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NigerCongolanguagesWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

NigerCongolanguages
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

TheNigerCongolanguagesconstituteoneofthe
world'smajorlanguagefamilies,andAfrica's
largestintermsofgeographicalarea,numberof
speakers,andnumberofdistinctlanguages.[1]
Theymayconstitutetheworld'slargestlanguage
familyintermsofdistinctlanguages,althoughthis
questioniscomplicatedbyambiguityaboutwhat
constitutesadistinctlanguage.
Itisthethirdlargestlanguagefamilyintheworld
bynumberofnativespeakers,behindonlythe
IndoEuropeanlanguagesandSinoTibetan
languages.Acharacteristiccommontomost
NigerCongolanguagesistheuseofanounclass
system.[2]ThemostwidelyspokenNigerCongo
languagesbynumberofnativespeakersare
Yoruba,Igbo,Fula,ShonaandZulu.Themost
widelyspokenbynumberofspeakersisSwahili.[1]

NigerCongo
NigerKordofanian(obsolete)
Geographic
distribution:

SubSaharanAfrica

Linguistic
classification:

Oneoftheworld'sprimary
languagefamilies

Subdivisions:

?Dogon
Ijo(+Defaka?)
Mande(inclusiondisputed)
VoltaCongo
Katla(Kordofanian)
Rashad(Kordofanian)
AtlanticCongolanguages
(nounclasses)

ISO6392/5:

nic

Glottolog:

None

SomescholarshavedoubtedwhetherNiger
Congoisavalidlinguisticallygeneticunitor
ratheratypologicalgrouping,butmostspecialists
todayconsideritavalidfamily,althoughthereis
noconsensusonthesubclassification.[3]

Contents
1 History
2 Classificationhistory
2.1 Earlyclassifications
2.2 Westermann,Greenbergand
beyond
2.3 NigerCongoandNiloSaharan
3 Commonfeatures
3.1 Phonology
3.1.1 Consonants
3.1.2 Vowels
3.1.3 Nasality
3.1.4 Tone
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niger%E2%80%93Congo_languages

MapshowingthedistributionofNigerCongo
languages.BrownistheBantusubfamily.

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4
5
6
7

3.2 Morphosyntax
3.2.1 Nounclassification
3.2.2 Verbalextensions
3.2.3 Wordorder
Majorclades
Notes
Furtherreading
Externallinks

History
Classificationhistory
Earlyclassifications
NigerCongoasitisknowntodaywasonlygraduallyrecognizedasaunity.Inearlyclassificationsof
thelanguagesofAfrica,oneoftheprincipalcriteriausedtodistinguishdifferentgroupingswasthe
languages'useofprefixestoclassifynouns,orthelackthereof.Amajoradvancecamewiththework
ofSigismundWilhelmKoelle,whoinhis1854PolyglottaAfricanaattemptedacarefulclassification,
thegroupingsofwhichinquiteanumberofcasescorrespondtomoderngroupings.Anearlysketch
oftheextentofNigerCongoasonelanguagefamilycanbefoundinKoelle'sobservation,echoedin
Bleek(1856),thattheAtlanticlanguagesusedprefixesjustlikemanySouthernAfricanlanguages.
SubsequentworkofBleek,andsomedecadeslaterthecomparativeworkofMeinhof,solidly
establishedBantuasalinguisticunit.
Inmanycases,widerclassificationsemployedablendoftypologicalandracialcriteria.Thus,
FriedrichMller,inhisambitiousclassification(187688),separatedthe'Negro'andBantu
languages.Likewise,theAfricanistKarlRichardLepsiusconsideredBantutobeofAfricanorigin,
andmany'MixedNegrolanguages'asproductsofanencounterbetweenBantuandintrudingAsiatic
languages.
InthisperiodarelationbetweenBantuandlanguageswithBantulike(butlesscomplete)nounclass
systemsbegantoemerge.Someauthorssawthelatteraslanguageswhichhadnotyetcompletely
evolvedtofullBantustatus,whereasothersregardedthemaslanguageswhichhadpartlylost
originalfeaturesstillfoundinBantu.TheBantuistMeinhofmadeamajordistinctionbetweenBantu
anda'SemiBantu'groupwhichaccordingtohimwasoriginallyoftheunrelatedSudanicstock.

Westermann,Greenbergandbeyond
Westermann,apupilofMeinhof,setouttoestablishtheinternalclassificationofthethenSudanic
languages.Ina1911workheestablishedabasicdivisionbetween'East'and'West'.Ahistorical
reconstructionofWestSudanicwaspublishedin1927,andinhis1935'CharakterundEinteilungder
Sudansprachen'heconclusivelyestablishedtherelationshipbetweenBantuandWestSudanic.
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JosephGreenbergtookWestermann'sworkasastartingpointforhis
ownclassification.Inaseriesofarticlespublishedbetween1949and
1954,hearguedthatWestermann's'WestSudanic'andBantuformeda
singlegeneticfamily,whichhenamedNigerCongothatBantu
constitutedasubgroupoftheBenueCongobranchthatAdamawa
Eastern,previouslynotconsideredtoberelated,wasanothermember
ofthisfamilyandthatFulabelongedtotheWestAtlanticlanguages.
Justbeforethesearticleswerecollectedinfinalbookform(The
LanguagesofAfrica)in1963,heamendedhisclassificationbyadding
KordofanianasabranchcoordinatewithNigerCongoasawhole
consequently,herenamedthefamilyCongoKordofanian,laterNiger
Kordofanian.Greenberg'sworkonAfricanlanguages,thoughinitially
greetedwithscepticism,becametheprevailingviewamongscholars.[4]
Westermann's1911Die
BennetandSterk(1977)presentedaninternalreclassificationbasedon
Sudansprachen.Eine
lexicostatisticsthatlaidthefoundationfortheregroupinginBendor
sprachvergleichendeStudie
Samuel(1989).Kordofanianwaspresentedasoneofseveralprimary
laidmuchofthebasisfor
branchesratherthanbeingcoordinatetothefamilyasawhole,
theunderstandingof
promptingreintroductionofthetermNigerCongo,whichisincurrent
NigerCongo.
useamonglinguists.Manyclassificationscontinuetoplace
Kordofanianasthemostdistantbranch,butmainlyduetonegative
evidence(fewerlexicalcorrespondences),ratherthanpositiveevidencethattheotherlanguagesform
avalidgenealogicalgroup.Likewise,Mandeisoftenassumedtobethesecondmostdistantbranch
basedonitslackofthenounclasssystemprototypicaloftheNigerCongofamily.Otherbranches
lackinganytraceofthenounclasssystemareDogonandIjaw,whereastheTalodibranchof
Kordofaniandoeshavecognatenounclasses,suggestingthatKordofanianisalsonotaunitarygroup.

Glottolog(2013)acceptsthecorewithnounclasssystems,theAtlanticCongolanguages,apartfrom
therecentinclusionofsomeoftheKordofaniangroups,butnotNigerCongoasawhole.Theylist
thefollowingasseparatefamilies:
AtlanticCongo,Mande,Dogon,Ijoid,Lafofa,KatlaTima,Heiban,Talodi,Rashad.

NigerCongoandNiloSaharan
Overtheyears,severallinguistshavesuggestedalinkbetweenNigerCongoandNiloSaharan,
probablystartingwithWestermann'scomparativeworkonthe'Sudanic'familyinwhich'Eastern
Sudanic'(nowclassifiedasNiloSaharan)and'WesternSudanic'(nowclassifiedasNigerCongo)
wereunited.Gregersen(1972)proposedthatNigerCongoandNiloSaharanbeunitedintoalarger
phylum,whichhetermedKongoSaharan.Hisevidencewasmainlybasedontheuncertaintyinthe
classificationofSonghay,morphologicalresemblances,andlexicalsimilarities.Amorerecent
proponentwasRogerBlench(1995),whoputsforwardphonological,morphologicalandlexical
evidenceforunitingNigerCongoandNiloSaharaninaNigerSaharanphylum,withspecial
affinitybetweenNigerCongoandCentralSudanic.However,fifteenyearslaterhisviewshad
changed,withBlench(2011)proposinginsteadthatthenounclassifiersystemofCentralSudanic,
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commonlyreflectedinatripartitegeneralsingulativeplurativenumbersystem,triggeredthe
developmentorelaborationofthenounclasssystemoftheAtlanticCongolanguages,withtripartite
numbermarkingsurvivinginthePlateauandGurlanguagesofNigerCongo,andthelexical
similaritiesbeingduetoloans.

Commonfeatures
Phonology
NigerCongolanguageshaveaclearpreferenceforopensyllablesofthetypeCV(Consonant
Vowel).ThetypicalwordstructureofProtoNigerCongoisthoughttohavebeenCVCV,astructure
stillattestedin,forexample,Bantu,MandeandIjoidinmanyotherbranchesthisstructurehasbeen
reducedthroughphonologicalchange.Verbsarecomposedofarootfollowedbyoneormore
extensionalsuffixes.Nounsconsistofarootoriginallyprecededbyanounclassprefixof(C)V
shapewhichisoftenerodedbyphonologicalchange.
Consonants
ReconstructionsoftheconsonantsetofseveralbranchesofNigerCongo(StewartforprotoVolta
Congo,MukarovskyforhisprotoWestNigritic,roughlycorrespondingtoAtlanticCongo)have
positedindependentlyaregularphonologicalcontrastbetweentwoclassesofconsonants.Pending
moreclarityastotheprecisenatureofthiscontrastitiscommonlycharacterizedasacontrast
between'fortis'and'lenis'consonants.Fiveplacesofarticulationarepostulatedfortheconsonant
inventoryofprotoNigerCongo:labial,alveolar,palatal,velar,andlabialvelar.
Vowels
ManyNigerCongolanguages'vowelharmonyisbasedonthe[ATR](advancedtongueroot)feature.
Inthistypeofvowelharmony,thepositionoftherootofthetongueinregardstobacknessisthe
phoneticbasisforthedistinctionbetweentwoharmonizingsetsofvowels.Initsfullestform,this
typeinvolvestwoclasses,eachoffivevowels:
[+ATR] [ATR]
[i]

[][5]

[e]

[][5]

[]

[a][5]

[o]

[][5]

[u]

[][5]

Therootsarethendividedinto[+ATR]and[ATR]categories.Thisfeatureislexicallyassignedto
therootsbecausethereisnodeterminerwithinanormalrootthatcausesthe[ATR]value.[6]
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Therearetwotypesof[ATR]vowelharmonycontrollersinNigerCongo.Thefirstcontrolleristhe
root.Whenarootcontainsa[+ATR]or[ATR]vowel,thenthatvalueisappliedtotherestofthe
word,whichinvolvescrossingmorphemeboundaries.[7]Forexample,suffixesinWolofassimilateto
the[ATR]valueoftheroottowhichtheyattach.Someexamplesofthesesuffixesthatalternate
dependingontherootare:
[+ATR] [ATR]

Purpose

le

'participant'[6]

'nominalizing'[6]

al

'benefactive'[6]

Furthermore,thedirectionalityofassimilationin[ATR]rootcontrolledvowelharmonyneednotbe
specified.Therootfeatures[+ATR]and[ATR]spreadleftand/orrightasneeded,sothatnovowel
wouldlackaspecificationandbeillformed.[8]
Unlikeintherootcontrolledharmonysystem,wherethetwo[ATR]valuesbehavesymmetrically,a
largenumberofNigerCongolanguagesexhibitapatternwherethe[+ATR]valueismoreactiveor
dominantthanthe[ATR]value.[9]Thisresultsinthesecondvowelharmonycontrollerbeingthe
[+ATR]value.Ifthereisevenonevowelthatis[+ATR]inthewholeword,thentherestofthe
vowelsharmonizewiththatfeature.However,ifthereisnovowelthatis[+ATR],thevowelsappear
intheirunderlyingform.[7]ThisformofvowelharmonycontrolisbestexhibitedinWestAfrican
languages.Forexample,inNawuri,thediminutivesuffix/bi/willcausetheunderlying[ATR]
vowelsinawordtobecomephonetically[+ATR].[9]
Therearetwotypesofvowelswhichaffecttheharmonyprocess.Theseareknownasneutralor
opaquevowels.Neutralvowelsdonotharmonizetothe[ATR]valueoftheword,andinstead
maintaintheirown[ATR]value.Thevowelsthatfollowthem,however,willreceivethe[ATR]value
oftheroot.Opaquevowelsmaintaintheirown[ATR]valueaswell,buttheyaffecttheharmony
processbehindthem.Allofthevowelsfollowinganopaquevowelwillharmonizewiththe[ATR]
valueoftheopaquevowelinsteadofthe[ATR]voweloftheroot.[6]
Thevowelinventorylistedaboveisatenvowellanguage.Thisisalanguageinwhichallofthe
vowelsofthelanguageparticipateintheharmonysystem,producingfiveharmonicpairs.Vowel
inventoriesofthistypearestillfoundinsomebranchesofNigerCongo,forexampleintheGhana
TogoMountainlanguages.[10]However,thisistherarerinventoryasoftentimesthereareoneormore
vowelsthatarenotpartofaharmonicpair.Thishasresultedinsevenandninevowelsystemsbeing
themorepopularsystems.Themajorityoflanguageswith[ATR]controlledvowelharmonyhave
eithersevenorninevowelphonemes,withthemostcommonnonparticipatoryvowelbeing/a/.[5]It
hasbeenassertedthatthisisbecausevowelqualitydifferencesinthemidcentralregionwhere//,
thecounterpartof/a/,isfound,aredifficulttoperceive.Anotherpossiblereasonforthenon

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participatorystatusof/a/isthatthereisarticulatorydifficultyinadvancingthetonguerootwhenthe
tonguebodyislowinordertoproducealow[+ATR]vowel.[11]Therefore,thevowelinventoryfor
ninevowellanguagesisgenerally:
[+ATR] [ATR]
[i]

[]

[e]

[]
[a]

[o]

[]

[u]

[]

Andsevenvowellanguageshaveoneoftwoinventories:
[+ATR] [ATR]
[i]

[]
[]
[a]
[]

[u]

[]

[+ATR] [ATR]
[i]
[e]

[]
[a]

[o]

[]

[u]
Notethatintheninevowellanguage,themissingvowelis,infact,[],[a]'scounterpart,aswouldbe
expected.[12]
ThefactthattenvowelshavebeenreconstructedforprotoAtlantic,protoIjoidandpossiblyproto
VoltaCongohasledtothehypothesisthattheoriginalvowelinventoryofNigerCongowasafull
tenvowelsystem.[13]Ontheotherhand,Stewart,inrecentcomparativework,reconstructsaseven
vowelsystemforhisprotoPotouAkanicBantu.[14]
Nasality

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SeveralscholarshavedocumentedacontrastbetweenoralandnasalvowelsinNigerCongo.[15]In
hisreconstructionofprotoVoltaCongo,Steward(1976)postulatesthatnasalconsonantshave
originatedundertheinfluenceofnasalvowelsthishypothesisissupportedbythefactthatthereare
severalNigerCongolanguagesthathavebeenanalysedaslackingnasalconsonantsaltogether.
Languageslikethishavenasalvowelsaccompaniedwithcomplementarydistributionbetweenoral
andnasalconsonantsbeforeoralandnasalvowels.Subsequentlossofthenasal/oralcontrastin
vowelsmayresultinnasalconsonantsbecomingpartofthephonemeinventory.Inallcasesreported
todate,thebilabial/m/isthefirstnasalconsonanttobephonologized.NigerCongothusinvalidates
twocommonassumptionsaboutnasals:[16]thatalllanguageshaveatleastoneprimarynasal
consonant,andthatifalanguagehasonlyoneprimarynasalconsonantitis/n/.
NigerCongolanguagescommonlyshowfewernasalizedthanoralvowels.Kasem,alanguagewitha
tenvowelsystememployingATRvowelharmony,hassevennasalizedvowels.Similarly,Yorubahas
sevenoralvowelsandonlyfivenasalones.However,therecentlydiscoveredlanguageofZialohas
nasalequivalentforeachofitssevenvowels.
Tone
ThelargemajorityofpresentdayNigerCongolanguagesaretonal.AtypicalNigerCongotone
systeminvolvestwoorthreecontrastiveleveltones.Fourlevelsystemsarelesswidespread,andfive
levelsystemsarerare.OnlyafewNigerCongolanguagesarenontonalSwahiliisperhapsthebest
known,butwithintheAtlanticbranchsomeothersarefound.ProtoNigerCongoisthoughttohave
beenatonelanguagewithtwocontrastivelevels.Synchronicandcomparativehistoricalstudiesof
tonesystemsshowthatsuchabasicsystemcaneasilydevelopmoretonalcontrastsunderthe
influenceofdepressorconsonantsorthroughtheintroductionofadownstep.Languageswhichhave
moretonallevelstendtousetonemoreforlexicalandlessforgrammaticalcontrasts.
ContrastivelevelsoftoneinsomeNigerCongolanguages

H,L

DyulaBambara,Maninka,Temne,Dogon,Dagbani,Gbaya,Efik,Lingala

H,M,L

Yakuba,Nafaanra,Kasem,Banda,Yoruba,Jukun,Dangme,Yukuben,Akan,Anyi,
Ewe,Igbo

T,H,M,L

Gban,Wobe,Munzombo,Igede,Mambila,Fon

T,H,M,L,
Ashuku(BenueCongo),DanSanta(Mande)
B
PA/S

Mandinka(Senegambia),Fula,Wolof,Kimwani

none

Swahili

Abbreviationsused:Ttop,Hhigh,Mmid,Llow,Bbottom,PA/Spitchaccentorstress
AdaptedfromWilliamson1989:27

Morphosyntax
Nounclassification
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NigerCongolanguagesareknownfortheirsystemofnounclassification,tracesofwhichcanbe
foundineverybranchofthefamilybutMande,Ijoid,Dogon,andtheKatlaandRashadbranchesof
Kordofanian.Thesenounclassificationsystemsaresomewhatanalogoustogrammaticalgenderin
otherlanguages,butthereareoftenafairlylargenumberofclasses(often10ormore),andthe
classesmaybemalehuman/femalehuman/animate/inanimate,orevencompletelygenderunrelated
categoriessuchasplaces,plants,abstracts,andgroupsofobjects.Forexample,inBantu,theSwahili
languageiscalledKiswahili,whiletheSwahilipeopleareWaswahili.Likewise,inUbangian,the
ZandelanguageiscalledPazande,whiletheZandepeoplearecalledAzande.
IntheBantulanguages,wherenounclassificationisparticularlyelaborate,ittypicallyappearsas
prefixes,withverbsandadjectivesmarkedaccordingtotheclassofthenountheyreferto.For
example,inSwahili,watuwazuriwataendais'good(zuri)people(tu)willgo(taenda)'.
Verbalextensions
ThesameAtlanticCongolanguageswhichhavenounclassesalsohaveasetofverbapplicativesand
otherverbalextensions,suchasthereciprocalsuffixna(Swahilipenda'tolove',pendana'tolove
eachother'alsoapplicativependea'tolovefor'andcausativependeza'toplease').
Wordorder
Asubjectverbobjectwordorderisquitewidespreadamongtoday'sNigerCongolanguages,but
SOVisfoundinbranchesasdivergentasMande,IjoidandDogon.Asaresult,therehasbeenquite
somedebateastothebasicwordorderofNigerCongo.
WhereasClaudi(1993)arguesforSVOonthebasisofexistingSVO>SOVgrammaticalization
paths(SOV>SVOisneverfound),Gensler(1997)pointsoutthatthenotionof'basicwordorder'is
problematicasitexcludesstructureswith,forexample,auxiliaries.However,thestructureSCOC
VbStem(Subjectconcord,Objectconcord,Verbstem)foundinthe"verbalcomplex"oftheSVO
BantulanguagessuggestsanearlierSOVpattern(wherethesubjectandobjectwereatleast
representedbypronouns).
NounphrasesinmostNigerCongolanguagesarecharacteristicallynouninitial,withadjectives,
numerals,demonstrativesandgenitivesallcomingafterthenoun.Themajorexceptionsarefoundin
thewestern[17]areaswhereverbfinalwordorderpredominatesandgenitivesprecedenouns,though
othermodifiersstillcomeafterwards.Degreewordsalmostalwaysfollowadjectives,andexceptin
verbfinallanguagesadpositionsareprepositional.
TheverbfinallanguagesoftheMenderegionhavetwoquiteunusualwordordercharacteristics.
Althoughverbsfollowtheirdirectobjects,obliqueadpositionalphrases(like"inthehouse","with
timber")typicallycomeaftertheverb,[17]creatingaSOVXwordorder.Alsonoteworthyinthese
languagesistheprevalenceofinternallyheadedandcorrelativerelativeclauses,inbothofwhichthe
headoccursinsidetherelativeclauseratherthanthemainclause.

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Majorclades
ThetraditionalbranchesandmajorlanguagesoftheNigerCongofamilyare:[18]
Kordofanianlanguages:spokeninsoutherncentralSudan,aroundtheNubaMountains(nota
singlefamily).
?Mandelanguages:spokeninWestAfricaincludesBambara,themainlanguagespokenin
Mali,aswellasSoninke,alanguagespokenmainlyinMalibutalsoinSenegalandMauritania.
TheevidencelinkingMandetoNigerCongoisthin.Blenchregardsitasanearlybranchthat
divergedbeforethemorphologycharacteristicofmostofNigerCongodeveloped,which
Dimmendaal(2008)arguesthatfornowitisbestconsideredanindependentfamily.
?IjoidlanguagesinNigeriaincludesIjoandDefaka.
?Dogonlanguages:spokeninMali.TheevidencelinkingDogontoNigerCongoisweak.
Atlanticlanguages:includesWolof,spokeninSenegal,andFula,spokenacrosstheSahel.The
validityofAtlanticasageneticgroupingiscontroversial.
Krulanguages:spokeninWestAfricaincludesBt,Nyabwa,andDida.
Senufolanguages:spokeninIvoryCoastandMali,withageographicaloutlierinGhana
includesSenariandSupyire.
Gurlanguages:includesMoreinBurkinaFaso.
Adamawalanguages:includesChambaLekoinCameroon.
?Ubangilanguages:includesSangointheCentralAfricanRepublic.Olson(2006:165167)
demonstratedthattheevidencelinkingUbangiantoNigerCongoisweak,andDimmendal
(2008)wentsofarastoexcludeUbangianfromNigerCongo.[19]
Kwalanguages:includesAkan,spokeninGhana.
VoltaNigerlanguages(WestBenueCongolanguages):includestheGbelanguages,spokenin
Ghana,Togo,Benin,andNigeria,ofwhichEweisbestknown,andtheYorubaandIgbo
languages,spokeninNigeria.
BenueCongolanguages(EastBenueCongolanguages):includestheverylargeBantufamily,
withSwahili,Fang,Kongo,Zulu,andmanyotherlanguagesofcentralandsouthernAfrica.
SomelinguistsconsiderthetwentyorsoKordofanianlanguagestoformpartoftheNigerCongo
family,whereasothersconsiderthemandNigerCongotoformtwoseparatebranchesofaNiger
Kordofanianlanguagefamily,andyetothersdonotacceptKordofanianasasinglegroup.Senufohas
beenplacedtraditionallywithinGur,butisnowusuallyconsideredanearlyoffshootfromAtlantic
Congo.
However,RogerBlenchbelievesthatAdamawa,Ubangian,Kwa,Bantoid,andBantuarenot
coherentgroups.[20]
TheLaal,Mpre,andJalaalanguagesareoftenlinkedwithNigerCongo,buthaveyettobe
conclusivelyclassified.

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LocalizationoftheNigerCongolanguages

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Notes
1.IreneThompson,NigerCongoLanguage
Family(http://aboutworldlanguages.com/nigerc
ongolanguagefamily),aboutworldlanguages,
March2015
2.NigerCongoLanguages(http://languagesgulpe
r.com/eng/Niger.html),TheLanguageGulper,
March2015
3.JohnBenjamins,HistoricalLinguisticsandthe
ComparativeStudyofAfricanLanguages(http
s://www.benjamins.com/#catalog/books/z.161/pr
eview),JohnBenjaminsPublishingCompany,
March2015
4.Williamson,KayBlench,Roger(2000)."Niger
Congo".InBerndHeineDerekNurse.African
Languages:AnIntroduction.Cambridge
UniversityPress.pp.1112.
5.Morton,Deborah.[ATR]HarmonyinanEleven
VowelLanguage(http://www.lingref.com/cpp/ac
al/42/paper2759.pdf).OhioStateUniversity,
2012:7071.
6.Unseth,Carla.VowelHarmonyinWolof(http://
www.gial.edu/images/opal/No7UnsethWolofV
owelHarmony.pdf).GraduateInstituteof
AppliedLinguistics,2009:23.
7.Bakovic,Eric.Harmony,DominanceandControl
(http://roa.rutgers.edu/files/3601199/roa360ba
kovic2.pdf).Diss.Rutgers,TheStateUniversity
ofNewJersey,2000:ii.
8."Clements,G.N.1981.Akanvowelharmony:A
nonlinearanalysis.HarvardStudiesin
Phonology2.108177."

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niger%E2%80%93Congo_languages

9.Casali,RodericF."NawuriATRHarmonyin
TypologicalPerspective."(http://www.journalof
westafricanlanguages.org/Files/pdf/291/JWAL2
91Casali.pdf)SummerInstituteofLinguistics,
2002:29.JournalofWestAfricanLanguages29.1
(2002).
10."Anderson,C.G.1999.ATRvowelharmonyin
Akposso.StudiesinAfricanLinguistics,
28(2):185214."
11."Archangeli,Diana,&DouglasPulleyblank.
1994.GroundedPhonology(CurrentStudiesin
Linguistics,25.)Cambridge:MITPress."
12.Casali,RodericF."ATRHarmonyinAfrican
Languages."(http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/1
0.1111/j.1749818X.2008.00064.x/full)Language
andLinguisticsCompass2.3(2008):469549.
13.Doneux,JeanL.1975.Hypothsespourla
comparativedeslanguesatlantiques.Africana
Linguistica6.41129.Tervuren:MuseRoyalde
lAfriqueCentrale.(Re:protoAtlantic),
Williamson,Kay.2000.Towardsreconstructing
ProtoNigerCongo.Proceedingsofthe2nd
WorldCongressofAfricanLinguistics,Leipzig
1997,ed.H.E.WolffandO.Gensler,4970.
Kln:RdigerKppe.(Re:protoIjoid),Stewart,
JohnM.TowardsVoltaCongoReconstruction:
Rede.Leiden:UniversitairePersLeiden,1976.,
Casali,RodericF."OntheReductionofVowel
SystemsinVoltaCongo."AfricanLanguagesand
Cultures8.2(1995:109121)(Re:protoVolta
Conga)
14.Stewart,JohnM.,2002.ThepotentialofProto
PotouAkanicBantuasapilotProtoNiger
Congo,andthereconstructionsupdated.Journal
ofAfricanLanguagesandLinguistics23:197
224.
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15.leSaout(1973)foranearlyoverview,Stewart
(1976)foradiachronic,VoltaCongowide
analysis,Capo(1981)forasynchronicanalysis
ofnasalityinGbe(seeGbelanguages:nasality),
andBoleRichard(1984,1985)ascitedin
Williamson(1989)forsimilarreportsonseveral
Mande,Gur,Kru,Kwa,andUbangilanguages.)
16.AsnotedbyWilliamson(1989:24).The
assumptionsarefromFerguson's(1963)
'Assumptionsaboutnasals'inGreenberg(ed.)
UniversalsofLanguage,pp5060ascitedin
Williamsonart.cit.

17.Haspelmath,MartinDryer,MatthewS.Gil,
DavidandComrie,Bernard(eds.)TheWorld
AtlasofLanguageStructurespp346385.
Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,2005.ISBN0
199255911
18.Williamson&Blench(2000)
19.Dimmendaal(2008)statesthatUbangian
"probablyconstitutesanindependentlanguage
familythatcannotorcannolongerbeshownto
berelatedtoNigerCongo(oranyotherfamily)."
20."NigerCongo:analternativeview"(PDF).
Rogerblench.info.Retrieved20121229."Roger
Blench:NigerCongoreconstruction".
Rogerblench.info.Retrieved20121229.

Furtherreading
VicWebb(2001)AfricanVoices:AnIntroductiontotheLanguagesandLinguisticsofAfrica
BendorSamuel,John&RhondaL.Hartell(eds.)(1989)TheNigerCongoLanguagesA
classificationanddescriptionofAfrica'slargestlanguagefamily.Lanham,Maryland:
UniversityPressofAmerica.
Bennett,PatrickR.&Sterk,JanP.(1977)'SouthCentralNigerCongo:Areclassification'.
StudiesinAfricanLinguistics,8,241273.
Blench,Roger(1995)'IsNigerCongosimplyabranchofNiloSaharan?'InProceedings:Fifth
NiloSaharanLinguisticsColloquium,Nice,1992,ed.R.NicolaiandF.Rottland,83130.Kln:
RdigerKppe.
(2011)"CanSinoTibetanandAustroasiatichelpusunderstandtheevolutionofNiger
Congonounclasses?",[1](http://media.leidenuniv.nl/legacy/blenchcallleiden2011.pdf)CALL
41,Leiden
(2011)"ShouldKordofanianbesplitup?"[2](http://www.rogerblench.info/Language/Nige
rCongo/Kordofanian/Nuba%20Hills%20conference%20paper%202011%20Kordofanian.pdf),
NubaHillsConference,Leiden
Capo,HounkpatiB.C.(1981)'NasalityinGbe:ASynchronicInterpretation'StudiesinAfrican
Linguistics,12,1,143.
Casali,RodericF.(1995)'OntheReductionofVowelSystemsinVoltaCongo',African
LanguagesandCultures,8,2,December,109121.
Dimmendaal,Gerrit(2008)."LanguageEcologyandLinguisticDiversityontheAfrican
Continent".LanguageandLinguisticsCompass.2(5):840858.doi:10.1111/j.1749
818X.2008.00085.x.
Greenberg,JosephH.(1963)TheLanguagesofAfrica.IndianaUniversityPress.
Gregersen,EdgarA.(1972)'KongoSaharan'.JournalofAfricanLinguistics,4,4656.
Olson,KennethS.(2006)'OnNigerCongoclassification'.InTheBillquestion,ed.H.Aronson,
D.Dyer,V.Friedman,D.HristovaandJ.Sadock,153190.Bloomington,IN:Slavica.
Saout,J.le(1973)'Languagessansconsonnesnasales',AnnalesdelUniversitd'Abidjan,H,6,
1,179205.
Stewart,JohnM.(1976)TowardsVoltaCongoreconstruction:acomparativestudyofsome
languagesofBlackAfrica.(Inauguralspeech,LeidenUniversity)Leiden:UniversitairePers
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niger%E2%80%93Congo_languages

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Leiden.
Stewart,JohnM.(2002)'ThepotentialofProtoPotouAkanicBantuasapilotProtoNiger
Congo,andthereconstructionsupdated',inJournalofAfricanLanguagesandLinguistics,23,
197224.
Williamson,Kay(1989)'NigerCongooverview',inBendorSamuel&Hartell(eds.)The
NigerCongoLanguages,345.
Williamson,Kay&Blench,Roger(2000)'NigerCongo',inHeine,BerndandNurse,Derek
(eds)AfricanLanguagesAnIntroduction.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,pp.1142.

Externallinks
AnEvaluationofNigerCongoClassification(http://www.sil.org/silewp/2004/silewp2004005.
pdf),KennethOlson
InternationalNigerCongoReconstructionProject(http://www.nigercongo.com/)
Retrievedfrom"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Niger
Congo_languages&oldid=729475907"
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