
Uncini et al., 1998; Burwood, 1999; Browneld and
Charpentier, 2006), originating from the eroded crests of
uplifted and rotated Neocomian rift blocks (Cainelli and
Mohriak, 1999; Mohriak, 2003). These siliciclastics are
Fig. 4. General geological prole along the non-volcanic West African South Atlantic margin. The four tectonostratigraphic cycles with their dominant depositional facies are
indicated. Within the post-rift, three main tectonic domains can be recognized. From east to west: shelfal zone with gravitational extension structures (e.g. rotational fault blocks);
slope zone acting as translation zone with diapirs and folds; and the deeper basinal part of the basin with compressional structures (e.g. toe-thrust structures and salt canopies)
(Modied after Dickson et al., 2003; Calassou and Moretti, 2003; Norvick and Schaller, 1998).
overlain by Late Aptian to Early Albian evaporites (Brognon and

Verrier, 1966; Asmus and Ponte, 1973; Browneld and
Charpentier, 2006; Teisserenc and Villemin, 1990; Turner,
1995; Pasley et al., 1998a, 1998b; Uncini et al., 1998;
Burwood, 1999), deposited in a region of poorly circulating
waters north of the volcanic Walvis Ridge (Jenkyns, 1980; Tissot
et al., 1980; Meyers et al., 1996; Browneld and Charpentier,
2006; Aslanian et al., 2009) (Fig. 4), recording the rst marine
ingressions into the proto-South Atlantic (Asmus and Ponte,
1973). These evaporites formed a continuous blanket extending from the southern regions of the Douala basin (Pauken,
1992) to the northern reaches of the Namibe basin
(Browneld and Charpentier, 2006).
4. The post-rift basin cycle (or thermal sag basins e Early Albian to
Present): the passage to the post-rift basin cycle is punctuated
by minor sub-regional unconformities. Further oceanic accretion and continental drifting led to the opening of the South
Atlantic, as there is no evidence of normal basement faulting
after evaporite deposition (Karner et al., 2003; Aslanian et al.,
2009) and the oldest oceanic curst being contemporaneous
with evaporite deposition. The decay of the thermal anomaly
created during the stretching phase (McKenzie, 1978) and the
progressive movement of the continents away from the midocean ridge caused the cooling and contraction of the lithosphere, resulting in increased thermal subsidence basinward.
The marine post-rift mega-sequence can be subdivided into
three supersequences, based on major changes in depositional

environment and widespread occurring unconformities. The
restricted marine supersequence (or early post-rift stage - Early
Albian to Late Cenomanian) is characterized by shallow marine
hypersaline and anoxic conditions (Dias-Brito, 1982, 1987). This
supersequence begins with the deposition of high energy,
shallow water carbonates in a ramp/platform setting, i.e. Pinda-,
Madiela-, Sendji- and/or Binga formations (Bolli, 1978; DiasBrito, 1982; Dias-Brito and Azevedo, 1986; Azevedo et al.,
1987; Koutsoukos and Dias-Brito, 1987; Coward et al., 1999;
Eichenseer et al., 1999; Cole et al., 2000; Valle et al., 2001;
Sranne and Anka, 2005; Dupr et al., 2007). A gradual change
to shallow and deep marine clastic deposition took place, as
carbonate production did not keep up with accommodation
(Sranne and Anka, 2005; Anka et al., 2010). The top section of
the restricted marine supersequence is marked by organic-rich
black shales, deposited during Cenomanian/Turonian times
during a worldwide anoxic event (Fig. 6), when the rate of
sedimentation was low. The open marine super-sequence (or
middle post-rift stage e Turonian to Present) represents the
oceanic phase of deposition (Fig. 6), marked by environmental
stability and palaeowater depths reaching 1000e2000 m
beyond the present-day continental shelf (Koutsoukos, 1984,
1987). Locally, a third post-rift supersequence can be distinguished: a deltaic supersequence (or late post-rift stage e
Oligocene/Miocene to Present). This phase commenced during
Fig. 5. Generalized basin tectonic evolution chart for all basins along the West African South Atlantic margin: basins evolve from pre-rift, syn-rift, transitional into the post-rift,
under the inuence of the same events and processes. The post-rift basin cycle (or mega-sequence) has been subdivided into two basin stages (or supersequences). Note that
a third post-rift basin stage, the deltaic post-rift supersequence, may have developed locally during the Tertiary. A schematic stratigraphy is included.
the onset of icehouse conditions in the Early Oligocene with

major submarine erosion of the ramp (McGinnis et al., 1993;
Sranne and Anka, 2005), locally removing about 500 m of
stratigraphic section in the outer shelf region (Lavier et al.,
2000; Sranne and Anka, 2005). The northward motion of
the African plate caused this part of the margin to be placed
under tropical and wet conditions, resulting in increased
erosion of the uplifted shoulders (Sranne and Anka, 2005) and
in the development of a thick downlapping wedge of prograding clastic sediments on the shelf-slope (extending
basinward to very large turbidite deep-sea fans, such as the
Congo Fan situated on top of part of the Lower Congo basin and
the Ogooue Delta in the Gabon Coastal basin (Meyers et al.,

1996; Sranne, 1999; Droz et al., 2003; Anka and Sranne,
2004; Babonneau et al., 2004; Sranne and Anka, 2005;
Savoye et al., 2009) (Figs. 4 and 5)
Note that most of the Late Cretaceous and younger deformation
was related to down slope movement of salt including diapirism
(Teisserenc and Villemin, 1990; Lunde et al., 1992; Calassou and
Moretti, 2003). These post-depositional salt movements were
important in determining patterns of fan- and turbidite systems
and in creating traps in the overlying post-rift sediments: gravitational extension structures developed in the upper margin of the
4. Petroleum system type development

Due to the similar tectonostratigraphic evolution of these
marginal basins (Fig. 2), many equivalent source-, reservoir and seal
rock intervals were able to develop. Source rocks were deposited
during certain periods in basin evolution, and each interval
produces hydrocarbons with a particular signature (Table 1aee).
This remarkably consistent manner of source rock development can
be attributed to the favourable climatic conditions and to the
restriction of water circulation imposed by the Walvis Ridge during
most of basin evolution (Huc, 2004; Browneld and Charpentier,
2006) (Fig. 6). Despite the semi-open sea connection during the
Mid-Late Cretaceous, important source rocks were still able to
accumulate due to strong upwelling along the margin (Kruijs and
Barron, 1990; Bush and Philander, 1997; Holbourn et al., 1999).
All these different source rocks give rise to different types of
petroleum systems (PST) (Figs. 7 and 8), and we have classied
them accordingly, linking them to the cycles of basin evolution
(Appendix A) (Doust and Sumner, 2007). Since no thermal- and/or
petroleum modelling has been performed in this study, the timing
of petroleum generation/migration and trap formation are extracted from literature.
Fig. 6. Palaeogeographic maps of the Cretaceous break up of Africa and South America,
showing the approximate locations of the Gulf of Guinea and the Walvis Ridge
(modied after Browneld and Charpentier, 2006; Huc, 2004; Tissot et al., 1980).
basins and were compensated by compressional structures in the

deeper basinal parts (Cramez and Jackson, 2000; Calassou and
Moretti, 2003; Dupr et al., 2007; Brun and Fort, 2004, 2011).
The trajectory plots demonstrate that each of the basins along
the margin has experienced a similar sedimentary evolution
(Fig. 2h): a shallow/deep lacustrine and uvial syn-rift, followed by
a uvio-marine and restricted (hypersaline) marine transitional
cycle, and a shallow to deep marine post-rift. Where delta systems
were able to develop on the shelf, associated turbidite systems are
developed in the deeper parts of the basins (Droz et al., 2003;
Babonneau et al., 2004).
1. The Lacustrine Syn-rift PST (Fig. 8) is responsible for the

majority of accumulations, and is second most important with
respect to discovered recoverable reserves.
- Source: fresh-brackish lacustrine shales within the syn-rift
mega-sequence (Burwood, 1999; Schoellkopf and Patterson,
2000; Browneld and Charpentier, 2006; Hassan and
Shae, 2009; Martin and Toothill, 2009).
- Reservoirs: within syn- and post-rift cycles (Schoellkopf and
Patterson, 2000; Browneld and Charpentier, 2006).
- Seal: regionally extensive evaporites of the transitional cycle,
and intra-formational lacustrine, marine and deltaic shales
located throughout the stratigraphy (Schoellkopf and
- Hydrocarbon generation/migration: Late Cretaceous (Late
Albian) till present. Peak generation during CenomanianPaleocene times (Edwards and Bignell, 1988; Pauken, 1992;
Schoellkopf and Patterson, 2000; Browneld and
Charpentier, 2006; Martin and Toothill, 2009).
- Migration pathways: short lateral and vertical migration to
juxtaposed or interngering syn-rift reservoir facies, signicant lateral migration along pre-salt clastic carrier beds
directly underlying the evaporites (e.g. Chela Sandstone-,
Como-, Gamba- and Upper Cuvo Fms) and upward migration
through salt windows and along faults into post-rift reservoirs (Schoellkopf and Patterson, 2000; Browneld and
Charpentier, 2006).
- Timing of trap formation: since Early/Mid Cretaceous times
(Schoellkopf and Patterson, 2000).
- Critical moment: w100 Ma.
2. The Fluvio-Marine Transitional PST (Fig. 8) has only been
proven in the Kwanza basin. In the Gabon Coastal basin similar
source rocks have been identied (wforming part of a hypothetical petroleum system, in which additionally a lacustrine
late syn-rift source is included: Dentale/Gamba-Dentale/
Gamba PS (.)).
- Source: uvio-marine shales at base of the transitional cycle
(Burwood, 1999).
- Reservoir: within transitional and post-rift cycles (Burwood,
1999).
- Seal: regional seal of the evaporites and intra-formational
post-rift marine shales (Schoellkopf and Patterson, 2000;
Browneld and Charpentier, 2006).
Table 1
Properties of (potential) source rock intervals within each basin cycle (i.e. mega-sequence) and/or basin stage (i.e. supersequence) of each basin, (potentially) giving rise to
a viable petroleum system. (a) Syn-rift mega-sequence, (b) Transitional mega-sequence, (c) Restricted marine post-rift supersequence, (d) Open marine post-rift supersequence, and (e) Deltaic post-rift supersequence.
a) Syn-rift mega-sequence e Source rock specications
Douala
(Lower) Mundeck Fm ->

MundeckeMundeck/Senonian/Tertiary (.)
Thin organic-rich facies within sand dominated
beds
Mixed Type IeII kerogen
TOC Avg: 1e3.5%; TOC Max: 13%
HI: 100e200 mg HC/g TOC
Rio Muni
Equivalent source rocks expected as in Gabon

Coastal Basin -> Neocomian e Neocomian-Aptian (?)
and/or Barremian e Neocomian-Tertiary (?)
TOC Max: 6% (Kissenda equiv.)
Gabon Coastal
Kissenda Fm -> Kissenda e NDombo-Gamba (!)

Organic shales interbedded with siltstones and
carbonaceous shales.
Type III & mixed Type II/III kerogen
TOC Avg: 1.5e2%
HI Avg: 200e300 mg HC/g TOC
Melania Fm -> Melania e Neocomian-Cenomanian (!)
Organic shales, siltstones and calcareous shales.
Type I & mixed Type IeII kerogen
Browneld and Charpentier, 2006
Bucomazi Fm -> Bucomazi e Vermelha/Pinda/Malembo (!)

Lower & Upper Bucomazi Mb
Type I kerogen
TOC Avg: 2e3%
Middle Bucomazi Mb
Type I and mixed Type IeII kerogen
TOC Avg: 5%
TOC Max: 20%
Source potential: 33 tons HC/m2
Kwanza
Maculungo (Infra-Cuvo) Fm
Thick organic-rich lacustrine shales
Type I and Type II kerogen
TOC Avg 3.1 wt.%; TOC Max: 20%
Hydrocarbon Potential S2: 18 mg HC/g rock
b) Transitional mega-sequence e Source rock characteristics
Gabon Coastal
Lower Congo
Ntamak-Nida et al., 2008; Browneld and

Charpentier, 2006; Teisserenc and Villemin,
1990
Dentale Fm -> Dentale/Gamba e Dentale/Gamba (?)

Lacustrine deltaic organic rich intervals.
Equivalent to Lower Congo Basin; probably

over-mature due to thick overburden
of deltaic wedge -> Bucomazi - Pinda/Malembo (.)
Rio Muni
Ntamak-Nida et al., 2008; Turner, 1995, 1999
Source potential: 46 tons HC/m2
Congo Fan
Douala
Ntamak-Nida et al., 2008; Ndonwie Mahbou,

2007; Pauken, 1992

Ntamak-Nida et al., 2008; Cole et al., 2000;
Baudouy and Legorjus, 1991
Browneld and Charpentier, 2006; Teisserenc
and Villemin, 1990
Dale et al., 1992
TOC Avg: 6.1 wt.%; TOC Max: 20 wt.%
Lower Congo
References
Mundeck Fm -> Mundeck - Mundeck/Senonian/Tertiary (.)

Thin organic-rich facies within sand dominated
beds
Mixed Type IeII kerogen
TOC Avg: 1e3.5%; TOC Max: 13%
HI: 100e200 mg HC/g TOC
Brice et al., 1982; Teisserenc and Villemin,

1990; Baudouy and Legorjus, 1991; Dale et al.,
1992; Pasley et al., 1998a; Cole et al., 2000;
Schoellkopf and Patterson, 2000; Browneld
and Charpentier, 2006

Browneld and Charpentier, 2006; Pasley et al.,
1998b
Burwood, 1999
References
2007; Pauken, 1992
Expected potential for thin organic-rich mudstones

and shale stringers within evaporites
Mixed Type II-III kerogen
TOC Avg: 2e4 wt.%
Dailly, 2000
Gamba Fm -> Dentale/Gamba - Dentale/Gamba (.)

Type II & mixed Type II-III kerogen
Limited thickness and distribution
Burwood et al., 1992, 1995

TOC Avg: 2e4 wt.%
Dailly, 2000
Expected equivalent source rocks to those in the Gabon

Coastal Basin (Chela w Gamba Fms)
(continued on next page)
10
Table 1 (continued )
b) Transitional mega-sequence e Source rock characteristics
Type II & mixed Type II-III kerogen
Limited thickness and distribution
TOC Avg: 1e2%
HI Avg: 400 mg HC/g TOC
TOC Avg: 2e4 wt.%
Congo Fan
Expected potential equivalent source rocks as in Lower

Congo Basin
Kwanza
Upper (Grey) Cuvo Fm -> Cuvo - Cuvo/Binga/

Albian/Quifangondo (!)
Type II kerogen
TOC Avg: 2.5%
HI Avg: 29.2 mg HC/g TOC
Hydrocarbon Potential S2: 7.3 mg HC/g rock
Namibe
Organic-rich shales equivalent to Gamba and

Chela Fms in Gabon Coastal- and Lower Congo
basins -> Barremian-Aptian - Hauterivian/
Barremian/Albian (?)
Type II kerogen
TOC Avg: 2%; TOC Max: 20%
c) Restricted marine post-rift supersequence e Source rock characteristics

Douala
(Upper) Mundeck Fm -> Mundeck Mundeck/Senonian/Tertiary (.)

Mixed Type I-II kerogen
TOC Avg: 3e5%; TOC Max: 13%
Rio Muni
Madiela Gr (Namina Fm) - equivalent -> Albian-Senonian (!)

Analogous to Gabon Coastal Basin
Gabon Coastal
Madiela Gr/Cap Lopez Gr -> Madiela/Cap Lopez - Batanga (.)

TOC < 3%
Petroleum potential < 10 mg HC/g TOC
HI Avg: 400 mg HC/g rock
Madiela Gr (Namina Fm) -> Madiela (Namina) Azingo/Ekouata (.)
Deepwater micrites
TOC < 3%
Petroleum potential < 10 mg HC/g TOC
HI Avg: 400 mg HC/g rock
Lower Congo
Kwanza
Moita Seca Fm -> Moita Seca - Albian-Miocene (.)

Oil-prone marine shales and marls
TOC Max: 3%
Binga Fm -> BingaeBinga (!)
TOC Avg: 6.3%
HI Avg: 61.4 mg HC/g TOC
S2: 39,0 mg HC/g rock
Albian Micrites -> Albian Micrites - Senonian/Tertiary (.)
Marine algal organic matter prone to generate
non-waxy oils
TOC Avg: 1.8%
S2: 10.7 mg HC/g rock
References
Burwood, 1999; Burwood et al., 1992, 1995
Dailly, 2000
Burwood, 1999
Bray et al., 1998

References

2007; Pauken, 1992
Turner, 1999
Katz et al., 2000
Katz et al., 2000
Cole et al., 2000
Burwood, 1999
Teisserenc and Villemin, 1990; Burwood, 1999

Burwood, 1999
d) Open marine post-rift supersequence e Source rock characteristics
References
Douala
Expected potential oil-prone source rocks in the

Logbadjeck and Menga Fms
Rio Muni
Expected equivalent to the Banc du Prince Fm in

the Gabon Coastal Basin (Cenomanian-Turonian
shales) -> Turonian - Senonian-Paleogene (?)
Browneld and Charpentier, 2006 and
Gabon Coastal
Azile/Anguille/Banc du Prince Fms -> Azile/Anguille - Anguille (!)

Type II and mixed Type II-III kerogen
TOC Avg: 3e5%
HI Avg > 400 mg HC/g rock
Hydrocarbon Potential S2 Avg > 10 mg HC/g
rock

and Villemin, 1990
Browneld and Charpentier, 2006; Peters et al.,
1993; Teisserenc and Villemin, 1990
Katz et al., 2000
11
d) Open marine post-rift supersequence e Source rock characteristics
Lower Congo
References
Port Gentil Fm (Pointe Clairette Gr) -> Port Gentil Senonian-Miocene (.)
Similar organic composition as Azile Gr, but
irregularly distributed
Iabe/Landana Fms -> Iabe/Landana - Pinda/Malembo (!)
Type II kerogen
TOC Avg > 2%
HI Max > 700 mg HC/g TOC
Congo Fan
Equivalent source rocks expected to those in the Lower

Congo Basin (Iabe/Landana Fms)
Kwanza
Itombe, Teba and Rio Dande Fms -> Teba/Itombe/

Rio Dande - Senonian/Tertiary (?)
Senonian marine shale intervals
TOC Avg: 4.8%
Cungo & Margas Negras Fms -> Margas Negras/
Cunga - Quifangondo (!)
TOC Avg: 3.6%
Hydrocarbon Potential S2: 19.0 mg HC/g rock
e) Deltaic post-rift supersequence e Source rock characteristics

Douala
Gabon Coastal
Browneld and Charpentier, 2006; Teisserenc &

Villemin, 1990
Browneld and Charpentier, 2006; Schoellkopf
and Patterson, 2000; Cole et al., 2000
Burwood, 1999
Burwood, 1999
References
NKapa & Souellaba Fms/Miocene deep marine

shales -> TertiaryeTertiary (.)
NKapa & Souellaba Fms
Marine source shales
Miocene deep-marine shales
TOC Avg: 1e2%
Potentially locally mature due to elevated heat
ow from Annobon-Cameroon volcanic axis
Potential source rock intervals but consistently immature
Ozoouri & Animba Fms
Mandorove & MBega Fms


and Villemin, 1990
TOC Avg: 4e5%

Lower Congo
Expected equivalent source rocks (Malembo) as in
Schoellkopf and Patterson, 2000
Congo Fan basin, but probably immature due to

insufcient burial
Congo Fan
Malembo Fm -> Malembo - Malembo (.) & Malembo - Pinda (.)

Source Potential: 5e15 tons HC/m2
TOC Max: 4%
- Hydrocarbon generation/migration: unknown, probably since

Late Cretaceous times.
- Migration pathways: short lateral and vertical migration to
juxtaposed or interngering transitional cycle reservoir
facies, as well as signicant lateral migration along pre-salt
clastic carrier beds directly underlying the salt (see lacustrine syn-rift PST). Furthermore, upward migration
through salt windows and along faults into post-rift reservoirs (Schoellkopf and Patterson, 2000; Browneld and
Charpentier, 2006).
- Timing of trap formation: probably since Mid Cretaceous times.
- Critical moment: unknown, depending on timing of hydrocarbon generation/migration.
3. In some basins, source rocks are expected, potentially
giving rise to a Restricted (Hypersaline) Marine Transitional
PST (Fig. 8), but no associated accumulations have been
discovered yet (e.g. Rio Muni-, Gabon Coastal-, Lower Congo
basins).
- Source: restricted (hypersaline) marine shale stringers within
the evaporites of the transitional mega-sequence (Statoil
internal reports, 2010).
Elias et al., 2007; Browneld and Charpentier,

2006; Schoellkopf and Patterson, 2000
- Reservoir: potentially within the transitional and post-rift cycle.

- Seal: regional seal of the evaporites and intra-formational
post-rift marine shales (Schoellkopf and Patterson, 2000;
- Hydrocarbon generation/migration: unknown, potentially
since Late Cretaceous times.
- Migration pathways: potentially short lateral and vertical
migration to juxtaposed or interngering transitional cycle
reservoir facies. And potentially upward migration through
salt windows and along faults into post-rift reservoirs
(Schoellkopf and Patterson, 2000; Browneld and
Charpentier, 2006).
- Timing of trap formation: since Late Cretaceous times.
- Critical moment: Unknown.
4. The Restricted- and Open Marine Post-rift PSTs (Fig. 8) are
responsible for the greatest volume of recoverable reserves
discovered to date. A potential equivalent PST present underneath the Congo Fan delta could also be generating hydrocarbons at this moment (Anka et al., 2010).
- Source: Albian and Cenomanian/Turonian (carbonaceous)
marine shales (within restricted marine post-rift super-
12
Fig. 7. Summary of all petroleum system types (PST) recognized (!) or potentially present (* or ?)in each basin cycle (i.e. mega-sequence) in each basin along the West African margin.
sequence and open marine post-rift super-sequence)

(Burwood, 1999; Katz et al., 2000; Schoellkopf and Patterson,
2000; Browneld and Charpentier, 2006).
- Reservoir: within the post-rift cycle (Katz et al., 2000;
Schoellkopfand Patterson, 2000; Browneld and Charpentier,
2006).
- Seal: intra-formational marine and deltaic shales (Katz et al.,

2000; Schoellkopf and Patterson, 2000; Browneld and
Charpentier, 2006).
- Hydrocarbon generation/migration: since w30e15 Ma (MidOligocene e Mid-Miocene) (Katz et al., 2000; Schoellkopf and
Fig. 8. General summary of the Lacustrine syn-rift-, Fluvio-marine transitional-, Restricted (hypersaline) marine transitional-, Restricted marine post-rift, Open marine post-rift and
Deltaic post-rift PSTs. Location of each (potential) source rock is indicated in the stratigraphy, as well as the all reservoirs (potentially) receiving charge from these sources. Events
charts for each PST specify approximate timing of source-, reservoir-, seal- and overburden rock deposition as well as timing of hydrocarbon generation, migration and preservation
(Browneld and Charpentier, 2006; Schoellkopf and Patterson, 2000; Katz et al., 2000; Burwood, 1999; for others, see: Tables 1 and 2).
13
Fig. 9. Schematic geological cross-section of the West African South Atlantic margin, showing main structures of the basin ll, the most important source rock intervals, typical
hydrocarbon migration pathways and some characteristic hydrocarbon accumulations (after Huc, 2004).
- Migration pathways: direct source-reservoir contact migration or lateral and vertical migration via faults, induced by
halokinetic movements (Katz et al., 2000; Schoellkopf and
- Timing of trap formation: since Late Cretaceous (wAlbian)
times (Katz et al., 2000; Browneld and Charpentier, 2006).
- Critical moment: w30e20 Ma.
5. The Deltaic Post-rift PST (Fig. 8) only exists in areas where
thick deltaic wedges developed during the post-rift, such as the
Congo Fan basin or the Ogooue delta in Gabon.
- Source: deltaic shales within the deltaic post-rift supersequence (top-sets), where present (Burwood, 1999; Schoellk
opf and Patterson, 2000; Browneld and Charpentier, 2006).
- Reservoir: within post-rift cycle (Schoellkopf and Patterson,
- Seal: intra-formational deltaic and marine shales (Schoellkopf
and Patterson, 2000; Browneld and Charpentier, 2006).
- Hydrocarbon generation/migration: since w10e5 Ma (Late
Miocene), but immature over large areas due to insufcient
burial (Schoellkopf and Patterson, 2000; Browneld and
Charpentier, 2006).
- Migration pathways: short lateral and vertical migration
through/along faults into juxtaposed and interngering
deltaic reservoirs. When deposited in deep troughs, these
deltaic sources may be juxtaposed to shallow/deep marine
sandstones/carbonates by growth faults (Schoellkopf and
- Timing of trap formation: probably since Albian times.
- Critical moment: w10e5 Ma.
The Lacustrine Syn-rift and (Restricted/Open) Marine Post-rift PSTs
are responsible for the majority of the hydrocarbon accumulations
discovered to date. Partly due to leakage of hydrocarbons with
a lacustrine signature from the syn-rift into the post-rift through salt
windows (Fig. 9), most discoveries have been made within the postrift section. Consequently, many post-rift reservoirs contain
a mixture of marine post-rift and lacustrine syn-rift hydrocarbons
(see e.g. Schoellkopf and Patterson, 2000). Of the three minor and
locally developed PSTs, the Fluvio-Marine Transitional PST seems to
hold the most potential; in every basin, the Aptian Unconformity is
identied and is overlain by a uvio-marine sag sequence containing
organic-rich shales. The main risk associated with this PST relates to
the thickness of the source sequence, which might not be enough for
economic hydrocarbon generation. The Deltaic Post-rift PST can only
exist where extensive deltas developed during the last stage of the
post-rift, and hence where the overburden rocks are sufciently
thick to allow maturation of deltaic source rocks. In areas where no
such delta development has taken place, analogous shales can only
mature when deposited in deep troughs or in areas of abnormally
high heat ow. Note that many parts along the margin remain
under-explored and a thorough understanding of the thickness and
areal- and maturity distribution of the different source rock intervals
is lacking. Since source rock maturity heavily depends on the variable overburden thickness occurring along the margin, detailed
maturation modelling should be a top priority for future research.
5. Play development
The West African stratigraphic sequence contains a variety of
play levels (Appendix A), or reservoir formations/sequences (Fig. 2),
many of them characteristic of the basin cycle (i.e. mega-sequence)
in which they occur (Fig. 10 & Table 2aee).
1. Pre-rift mega-sequence: no play levels have been proven yet in
this cycle, but potential reservoir lithofacies are formed by
alluvial and uvial sandstones (e.g. in the Interior Gabon subbasin) (Teisserenc and Villemin, 1990; Dupr et al., 2007).
2. Syn-rift mega-sequence: contains a few very prolic play
levels.
B Reservoir lithofacies: alluvial/uvial/lacustrine sandstones
and (lacustrine) carbonates (Smith, 1995; Schoellkopf and
Patterson, 2000; Browneld and Charpentier, 2006;
Hassan and Shae, 2009; Martin and Toothill, 2009).
B Traps: formed due to graben development during Early
Cretaceous times, resulting in both structural (tilted fault
blocks and structural closures associated with salt movement) and stratigraphic traps (rapidly changing facies
congurations or drape structures over fault blocks) (Martin
and Toothill, 2009).
B Charge: lacustrine syn-rift shales (Schoellkopf and Patterson,
B Most important examples (Statoil internal reports, 2010):
- Basal Early Rift Sandstone (Gabon Coastal basin e e.g.
Onango Alonha (Onal) eld), and
- Pre-Salt Barremian-Aptian Carbonate (Lower Congo
basin e e.g. Lifuma eld).
3 Syn-rift/transitional mega-sequences: some play levels extend
from the syn-rift into the transitional cycle, and contain
signicant reserves of hydrocarbons.
B Reservoir lithofacies: lacustrine, uvial and marginal/shallow
marine sandstones, conglomerates and carbonates (Liro and
Dawson, 2000; Browneld and Charpentier, 2006; Martin
and Toothill, 2009).
14
Fig. 10. Summary of the distribution of play levels throughout the stratigraphy of each basin (references: see Table 2aee).
15
Table 2
Properties of (potential) reservoir/seal couples (wplays) within each basin cycle (i.e. mega-sequence) and/or basin stage (i.e. supersequence) of each basin. (a) Syn-rift megasequence, (b) Transitional mega-sequence, (c) Restricted marine post-rift supersequence, (d) Open marine post-rift supersequence, and (e) Deltaic post-rift supersequence.
a) Syn-rift mega-sequence e Play characteristics
Douala
Gabon Coastal
References
Mundeck Play
Res: Lower Mundeck Fm
Fluvial to alluvial sandstones
Porosity: 20e25%
Permeability: <100 mD
Seal: Mundeck Fm
Evaporites (southern part of basin) and intraformational shales
Basal Early Rift Sandstone Play
Res: Basal Early Rift Sandstone
Thick-bedded, coarse to medium-grained uvial
sandstones
Porosity: < 25%
Permeability: < 100 mD
Seal: Kissenda & Melania Fms
Lacustrine shales
Fourou Plage Play
Res: Fourou Plage Fm
(Very ne-grained) lacustrine turbiditic sandstones
Porosity: 10e15%
Permeability: 10-100 mD
Seal: Kissenda & Melania Fms
Widespread lacustrines shales
Dentale/Coniquet/Gamba Play
Res: Dentale & Coniquet Fms
Lacustrine deltaic sandstone
Porosity: < 29%
Permeability: <1 D.
Seal: Dentale, Gamba & Ezanga Fms
(Fluvio-)marine shales and evaporites.
Lower Congo
Pre-Salt Barremian-Aptian Carbonate Play

Res: Toca Fm
Algal mounds or lake fringing build-ups
Porosity: 16e20%
Seal: Loeme Fm
Widespread evaporites
Pre-Salt Tithonian-Aptian Clastic Play
Res: Vandji, Sialivakou, Djeno Sandstone, Lucula, Pointe
Indienne Fms
Porosity: <19%
Seal: Bucomazi & Sialivakou Fms
Lacustrine shales
Kwanza
Namibe
Pre-Salt Volcanic Play

Res: Maculungo Fm - equivalent
Fractured volcanic lenses
Seal: Infra-Cuvo & Maculungo Fms
Lacustrine shales
Valanginian-Hauterivian Play
Res: Unknown Fm
Coastal to shallow marine sandstones
Seal: Unknown Fm
Thick shale section of the Lower Aptian
b) Transitional mega-sequence e Play characteristics

Douala
Gabon Coastal
Browneld and Charpentier, 2006; Luzzi-Arbouille and

Schmid, 2008
Teisserenc and Villemin, 1990; Browneld and

Charpentier, 2006
Teisserenc and Villemin, 1990; Liro and Dawson, 2000;

Dale et al., 1992; Browneld and Charpentier, 2006
Browneld and Charpentier, 2006; Prevail Energy, 2010
Abilio and Inkollu, 1989
References
Mundeck Play
Res: (Lower) Mundeck Fm
Fluvial to alluvial sandstones
Porosity: 20e25%
Seal: Mundeck Fm
Dentale/Coniquet/Gamba Play
Res: Gamba Fm
Fluvio-marine sandstones
Porosity: 20e30%
Permeability: 100-5000 mD

Schmid, 2008
Teisserenc and Villemin, 1990; Boeuf et al., 1992; Liro

and Dawson, 2000; Browneld and Charpentier, 2006
(continued on next page)
16
b) Transitional mega-sequence e Play characteristics
Lower Congo
Kwanza
Namibe
References
Seal: Gamba & Ezanga Fms
(Fluvio-)marine shales and evaporites.
Pre-Salt Tithonian-Aptian clastic Play
Res: Chela Fm
Basal uvio-marine sandstones/conglomerates,
recording rst marine incursions
Porosity: 20e30%
Permeaiblity: 100e5000 mD
Seal: Loeme Fm
Pre-Salt Carbonate/Clastic Play
Res: Upper (Grey) Cuvo Fm
Fluvio-marine sandstonstones and intercalating
carbonates, equivalent to Gamba & Chela Fms in Gabon
Coastal- and Lower Congo basins
Seal: Massive Salt Fm
Barremian-Aptian Play
Res: Unknown Fm
Marine sandstones at base of the transitional cycle
Seal: Unknown Fm
Thick shale section of the Lower Aptian and widespread
marine shales in post-rift
c) Restricted marine post-rift supersequence - Play characteristics

Douala
Gabon Coastal
Mundeck Play
Res: Upper Mundeck Fm
Submarine fan-, fan-delta and turbiditic sandstones
Porosity: less well-sorted than Lower Mundeck
sandstones, therefore lower porosity
Permeability: less well-sorted than Lower Mundeck
sandstones, therefore lower permeability
Seal: Mundeck Fm
Early Drift (Albian) Carbonate Play
Res: Madiela Gr
Shelf carbonates
Porosity Max: 20e30% -> primary porosity occluded by
early calcite cementation
Seal: Namina, Banc du Prince, Anguille & Port Gentil Fms
Shallow to deep marine shales
Early Drift (Albian) Sandstone Play
Res: Madiela Gr
Shallow marine sandstones
Seal: Namina, Banc du Prince, Anguille & Port Gentil Fms
Lower Congo
Post-Salt Albian-Cenomanian Carbonate Play

Res: Pinda/Sendji Fms, Bufalo facies, Moita Seca Fm &
Mavuma Fm.
Cyclic shelf carbonates and siliciclastic units deposited
in a sabkha to shallow marine environment
Porosity Avg (Pinda): 22%, Porosity Max (Pinda): 35%
Permeability Avg (Pinda): 150 mD
Seal: Moita Seca, Iabe & Landana Fms
Marine shales
Post-Salt Albian-Maastrichtian Clastic Play
Res: Vermelha, Likouala, Tchala, Iabe & Emeraude Fms
Strand-plain and nearshore sandstones
Porosity Avg: 25%
Permeability Max: 1000 mD
Marine shales
Congo Fan
Abilio and Inkollu, 1989
References
Schmid, 2008
Teisserenc and Villemin, 1990; Liro and Dawson, 2000;

Katz et al., 2000
Dale et al., 1992; Browneld and Charpentier, 2006
Dale et al., 1992; Schoellkopf and Patterson, 2000
Post-Salt Albian-Cenomanian Carbonate Play

See Lower Congo basin
Kwanza
Post-Salt Aptian-Albian Clastic Play

Res: Mucanzo Fm
Seal: Tuenza Fm & Cunga/Binga/Quianga/Quissonde Fms

c) Restricted marine post-rift supersequence - Play characteristics
Namibe
Widespread evaporites and intraformational marine

shales
Post-Salt Aptian-Albian Carbonate Play
Res: Binga, Catumbela, Cacoba, Tuenza & Quissonde Fms
Fractured oolitic shelf carbonates
Seal: Tuenza Fm & Cunga/Binga/Quianga/Quissonde Fms
Widespread evaporites and intraformational marine
shales
Albian Play
Res: Unknown Fm
Carbonate build-ups, analogous to the Pinda/Madiela
Fms in the Lower Congo and Gabon Coastal basins
Seal: Unknown Fm
Widespread marine shales
d) Open marine post-rift supersequence e Play characteristics

Douala
Rio Muni
Gabon Coastal
Upper Cretaceous Play

Res: Logbadjeck & Logbaba Fms
Channel and fan sandstnes from deep marine
environment
Seal: Logbadjeck & Logbaba Fms
Deep marine shales
Senonian/Paleogene Play
Res: Senonian/Paleogene Series
Outer shelf and slope sandstones
Seal: Senonian/Paleogene Series
shallow to deep marine shales
Cenomanian Sandstone Play
Res: Cap Lopez Gr, Ekouata/NDougou/Torpille Fms
Marine sandstones
Seal: Banc du Prince, Anguille & Port Gentil Fms
Turonian Carbonate/Sandstone Play
Res: Sibang Fm & Lowe Sandstone Mb
Marine shelf carbonates and sandstones
Seal: Ezanga Fm, Banc du Prince, Anguille &
Port Gentil Fms
Doming evaporites and shallows to deep marine shales.
Senonian Turbidite Play
Res: Batanga Fm, Pointe Clairette & Anguille Gr
Porosity Avg: 23%
Permeability Avg: 1500 mD
Seal: Ezanga Fm, Pointe Clairette, Anguille &
Ewongue Gr
Doming evaporites and marine shales
Late Senonian/Paleocene Littoral Sandstone Play
Res: Ikando, Weze & NGoumbi Fms
Seal: Ezanga Fm, Pointe Clairette, Anguille,
Ewongue & Mandji Gr
Doming evaporites and marine shales
Ozouri Play
Res: Ozouri Fm
Fractured deep water chert
Seal: Mandji Gr
Marine shales
Lower Congo
Congo Fan
Kwanza

Res: Vermelha, Likouala, Tchala, Iabe & Emeraude Fms
Strand-plain and nearshore sandstones
Porosity Avg: 25%
Permeability Max: 1000 mD
Marine shales
Post-Salt Eocene Clastic Play
Res: Cunga & Gratidao Fm
Shallow marine sandstone
Seal: Cunga & Gratidao Fm
Intraformational marine shales
References
Cope, 2001; Browneld and Charpentier, 2006
References
Teisserenc and Villemin, 1990; Browneld and

Charpentier, 2006
Katz et al., 2000; Browneld and Charpentier, 2006
Katz et al., 2000
Katz et al., 2000
Dale et al., 1992; Schoellkopf & Patterson, 2000
Cope, 2001
17
18
e) Deltaic post-rift supersequence - Play characteristics

Douala
Rio Muni
Gabon Coastal
Lower Congo
Congo Fan
Kwanza
References
Tertiary Play
Res: Souellaba & NKapa Fms
Basinoor channel and slope fan sandstones
Porosity Avg: 20%
Permeability Avg: 1000 mD
Seal: Souellabe & NKapa Fms
Offshore slope and basin mudstones
Tertiary Play
Res: Miocene/Holocene Series
Channel, canyon and fan turbidite sandstones
Seal: Miocene/Holocene Series
Shallow to deep marine and deltaic shales
Tertiary Channel Play
Res: NTchengue, MBega, Mandorove & Animba Fms
Deltaic channel and turbidite sandstones
Seal: NTchengue, MBega, Mandorove & Animba Fms
Deltaic and marine sandstones
Tertiary Clastic Turbidite Play
Res: Malembo Fm
Deep water turbidite and channel sandstones/
conglomerates
Porosity: 20e40%
Permeability: 1e5 D
Seal: Malembo Fm
Deltaic and deep marine shales
Tertiary Play
Res: Malembo & Paloukou Fms
Proximal and distal turbidites and channels,
deposited within a huge progradational prism
Porosity: 20e40%
Permeability: 1e5 D
Seal: Malembo & Paloukou Fms
Deltaic and deep marine shales
Post-Salt Miocene Clastic Play
Res: Quifangondo Fm
Shale sand intercalations
Seal: Quifangondo Fm
Intraformational marine shales
B Traps: within the syn-rift formed due to graben development, resulting in both structural (tilted fault blocks
and structural closures associated with salt movements)
and stratigraphic traps (rapidly changing facies congurations or drape structures over fault blocks) (Martin and
Toothill, 2009). Traps in the transitional cycle formed
during the last waning stages of rifting, resulting in
gentle anticlinal structures (Browneld and Charpentier,
2006).
B Charge: lacustrine syn-rift shales (Schoellkopf and Patterson,
- Dentale/Coniquet/Gamba (Gabon Coastal basin e e.g.
Rabi-Kounga eld), and
- Pre-Salt Tithonian-Aptian Clastic (Lower Congo basin e
e.g. Etame eld).
4. Syn-rift/transitional/(Early) Post-rift mega-sequences: one play
level seems to extend from the syn-rift into the post-rift.
B Reservoir lithofacies: marine sandstones e submarine fans and
fan delta sandstones (Browneld and Charpentier, 2006).
B Traps: in the syn-rift and transitional cycles developed as
described before. Early post-rift traps associated with
thermal subsidence of the margin, development of carbonate
systems and early salt movements (where present).
B Charge: probably from lacustrine and restricted marine shales.
- Mundeck (Douala basin e e.g. Sanaga Sud eld).

Schmid, 2008
Katz et al., 2000
Raposo and Inkollu, 1998; Browneld and Charpentier,

2006
Cope, 2001; Bakke et al., 2008
5. Transitional mega-sequence: play levels that are located entirely

within the transitional cycle have only been identied in the
Kwanza basin.
B Reservoir lithofacies: marginal marine sandstones and
carbonates (Burwood, 1999; Browneld and Charpentier,
2006).
B Traps: developed during the last pulses of rifting, resulting in
gentle anticlinal structures as well as stratigraphic traps
(Browneld and Charpentier, 2006).
B Charge: probably from uvio-marine shales at the base of
the transitional cycle.
- Pre-Salt Clastic (Kwanza basin e e.g. Cacuaco eld).
6. Restricted- and open marine Post-rift supersequences: a great
variety of very productive play levels are proven in this section.
B Reservoir lithofacies: marginal, shallow and deep marine
sandstones and carbonates (Katz et al., 2000; Liro and
Dawson, 2000; Schoellkopf and Patterson, 2000; Browneld
and Charpentier, 2006; Martin and Toothill, 2009).
B Traps: developed in the carbonate build-ups on the shelf, as
well as in structures (both structural and stratigraphic) resulting from halokinetic movements (Katz et al., 2000; Schoellkopf
B Charge: lacustrine syn-rift shales and shallow to deep
marine post-rift shales (Schoellkopf and Patterson, 2000;

-
Senonian (Rio Muni basin e e.g. Ceiba eld),

Senonian Turbidite (Gabon Coastal basin e e.g. Torpille
Marine eld),
Post-Salt Albian-Cenomanian Carbonate (Lower Congo
basin e e.g. Sendji eld), and
Post-Salt Albian-Maastrichtian Clastic (Lower Congo
basin e e.g Banzala and Malongo North elds).
7. Deltaic Post-rift supersequence (where present): also containing a great variety of play levels associated with the increased
inux of clastic sediments from the African continent.
B Reservoir lithofacies: shallow to deep marine and deltaic sandstones (Katz et al., 2000; Liro and Dawson, 2000; Schoellkopf
B Traps: developed within the prograding deltas, also affected by
salt movements determining turbidite and fan depositional
patterns (Katz et al., 2000; Browneld and Charpentier, 2006).
B Charge: mainly from shallow to deep marine post-rift shales,
but mixing with hydrocarbons sourced by lacustrine syn-rift
or deltaic post-rift shales is not uncommon (Katz et al.,
2000; Schoellkopf and Patterson, 2000; Browneld and
Charpentier, 2006).
- Tertiary (Congo Fan basins e e.g. Girassol eld),
- Tertiary Channel (Gabon Coastal basin e e.g. NTchengue
eld),
- Tertiary Clastic Turbidite (Lower Congo basin e e.g.
Kizomba eld),
Potential pre-rift play levels could be located within the fractured basement or continental deposits of the initial sag phase, if
19
preserved. Syn-rift plays are characterized by lacustrine/uvial

facies in traps formed by graben development and rapidly changing
facies congurations. Plays in the transitional cycle include uviomarine sandstones in traps associated with the last waning phase
of rifting. Signicant reserves have been found in the Dentale/
Coniquet/Gamba play level of the Gabon Coastal and Lower Congo
basins. Most promising pre-salt exploration targets are the laterially extremely extensive low-relief carbonates within the syn-rift
and at the base of the transitional cycle: recent giant discoveries
in Santos (Tupi, Jupiter, Guar and Lar oil elds) suggest the
potential for similar accumulations in the West African pre-salt
section in locations, where the overlying evaporite seal has not
been breached yet. These discoveries in the Santos pre-salt
sequence are located relatively far basinwards against a structural
high, i.e. Outer High or So Paulo Plateau: Tupi exists thanks to the
presence of regional pre-salt carrier beds, allowing focused
migration of hydrocarbons generated in this thick syn-rift section
closer to the margin (Gomes et al., 2009). Despite great burial
depths, these (nearshore) syn-rift sources are located within the
oil-window, due to the generally low pressure- and temperature
values below the salt. Also, these evaporites are most important for
sealing the escape of hydrocarbons upwards. The reservoirs are
composed of stromatolites, thrombolites, coquinas and volcaniclastics (Mello et al., 2009a, 2009b, Doust, pers. comm.) with
porosities up to 18% and permeabilities between 50 and 400 mD
(Mello et al., 2009a, 2009b). A 3-D seismic mapping exercise on the
Lower Congo and Kwanza basins by Hawkins et al. (2010) illustrates
the structural setting within which uvial, lacustrine and marginal
marine reservoir sands and carbonates were deposited prior to
being sealed by salt. It also shows potential structural traps below
the salt. The presence of rich source rocks below the salt are known
Fig. 11. Simplied salt tectonic map of the Angolan margin (Tari et al., 2003). The three domains are characterized by different deformation mechanisms, resulting in different trap
types. Compare the transition of tectonic domains from east to west with the generalized geological prole in Figure 2.
20
from inshore wells in Cabinda and the Kwanza basins, Central

Angola (Hawkins et al., 2010). Therefore, analogue potential is
expected in these basins. The greatest variety of plays is located in
the post-rift section, as the variety of depositional environments,
and hence potential reservoir lithofacies, increases in combination
with an increasing complexity of halokinesis. Because the Aptian
salt has been deposited in an interior sag basin architecture, its
thickness was originally fairly uniform over large areas (Moulin
et al., 2005), providing a continuous and very efcient zone of
detachment for subsequent gravity sliding/spreading on the
passive margins (Tari et al., 2003). With basinward tilting of the
passive margin in combination with sediment loading (Brun and
Fort, 2011), down slope salt movement took place, resulting in
the formation of linked extensional and compressional salt structures basinward (Brun and Fort, 2004). Three structural provinces
can be distinguished, which are geographically distinct and
comprise different trap types (Figs. 4 and 11). The edge of the salt
basin may be thrust onto oceanic crust due to the down dip
displacement. As all the structures are connected to this salt
movement, deformation occurs synchronously basin wide (Tari
et al., 2003). The toe-thrust zone provides very attractive deepand ultra-deep water (>3500 m) structural targets, currently in
a phase of active and very successful exploration. However, an
important problem involves the continuous deformation of structural traps in the toe-thrust zone, which appears to result in
hydrocarbon leakage (Tari et al., 2003).
6. Prospectivity and future exploration
At this point, we have obtained a good rst impression of the
tectonostratigraphy, petroleum system- and play development in
these sedimentary basins. Combining this with our knowledge of

the exploration history (Fig. 12), predictions on the remaining
potential for yet undiscovered hydrocarbon accumulations can be
made. Note that the exploration density is not uniform across the
margin.
From our analysis and the plots, we propose the following
(Fig. 13)
- The Douala basin appears to be under-explored with relatively
small discoveries, and two not fully understood petroleum
systems (Batupe et al., 1995; Browneld and Charpentier,
2006). Important is to get a better understanding of the stratigraphy: different schemes and lithostratigraphic terms are
used causing confusion (e.g. Mundeck Formation). Exploration
is expected to continue in the deep offshore with the focus on
Upper Cretaceous and Tertiary channels and turbidites (mainly
stratigraphic traps) (Luzzi-Arbouille et al., 2009), analogous to
discoveries found in the basins located to the south.
- In the Rio Muni basin potential remains in the poorly dened
pre-salt section as well as in Turonian to Paleocene deep water
turbidites (Browneld and Charpentier, 2006). Alluvial, uvial
and lacustrine clastic reservoirs are expected in the pre-salt
section. The same applies to Paleocene to Miocene channels,
canyons and fan turbidites in the deep water.
- Exploration appears to be immature in the North Gabon synrift section, in the deeper water parts of the Ogooue River
Delta and in the post-rift section of South Gabon. Both preand post-salt targets have potential to contain large accumulations. For the pre-salt targets, uncertainty remains as to how
far offshore both pre-salt reservoir and source extend. Post-salt
deep water turbidite sandstones are proven to contain
Fig. 12. Creaming curves (CC) and eld size distribution diagrams (FSD) for the (a) Douala-, (b) Rio Muni-, (c) Kwanza-, (d) Gabon Coastal-, (e) Lower Congo-, and (f) Congo Fan
basins. Green: contributing oil reserves. Red: contributing gas reserves. Orange: contributing condensate reserves. Note the division of basins into two columns, representing basins
with small and large hydrocarbon recoverable reserves, respectively. In the Namibe basin, no hydrocarbon accumulations have been discovered yet (Statoil internal reports, 2010;
IHS Inc eld data, 2010).
21
Fig. 13. a: Summary of potential, yet undiscovered, plays identied using the approach of analogue basin cycle comparison with respect to petroleum system- and play development in the Douala, Rio Muni, Gabon Coastal and Lower Congo basins (modied after Huc, 2004; Schlumberger e Oileld Glossary, 2010). b: Summary of potential, yet
undiscovered, plays identied using the approach of analogue basin cycle comparison with respect to petroleum system- and play development in the Congo Fan, Kwanza and
Namibe basins (modied after Huc, 2004; Schlumberger e Oileld Glossary, 2010).
signicant reserves in the Congo Fan basin. The presence of

mature post-rift sources or of mature syn-rift source in
conjunction with migration pathways through the evaporites,
are critical for such a play to develop in Gabon.
- In the Lower Congo basin, future discoveries are expected
mainly in ultra-deep waters and at greater drilling depths,
where turbidite reservoirs can be identied on 3D seismic

reection lines (Shirley, 2001).
- Exploration in the Congo Fan basin is immature for both oil and
gas. In recent years, the massive hydrocarbon potential of the
Tertiary has been demonstrated, and exploration has been
moving towards the Post-Oligocene turbidite channel reservoirs
22
Fig. 13. (continued).
in the ultra-deep waters (Browneld and Charpentier, 2006).

Potential has also been proven for Albian-Turonian marine shales
generating hydrocarbons at the present-day (Anka et al., 2010).
- The deep water province of the Kwanza basin remains
substantially undrilled (Cope, 2002; Browneld and
Charpentier, 2006). The recognition of potential deep water
mature source sequences coupled with the Upper Cretaceous
and Tertiary deltaic and turbidite potential provides this area
with promising exploration potential (Cope, 2002).
- The Namibe basin is a frontier basin and considerable work is
needed to establish it as a viable exploration region (Azevedo and
Mangueira, 1998; Belyakov et al., 2008; Swart, 2009). The basin
represents the most southern part of the West African salt
margin, and contains a distinctly different sedimentary succession than the explored Namibian basins south of the Walvis Ridge
(Offshore, 2000), where volcanism was a dominant process
during rifting. The limited development of the Aptian evaporite
layer distinguishes this basin from the other West African basins.
Consequently, the post-rift strata are less deformed, resulting in
less potential trapping structures. One can predict possible
exploration analogues offshore the Namibe basin: direct and
indirect evidence exists for the presence of similar source rocks
with respect to their depositional sequences, rock types and oil

ngerprinting (Welch, 2010). At least two oil-prone source rock
horizons exist in the Early to Mid Cretaceous drift section: Early
Aptian restricted marine shales and Cenomanian-Turonian open
marine anoxic shales (OAE) (Bray et al., 1998). Lacustrine syn-rift
sources may also exist (Bray et al., 1998). Note that the limited
deposition of evaporites may also have caused the upward
migration and loss of hydrocarbons. So far, only one reservoirbearing interval has been proven: the Kunene and Hartman
prospects have demonstrated that Aptian-Albian carbonates
contain hydrocarbons (Energy-pedia exploration, 2009).
7. Conclusions
The novel approach discussed in this paper uses established
concepts in a new way: by breaking basins down into their natural
basin cycle divisions and dening their characteristics with
respect to petroleum system and play development, we can
compare these basin cycles with similar basin cycles in other
basins. Consequently, a means is provided to learn through a much
greater population of (perhaps not immediately obvious)
analogues. We introduce the use of the trajectory plot (Fig. 2) in

such an analysis: this tool provides a convenient means to visualize sedimentary basin evolution versus tectonic basin cycle
evolution. The basins trajectory path in such a plot describes the
range of depositional environments developing as the basin
evolves. It is suggested that were the trajectories of two basins
coincide, comparable source-, reservoir- and seal rock facies may
have developed. This approach has been applied to the basins
along the West African margin, and we have demonstrated that
the similar tectonic and sedimentary evolution of these individual
basins has led to the development of many similar source- and
reservoir rock intervals, giving rise to similar types of petroleum
systems and play levels. Therefore, analogue comparisons could be
made among these basins in order to evaluate the remaining
potential for yet undiscovered play levels in less well explored
parts of this margin (Fig. 13).
Other areas, which could act as analogues to this region, are the
Brazilian Atlantic margins, since they lie on the opposite conjugate
margin, and other passive margin basins such as those in the North
Atlantic as well as some of the Southeast Asian Tertiary basins,
where a similar analysis has been carried by Doust and Sumner
(2007). This approach, including the use of the trajectory plot, is
very useful to quickly obtain a rst impression of the tectonostratigraphic development of potentially analogous basins. However,
excessive use of classications can lead to pitfalls. Therefore, this
approach should be regarded as a tool, which by no means gives
any concrete results, but can stimulate the geologists to address
important questions and/or suspicions, which can be answered by
more specic tools, such as seismic reection- and/or well data.
Acknowledgements
This work comprises part of the S.E. Beglingers PhD Thesis at
the VU University of Amsterdam sponsored by Statoil. We would
like to express our gratitude to Statoil for their encouragement and
nancial support which made this project possible. We also thank
IHS Energy, allowing us access to their databases, which greatly
improved our understanding of the West African petroleum
geology, as well as helped tremendously in our initial analysis. And
nally, we would like to express our gratitude to our three
reviewers e Franois Roure, Ian Davison and Anonymous e
whose input and comments greatly improved this manuscript.
Appendix A. Terminology
Petroleum system
Petroleum system type
Play
Basin cycle/stage
Basin phase/episode
Critical moment
23
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Marine and Petroleum Geology 30 (2012) 1e25

Contents lists available at SciVerse ScienceDirect

Marine and Petroleum Geology

Relating petroleum system and play development to basin evolution: West

* Corresponding author. Tel.: 31 20 5987374.

evaluation of opportunities in un- or under-explored rift basins

S.E. Beglinger et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 30 (2012) 1e25

2004; Cloetingh and Ziegler, 2007). Basins, both simple and

S.E. Beglinger et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 30 (2012) 1e25

(generative) source rocks and (productive) play levels (dened by

Torsvik et al. (2009) interpreted COB positions for the Atlantic

S.E. Beglinger et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 30 (2012) 1e25

Charpentier, 2006), lling up the remaining topography

unconformity), the transitional mega-sequence starts with

S.E. Beglinger et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 30 (2012) 1e25

overlain by Late Aptian to Early Albian evaporites (Brognon and

three supersequences, based on major changes in depositional

S.E. Beglinger et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 30 (2012) 1e25

the onset of icehouse conditions in the Early Oligocene with

the Ogooue Delta in the Gabon Coastal basin (Meyers et al.,

S.E. Beglinger et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 30 (2012) 1e25

4. Petroleum system type development

basins and were compensated by compressional structures in the

1. The Lacustrine Syn-rift PST (Fig. 8) is responsible for the

S.E. Beglinger et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 30 (2012) 1e25

(Lower) Mundeck Fm ->

Equivalent source rocks expected as in Gabon

Kissenda Fm -> Kissenda e NDombo-Gamba (!)

Browneld and Charpentier, 2006

Bucomazi Fm -> Bucomazi e Vermelha/Pinda/Malembo (!)

b) Transitional mega-sequence e Source rock characteristics

Ntamak-Nida et al., 2008; Browneld and

Dentale Fm -> Dentale/Gamba e Dentale/Gamba (?)

Equivalent to Lower Congo Basin; probably

Ntamak-Nida et al., 2008; Turner, 1995, 1999

Source potential: 46 tons HC/m2

Ntamak-Nida et al., 2008; Ndonwie Mahbou,

Browneld and Charpentier, 2006

TOC Avg: 6.1 wt.%; TOC Max: 20 wt.%

Mundeck Fm -> Mundeck - Mundeck/Senonian/Tertiary (.)

Brice et al., 1982; Teisserenc and Villemin,

Browneld and Charpentier, 2006

Expected potential for thin organic-rich mudstones

Gamba Fm -> Dentale/Gamba - Dentale/Gamba (.)

Burwood et al., 1992, 1995

Expected potential for thin organic-rich mudstones

Expected equivalent source rocks to those in the Gabon

S.E. Beglinger et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 30 (2012) 1e25

Expected potential equivalent source rocks as in Lower

Upper (Grey) Cuvo Fm -> Cuvo - Cuvo/Binga/

Organic-rich shales equivalent to Gamba and

c) Restricted marine post-rift supersequence e Source rock characteristics

(Upper) Mundeck Fm -> Mundeck Mundeck/Senonian/Tertiary (.)

Madiela Gr (Namina Fm) - equivalent -> Albian-Senonian (!)

Madiela Gr/Cap Lopez Gr -> Madiela/Cap Lopez - Batanga (.)

Moita Seca Fm -> Moita Seca - Albian-Miocene (.)

Bray et al., 1998

Ntamak-Nida et al., 2008; Ndonwie Mahbou,

Katz et al., 2000

Cole et al., 2000

Teisserenc and Villemin, 1990; Burwood, 1999

d) Open marine post-rift supersequence e Source rock characteristics