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H. Vic Dannon
H. Vic Dannon
Abstract
Each Power Mean of order r 0 ,
1
r
Keywords
H. Vic Dannon
Contents
Introduction..9
1. Arithmetic Mean Calculus........................................................................11
1.1 The Arithmetic Mean of f (x ) over [a, b ] ......11
1.2 Mean Value Theorem for the Arithmetic Mean......12
1.3 The Arithmetic Mean of f (x ) over [x , x + dx ] .................12
1.4 Arithmetic Mean Derivative13
1.5 The Arithmetic Mean Derivative is the Fermat-Newton-Leibnitz
Derivative.13
1.6 The Arithmetic Mean Derivative is an Additive Operator.......14
1.7 The Arithmetic Mean Derivative is not a Multiplicative Operator14
2. The Product Integral..15
2.1 Growth problems15
2.2 The Product Integral of e r (t ) over [a, b ] ...15
2.3 The Product Integral of f (x ) over [a, b ] ...16
2.4 Intermediate Value Theorem for the Product Integral.17
2.5 The Product Integral is a Multiplicative Operator18
3. Geometric Mean and Geometric Mean Derivative.............................19
3.1 The Power Mean with r 0 is the Geometric Mean.....19
3.2 The Geometric Mean of f (x ) over [a, b ] .....20
3.3 Mean Value Theorem for the Geometric Mean..20
3.4 The Geometric Mean of f (x ) over [x , x + dx ] ...21
3.5 Geometric Mean Derivative21
H. Vic Dannon
3.7 D G (x ) = e
DG (x )
G (x )
..22
dy
dx
dy
dx
= P (x )y .....27
H. Vic Dannon
6.7 Geometric Mean Derivative of Eulers 2nd product for sin x .......................35
x
H. Vic Dannon
( (21) )
sin z
.....61
= 62
2
15.8 1 = 2 2 2 4 4 6 6 8 8 10 10 12 12 .... ...62
1 3 3 5 5 7 7 9 9 11 11 13
2
( )
16. Products of (z ) 64
16.1
(1+z1 )
(1+w1 )(1+w2 )
, where z1 = w1 + w2 .......................................................65
16.2
(1)
(1+ix )(1ix )
16.3
(1+ z1 )(1+z 2 )
,
(1+w1 )(1+w2 )(1+w 3 )
16.4
= sinh x ............................................................................65
where z1 + z 2 = w1 + w2 + w 3 .66
H. Vic Dannon
[a,b ]...................................................75
23.5 D (1)H (x ) =
H. Vic Dannon
1
...77
Dx H (x )
[a,b ]...........................................................83
..85
H. Vic Dannon
Introduction
We describe a generalized calculus that was suggested by Michael
Spiveys [Spiv] observation of the relation between the Geometric
Mean of a function over an interval, and its product integral.
We will see that each Power Mean of order r 0 ,
1
r
D (r ) .
The Fermat/Newton/Leibnitz Derivative
D (1) = D
d
dx
D (0)
is associated with the Geometric Mean
1/n
(a1 a2 ...an )
H. Vic Dannon
D (1)
is associated with the Harmonic Mean
n
1 1
1
+ +...
a1 a2
an
D (2)
is associated with the Power Mean of order r = 2 ,
(
The
inverse
operation,
the
1
2
Quadratic
Mean
Integration
10
H. Vic Dannon
1
Arithmetic Mean Calculus
1.1
f (x )dx =
x =a
F (b )F (a )
,
b a
where
t =x
F (x ) =
f (t )dt .
t =0
f (x )dx
x =a
11
1.2
H. Vic Dannon
1
b a
f (x )dx = f (c) .
x =a
t =x
Proof:
Since
F (x ) =
f (t )dt
is
continuous
on
[a, b ] ,
and
t =0
a <c <b,
so that
F (b )F (a )
b a
= f (c) .
That is,
x =b
1
b a
1.3
f (x )dx = f (c) .
x =a
x < c < x + x ,
so that
t =x +x
1
x
f (t )dt = f (c)
t =x
12
H. Vic Dannon
t =x +x
lim 1x
x 0
f (t )dt = f (x ) .
t =x
t =x
1.4
f (t )dt at x
t =0
F (x ) =
f (t )dt
t =0
D (1)F (x ) lim
1
x 0 x
1.5
f (t )dt
t =x
dF (x )
dx
t = x +dx
Proof:
(1)
D F (x ) = Standard Part of
= Standard Part of
13
1
dx
f (t )dt
t =x
F (x +dx )F (x )
dx
1.6
dF (x )
dx
H. Vic Dannon
= DF (x ) .
is an
Additive
Operator
D ( F1(x ) + F2 (x ) ) = DF1(x ) + DF2(x )
14
H. Vic Dannon
2
The Product Integral
2.1 Growth Problems
The Arithmetic Mean Derivative is unsuitable when we are
interested in the quotient
Present Value
Invested Value
Similarly, attenuation or amplification is measured by
Out-Put Signal
.
In-Put Signal
The need for a multiplicative derivative operator motivated the
creation of the product integration.
2.2
Ae r (t )dt .
Over n equal sub-intervals of the time interval [a,b ] ,
t =
b a
n
15
H. Vic Dannon
r (t )dt
Ae t =a
The amplification factor
t =b
r (t )dt
e t =a
is called
the product integral of e r (t ) over the interval [a,b ]
and is denoted
t =b
er (t )dt .
t =a
t =b
r (t )dt
r (t )dt
t =a
t =a
2.3
x =
b a
,
n
16
H. Vic Dannon
( ln f (x ) )dx
x =a
> 0.
f (x )dx .
x =a
x =b
f (x )
dx
( ln f (x ) )dx
x =a
x =a
f (x )dx
= f (c)(b a )
x =a
t =x
Proof:
Since (x ) =
( ln f (t ))dt
t =0
17
H. Vic Dannon
a <c <b,
so that
x =b
x =a
Hence,
x =b
( ln f (x ))dx
x =a
= e(
ln f (c ) )(b a )
= f (c)(b a ) .
If a < c < b ,
f (x )
dx
x =a
x =b
x =c
dx
dx
= f (x ) f (x )
x =a
x =c
x =b
f (x )
dx
=e
x =b
( ln f (x ))dx + ( ln f (x ) )dx
x =a
x =c
x =a
x =c
x =b
dx
dx
= f (x ) f (x ) .
x =a
x =c
18
H. Vic Dannon
3
Geometric
Mean
and
Geometric
Mean Derivative
3.1 The Power Mean with r 0 is the Geometric
Mean
a1r
+a2r +...anr
n
1
r
1
n
( a1a2 ...a 3 )
r 0
Proof: Let r 0 in
a1r
+a2r +...anr
n
1
r
1
r
lim
r 0
= lim
r
r
r
r 0 a1 +a2 +...an
1
n
( ln a1 + ln a2 + ... + ln an )
1
n
= ln ( a1a2...an ) .
Therefore,
a1r
+a2r +...anr
1
r
e
r 0
ln(a1a2 ...an )n
19
= ( a1a2 ...an )n .
0,
0
3.2
H. Vic Dannon
f (x ) over [a,b ]
Geometric Mean of
x =
b a
,
n
1
( ln f (c1 )+ ln f (c2 )+... ln f (cn ))x
e b a
.
1
b a
x =b
( ln f (x ))dx
x =a
G (b )
,
G (a )
where
t =x
G (x ) = e
( ln f (t ))dt
t =a
Therefore,
x =b
1
( ln f (x ) )dx
b a x=a
20
1
( ln f (x ) )dx
b a x=a
= f (c)
Proof:
3.4
H. Vic Dannon
so that
t = x +x
1
x
ln f (t )dt
= f (c) .
t =x
lim e
1
x
ln f (t )dt
= f (x )
t =x
x 0
G (x ) = e
( ln f (t ))dt
t =a
21
H. Vic Dannon
t =x +x
(0)
D G (x ) lim e
1
x
( ln f (t ) )dt
t =x
x 0
D (0)G (x ) = e D log G (x )
3.6
t = x +x
Proof:
(0)
D G (x ) = lim e
( ln f (t ))dt
1
x
t =x
x 0
t = x +x
1
x 0 x
lim
=e
( ln f (t ))dt
t =x
t = x +dx
= Standard part of e
= Standard Part of
( ln f (t ))dt
1
dx
t =x
1
G (x +dx ) dx
G (x )
= Standard Part of e dx
= e D log G (x ) .
3.7
D (0)G (x ) = e
DG (x )
G (x )
G1(x )+G2 (x )
22
H. Vic Dannon
(
=e
=e
DG1 ( x ) DG2 ( x )
+
G1 ( x )
G2 ( x )
DG1 ( x ) DG2 ( x )
G1 ( x )
G2 ( x )
= ( D (0)G1(x ) )( D (0)G2 (x ) ) .
D (0)
2 lnG (x )
n
G (x ) = e D lnG (x )
D (0) ( f (x )g (x ) ) = f (x )Dg (x )e g (x )D ln f (x )
D (0) f (g(x )) = e
23
df dg
dg dx
f (g (x ))
H. Vic Dannon
4
Geometric Mean Calculus
4.1 The Fundamental Theorem of the Product Calculus
(0)
t =x
f (t )dt
= f (x )
t =a
t =x
Proof: Dx
(0)
t =x
f (t )
t =a
dt
(0)
= Dx e
( ln f (t ))dt
t =a
=e
t =x
( ln f (t ) )dt
e t =a
Dx
t =x
( ln f (t ) )dt
t
=
e a
t =x
t =x
( ln f (t ) )dt
t
a
=
e
Dx
ln f (t )
t =a
t =x
( ln f (t ) )dt
et =a
=e
)dt
t =x
=e
Dx
( ln f (t ) )dt
t =a
= f (x ) .
24
H. Vic Dannon
f (x )
f (x )
D (0) f (x )
1
2
a
e
x
x2
xa
x 1
1
1
1
1
1
2x
ax
ex
e1/x
e2/x
ea /x
e1/x
ex (ln x 1) = ex x x
e2x (ln x 1) = e2x x 2x
eax (ln x 1) = eax x ax
ex (ln x 1) = ex x x
e1/x log x
e ln( ln x )dx
e2
ea
ex
ln x
e2x
eax
xx
n
ex
enx
sin x
e cot x
ex
n 1
I (0)f (x ) =
eax
2 /2
x2 x2
2
2
ex (ln x 1/2)/2 = e 4 x
n +1
ex /(n +1)
ln(sin x )dx
e
ln(cos x )dx
e
cos x e tan x
tan x e2/sin2x
x
x
ee
ee
e sin x e cos x
e cos x e sin x
ln(tan x )dx
ee
e cos x
e sin x
25
H. Vic Dannon
5
Product Differential Equations
5.1 Product Differential Equations
A Product Differential Equation involves powers of the Geometric
Mean Derivative operator
D (0) ,
and no sums, only products.
An ordinary differential equations involves sums of powers of the
Arithmetic Mean Derivative operator D . Such equation is not
suitable to the application of D (0) , and does not convert easily into
a product differential equation.
[Doll] attempts to write the solutions to ordinary differential
equations in terms of product integral, but being unaware of the
Geometric Mean Derivative, it fails to produce one product
differential equation.
[Doll] demonstrates that products integrals are not natural
solutions for ordinary differential equations.
The attempt made in [Doll] to interpret Summation Calculus in
terms of the Product Integral alone, being oblivious to the product
Calculus derivative, does not lead to better understanding of
differential equations, or to any new results.
26
H. Vic Dannon
dy
= P (x )y
dx
may be converted to a product differential equation, and be solved
as such.
dy
= P (x )y .
dx
y'
= P (x ) .
y
e
y'
y
= e P (x )
D (0)y = e P (x )
t =x
t =x
y(x ) =
P (t )dt
=e
P (t )dt
t =0
t =0
5.3
dy
= P (x )y + Q(x ) may not be solved by Product Calculus
dx
dy
= P (x )y + Q(x ) .
dx
27
H. Vic Dannon
t =x
t =0
P (t )dt
Then,
t =x
y 'e
t =x
P (t )dt
+ yP (x )e
t =0
t =x
P (t )dt
= Q(x )e
t =0
t =x
P (t )dt
t =0
t =x
P (t )dt
P (t )dt
d
t
=
t
0
(ye
) = Q(x )e = 0
dx
t =x
ye
t =0
t =u
u =x
P (t )dt
Q(u )e
P (t )dt
t =0
u =0
t =u
u =x
y=
Q(u )e
P (t )dt
t =0
u =0
t =x
P (t )dt
t =0
Writing this as
u =x
y=
t =x
Q(u ) e P (t )dt
t =0
u =0
t =x
e P (t )dt
t =0
28
H. Vic Dannon
z ' = P (x )z + Q(x )y
Thus, in matrix form,
1
d y 0
y .
=
z
dx z Q(x ) P (x )
But we need the methods of summation Calculus, to obtain two
independent solutions y1(x ) , and y2 (x ) that span the
space for the equation.
29
solution
H. Vic Dannon
6
Product Calculus of sinx
x
sin z
z
sin z
= cos z2 cos z4 cos z8 ...
z
= z 2z sin
z
2n
z
2n
sin
z
2n
sin z 2zn
2
z sin z
2n
Letting n ,
sin z
= cos z2 cos z4 cos z8 ...
z
This holds also for z 0 . Hence, it holds for any complex number
z.
6.2
30
H. Vic Dannon
6.3
sin x
x
cos x 1
= 21 tan x2 12 tan x2 13 tan x3 ...
2
2
2
2
sin x x
Proof: Geometric Mean Differentiating both sides of 6.1,
D (0)
sin x
= ( D (0) cos x2 )( D (0) cos x4 )( D (0) cos x8 )...
x
sin x
D
x
sin x
cos x 1
sin x x
=e
D cos x
x
cos
=e
D cos x
22
cos x
22
D cos x
23
cos x
23
...
1
x
1
x
21 tan x2 22 tan 22 23 tan 23
That is,
cos x 1
= 21 tan x2 12 tan x2 13 tan x3 ...
2
2
2
2
sin x x
31
6.4
H. Vic Dannon
Proof:
1
sin2 x
1
x2
1
x
22 cos2
2
24 cos2
26 cos2
sin x
x
x
....
23
(0) sin x x
D e
x
1
(0) ( 2 tan 2 )
=D e
1
1
+ )
(
e sin x x = e
2
2
2x
2 cos 2
(
e
(0)
1
4
2 cos2
1
22
) ....
tan x
22
1
6
2 cos2
....
That is,
1
sin2 x
1
x2
1
x
22 cos2
2
24 cos2
x
2
1
26 cos2
....
23
series-
differentiation of 6.3.
6.5
Product Integration of
log
sin x
x
B
B
B6
B8
sin x
dx = 2 (2x )3 + 4 (2x )5
(2x )7 +
(2x )9 ....
x
4 3!
8 5!
12 7 !
16 9!
32
Proof:
H. Vic Dannon
log
e
sin x
dx
x
=e
e
e
...
log
sin x
dx =
x
B2
B
B6
B8
(2x )3 + 4 (2x )5
(2x )7 +
(2x )9 .... ,
4 3!
8 5!
12 7 !
16 9!
3
2
(x ) +
(x )
(x ) + ....
= 2
4 3!
8 5!
12 7 !
3
2
( ) +
( )
( ) + ....
= 4
4 3!
2
8 5!
2
12 7 ! 2
..
Comparing the coefficients of x 3, x 5, x 7 ,... on both sides, does not
yield any new result.
33
6.6
H. Vic Dannon
sin z
z
...
z
3
3
3
Proof: Using the triple angle formula,
= ( 4 cos2 z3 1 ) 4 cos2
z
32
1 sin
z
3n
z
32
1 sin
z
3n
4 cos2 zn 1
4 cos2 z3 1
3n
3
x
sin n
=x
...
3
x
3
3
Therefore, for any complex number z 0 ,
z
4 cos2 zn 1
4 cos2 z3 1
sin z 3n
3
=
...
z
z sin n
3
3
3
Letting n ,
...
z
3
3
34
H. Vic Dannon
Since this holds also for z 0 , it holds for any complex number
z including z = 0 .
6.7
sin x
x
4 sin 2x3
3
3
=
...
2 x
2
2 x
3
2 x
x
sin x
1) 3 (4 cos 2 1) 3 (4 cos 3 1)
3(4 cos
3
3
3
cos x
Proof:
4 sin 2x2
4 sin 2x
(0)
4 cos2 x2 1
4 cos2 x3 1
sin x
(0)
(0)
3
=D
D
...
x
3
3
D sin x
x
x
sin
=e
cos x 1
(
)
e sin x x = e
4D cos2 x
2x
4 cos 3 1
4 sin 2 x
2 x 1)
3(4cos
4D cos2 x
32
2
x
4 cos 1
2
4 sin 2 x
32 (4 cos2 x 1)
32
4D cos2 x
33
2
x
4 cos 1
3
...
4 sin 2 x
33 (4 cos2 x 1)
33
...
4 sin 2x2
4 sin 2x3
3
3
3
...
=
sin x
x
3(4 cos2 x 1) 32 (4 cos2 x2 1) 3 3 (4 cos2 x3 1)
3
3
3
cos x
4 sin 2x
35
H. Vic Dannon
7
Product Calculus of
7.1
sinx
sinz
z 2
z 2
z 2
1
....
sin z = z 1 2 1
(2)2
(3)2
The product converges absolutely in any disk z < R .
Proof:
sin z = 2 sin z2 cos z2
= 2 2 sin z4 cos z4 sin ( z2 +
= 22 sin z4 sin ( z4 +
) sin ( z2 + 2 )
= 22 sin z4 sin ( z4 +
) 2 sin ( z4 + 4 ) cos ( z4 + 4 )
36
= 22
sin
sin
z
2n
n 1
sin z +2 n
H. Vic Dannon
sin z +n sin n z
... sin
z +(2n 1 1)
n
sin
(2n 1 1) z
2n
Now,
= sin
= sin2
+ sin
2n
sin2
z
2n
z
2n
2n
)( 2 sin 2z cos 2z )
n +1
n +1
n +1
)( sin 2 sin 2z )
n
And,
z = sin2 2 sin2
sin z +n2 sin 2
n
n
2
z
2n
Therefore,
sin z = 22
sin
z
2n
cos
sin2 2n sin2
2
z
2n
z
2n
( sin2 2 sin2 2z )
n
) ... ( sin2 (2
n 1
1)
2n
sin2
z
2n
That is,
n
z
2n
sin
z
2n
n
sin z
= 22 1 cos zn sin2 n sin2 zn
2
2
2
z
sin2 2n sin2
2
z
2n
) ... ( sin2 (2
n 1
Letting z 0 ,
37
1)
n
sin2
z
2n
2n = 22
sin2
2n
H. Vic Dannon
(2n 1 1)
2n
sin z = 2
sin2 zn
2
1
2
sin n
sin2 zn
sin2 zn
2
2
n 1
1
.. 1
2 2
(2
1)
2
sin n
sin
2
2n
sin2 zn
2
z
cos 1
2
2n
sin n
sin2 zn
sin2 zn
2
2
n 1
1
.. 1
2 2
(2
1)
2
sin n
sin
2
2n
sin zn
2
sin zn
2
= z
z
2n
cos zn
2
sin2
z
2n
sin2 mn
2
sin zn
= 1 z 2
n
2
2 z 2 mn 2
z2
2
m
2
(m )2
(m ) sin 2n
z 2
z 2
1 z ....
z 1 2 1
(2)2
(3)2
Converges to sin z .
The convergence is absolute in any disk z < R , because the
infinite series
z2
z2
(2)2
z2
(3)2
+ ...
38
H. Vic Dannon
Indeed, in z < R ,
(2)2
(3)2
+ ... = z
1
1
1
+
+
+
1
...
22 32
2
2
= z
1 2
2 6
1
< R2 .
6
7.2
1
x
cot x =
2x
2 x 2
2x
(2)2 x 2
sinx
2x
(3)2 x 2
...
x2
x 2 (0)
x 2
D 1
....
Proof: D (0) sin x = D (0)xD (0) 1 2 D (0) 1
2
2
(2)
(3)
cos x
sin x
1
x
=e e
2x
2
x 2
2x
(2 )2 x 2
2x
(3 )2 x 2
...
Thus,
1
x
cot x =
7.3
2x
2 x 2
2x
(2)2 x 2
224466
=
....
2
133557
39
2x
(3)2 x 2
...
H. Vic Dannon
Proof: Wallis product for follows from the product formula for
sin 2 , [Bert, p. 424].
1 = sin 2
=
1
1
1
1
1
1
....
2
22
42
62
1
1
1
1 1 + 1 1 +
2
2
2
4
133557
....
2224466
1
1 1
1 + 1 ...
4
6
6
40
H. Vic Dannon
8
Product Calculus of
8.1
cos x
cos z ,
2z 2
2
z
2
z
cos z = 1 1 1 ...
3
5
cos z =
sin 2z
2 sin z
2
2
2z 2
2z 2
2z 2
2z
2z
2z 1
1 2 1 3 1 4 1 5 ...
1
2
2
2
2
z 2
2
z z
z
z
z 1
1
2 3 4 5 ...
2z 2
2z 2
2z 2
= 1
1 1 ...
3
5
8.2
tan x =
8x
2 (2x )2
8x
(3)2 (2x )2
41
cosx
+
8x
(5)2 (2x )2
+ ...
Proof:
(0)
cos x
sin x
cos x
= D
H. Vic Dannon
2x 2 (0)
2x 2 (0)
2x 2
1 D 1 D 1 ...
3
5
(0)
=e
8x
2
(2x )
8x
8x
2
2
2
(3 ) (2x )
(5 ) (2x )2
...
Thus,
tan x =
8x
2 (2x )2
8x
(3)2 (2x )2
42
8x
(5)2 (2x )2
+ ...
H. Vic Dannon
9
Product Calculus of
tan x
9.1
tan z =
z 2
z 2
z 2
1
...
z 1 2 1
(2)2
(3)2
2z 2
2z 2
2z 2
1 1 1 ...
3
5
9.2
2
sin 2x
tanx
1
2x
8x
2
+
x x 2 2 (2x )2
2x
(2)2 x 2
2x
(3)2 x 2
Proof:
43
8x
(3)2 (2x )2
8x
(5)2 (2x )2
...
H. Vic Dannon
x 2 (0)
x 2 (0)
x 2
D xD 1 D 1 D 1 ...
2
3
(0)
D tan x =
2x 2 (0)
2x 2 (0)
2x 2
(0)
D 1 D 1 D 1 ...
5
(0)
2
sin 2 x
(0)
1
x
ee
e
2x
2
x 2
8x
2
(2 x )2
2x
(2 )2 x 2
8x
2
(3 ) (2 x )2
2x
(3 )2 x 2
8x
2
(5 ) (2 x )2
Thus,
2
sin 2x
1
2x
8x
2
+
x x 2 2 (2x )2
2x
(2)2 x 2
2x
(3)2 x 2
44
....
8x
(3)2 (2x )2
8x
(5)2 (2x )2
...
H. Vic Dannon
10
Product Calculus of
sinh x
z 2
z 2
z 2
sinh z = z 1 + 2 1 +
1 +
....
(2)2
(3)2
10.2
coth x =
Proof: D
(0)
sinhx
1
2x
2x
2x
+ 2
+
+
+ ...
x
+ x 2 (2)2 + x 2 (3)2 + x 2
x 2 (0)
x 2 (0)
x 2
sinh x = D xD 1 +
D 1 +
D 1 +
....
2
(2)2
(3)2
(0)
D sinh x
sinh x
(0)
1
x
=e e
2x
2 + x 2
2x
(2 )2 +x 2
2x
(3 )2 +x 2
...
Thus,
coth x =
1
2x
2x
2x
+ 2
+
+
+ ...
2
2
2
x
(2) + x
(3)2 + x 2
+x
45
H. Vic Dannon
11
Product Calculus of
cosh x
11.1
2
2
2z 2
2
z
2
z
cosh z = 1 + 1 + 1 + ....
3
5
coshx
tanh x =
Proof:
(0)
8x
2 + (2x )2
8x
(3)2 + (2x )2
8x
(5)2 + (2x )2
+ ...
2
2
2
2x (0)
2x (0)
2x
cosh x = D 1 + D 1 + D 1 + ....
3
5
(0)
8x
8x
8x
D cosh x
2 +(2x )2 (3)2 +(2x )2 (5 )2 +(2x )2
e cosh x = e
e
e
....
Thus,
tanh x =
8x
2 + (2x )2
8x
(3)2 + (2x )2
46
8x
(5)2 + (2x )2
+ ...
H. Vic Dannon
12
Product Calculus of
12.1
tanh x
z 2
z 2
z 2
1 +
...
z 1 + 2 1 +
(2)2
(3)2
tanh z =
2z 2
2z 2
2z 2
1 + 1 + 1 + ...
3
5
12.2
2
sinh 2x
tanhx
1
2x
8x
+ 2
2
2
x
+x
+ (2x )2
+
2x
2
(2) + x
2x
2
(3) + x
Proof:
47
8x
2
(3) + (2x )2
8x
2
(5) + (2x )2
+ ...
2
2
2
x (0)
x (0)
x
D 1 + ...
D xD 1 + D 1 +
2
2
2
2x (0)
2x (0)
2x
(0)
D 1 +
D 1 + 3 D 1 + 5 ...
(0)
(0)
tanh x
H. Vic Dannon
(0)
Now,
cosh2 x sinh2 x
D tanh x
1
2
cosh2 x
=
=
=
.
tanh x
sinh x
sinh x cosh x
sinh 2x
cosh x
Therefore,
2
sinh 2 x
1
x
ee
=
e
2x
2x
2x
2
2
(3 )2 +x 2
2 +x 2 (2 ) +x
8x
8x
8x
2
2
2
2
2
+(2 x ) (3 ) +(2 x ) (5 ) +(2 x )2
Thus,
2
sinh 2x
1
2x
8x
+ 2
x
+ x 2 2 + (2x )2
+
...
2x
(2)2 + x 2
2x
(3)2 + x 2
48
8x
(3)2 + (2x )2
8x
(5)2 + (2x )2
+ ...
...
H. Vic Dannon
13
Product Calculus of
ex
n
1 + z e z
n n
D (0)e x = e
Proof:
n
n
(0)
x
x
1 + = D 1 +
n
n
(0)
D (1+nx ) n
1+ x
= e n
n1
1+ x
= e n
=e
1+ nx
e
n
Thus, D (0)e x = e .
49
H. Vic Dannon
D (0)ee = ee
Proof:
ex
1 +
(0)
ex
(0)
= D 1 +
D (1+enx ) n
1+enx
= e
enx
1+enx
= e
ex
=e
1+e
ee
n
x
Thus, D (0)ee = ee .
D (0)e x = e kx
50
k 1
Proof:
xk
1 +
(0)
xk
(0)
= D 1 +
D (1+ xnk ) n
1+ xnk
= e
k x kn1
1+ xnk
= e
kx k 1
=e
1+ x
e kx
k 1
n
k
Thus, D (0)e x = e kx
k 1
51
H. Vic Dannon
H. Vic Dannon
14
Geometric
Mean
Derivative
by
Exponentiation
Geometric Mean Derivative can be obtained by using the Product
Calculus of the exponential function.
We demonstrate this method by examples.
14.1
Proof: Since
log sin x n
) ,
n
log sin x
log sin x
D (0) 1 +
... 1 +
n
n
n factors
log sin x
log sin x
= D (0) 1 +
... D (0) 1 +
n
n
n factors
52
log sin x n
)
n
H. Vic Dannon
D (1+ lognsin x ) n
1+ log nsin x
= e
cotn x
1+ log nsin x
= e
=e
cot x
1+ log sin x /n
e cotx .
D (0)x x = ex
14.2
Proof:
Since
x n
x x = e x log x = lim (1 + x log
) ,
n
n
x n
) .
we apply D (0) to (1 + x log
n
n
n
(0)
x log x
x log x
= D 1 +
1 +
n
n
(0)
53
D (1+ x logn x ) n
x
1+ x log
n
= e
x
1+log
n
x
1+ x log
n
= e
1+ log x
=e
x
1+ x log
n
e1+ log x = ex
Thus, D (0)x x = ex .
54
H. Vic Dannon
H. Vic Dannon
15
Product Calculus of (x )
On the half line x > 0 , Euler defined the real valued Gamma
function by
t =
(x ) =
e tt x 1dt .
t =0
e tt z 1dt
t =0
Dz
t =
t z 1
e t
dt =
t =0
e tt z 1 ln tdt .
t =0
Thus, the complex valued integral extends the Euler integral into
an analytic function in the half plane Re z > 0 . It is denoted by
(z ) .
This function can be further extended to a product representation
that is analytic for any z , except for simple poles that it has at
z = 0, 1, 2, 3,...
55
H. Vic Dannon
15.1
( 1 + 11 ) ( 1 + 21 ) ( 1 + 13 ) ....
(z ) =
z ( 1 + z1 )( 1 + z2 )( 1 + z3 ) ....
Proof:
t =
(z ) =
e tt z 1dt
t =0
t =
t =0
n z 1
t
lim 1 t dt
n
n
= lim
t =0
n
1 t t z 1dt
= lim n z
n
n
( 1 u ) u z 1du
u =0
nz
(n + 1)z
z
= ( 1 + 11 ) ( 1 + 21 ) ( 1 +
1
3
) ...( 1 + n1 )
56
nz
(n +1)z
H. Vic Dannon
(1 u )
u =1
z 1
du =
u =0
(1 u )
u =0
uz
d
z
u =1
u =1 z
uz
n
n
u
d (1 u )
= (1 u )
z
u = 0 u = 0 z
1
=
z
n
=
z
u =1
n 1
u zn (1 u )
du
u =0
u =1
(1 u )
u =0
n n 1
=
z z +1
u z +1
d
z + 1
n 1
u =1
(1 u )
u =0
n n 1n 2
=
z z +1z +2
u z +2
d
z + 2
n 2
u =1
u z + 3
d
z + 3
n 3
(1 u )
u =0
n n 1 n 2 n (n 1)
...
=
z z +1z + 2 z +n 1
u =1
u =0
u =1
n n 1 n 2 n (n 1) u z +n
...
=
z z + 1 z + 2 z + n 1 z + n u = 0
57
u z +n
d
z + n
n n
(1 u )
n n 1 n 2 n (n 1) 1
...
z z +1z + 2 z +n 1 z +n
n n 1 n 2 n (n 1) 1
...
z z +1z + 2 z +n 1 z +n
1 1
1
1
1
...
z ( z + 1 )( z + 1 ) ( z + 1 )( z + 1 )
1
2
n 1
n
H. Vic Dannon
Therefore,
u =1
lim n
(1 u )
u z 1du =
u =0
= lim
{( 1 +
1
1
) ( 1 + 21 ) ( 1 + 13 ) ...( 1 + n1 )
nz
(n +1)z
1 1
1
1
1
...
z ( z + 1 )( z + 1 ) ( z + 1 )( z + 1 )
n 1
n
1
2
( 1 + 11 ) ( 1 + 21 ) ( 1 + 13 ) ...( 1 + n1 )
= lim
n z ( z + 1 )( z + 1 ) ... ( z + 1 )( z + 1 )
1
2
n 1
n
z
( 1 + 11 ) ( 1 + 21 ) ( 1 + 13 ) ....
=
.
z ( 1 + z1 )( 1 + z2 )( 1 + z3 ) ....
15.2
'(x )
1
1
1
1
= lim log n
...
n
(x )
x x +1 x +2
x + n
58
H. Vic Dannon
Proof:
x
D (0)(x ) =
D (0) ( 1 + 11 ) D (0) ( 1 +
1
2
D (0) ( 1 +
1
3
....
x
x
D 2x D (3/2) D (4/3)
x
x
(3/2)
(4/3)
2x
....
1
1
1 1
+
+
+
x
1
x
2
x
x
e e e e 3 ....
234
....
123
1
1
1
1
....
+
+
+
1
2
3
x
x
x
+
+
+
x
e
2 3 4 1 1 1 1 ....
.... e x x +1 x +2 x + 3
=
1 2 3
= lim (n
n
1
1
1
1
.....
1
2
+
+
+
x
x
x
n
x
+ 1)e
= lim
1
1
1
1
.....
1
2
+
+
+
x
x
x
n
x
ne
= lim
1
1
1
1
....
log n
1
2
+
+
+
x
x
x
n
x
e
=e
1
1
1
1
lim log n
.....
n
x x +1 x + 2
x +n
'(x )
Since D(0)(x ) = e (x ) ,
59
H. Vic Dannon
1
1
1
1
'(x )
= lim log n
...
n
(x )
x x +1 x +2
x + n
(1) = 1
15.3
Proof:
( 1 + 11 )( 1 + 21 )( 1 + 13 )....
(1) =
=1
1( 1 + 11 )( 1 + 21 )( 1 + 13 ) ....
(z + 1) = z (z )
15.4
Proof:
z +1
(z + 1) =
z +1
....
z ( 1 + z +1 1 )( 1 + z +2 1 )( 1 + z +3 1 )....
z
z +1
( 1 + 11 ) ( 1 + 21 ) ( 1 + 13 )
z
( 1 + 11 ) 2 ( 1 + 21 ) 23 ( 1 + 13 )
( z + 1)( 1 + z +1 1 )( 1 + z +2 1 )( 1 +
z
4 ....
3
z +1
3
)....
( 1 + 11 ) ( 1 + 21 ) ( 1 + 13 ) ...
=
( 1 + z ) 21 ( 2 + z ) 23 ( 23 + z2 ) 43 ( 43 + z3 )...
z
( 1 + 11 ) ( 1 + 21 ) ( 1 + 13 ) ...
=
( 1 + z )( 1 + z2 )( 1 + z3 )( 1 + z4 )...
= z (z ) .
60
H. Vic Dannon
15.5
(z )(1 z ) =
)( 1 z3 )...
2
z (1 z 2 ) 1 z2
Proof:
z
1z
1z
1z
( 1 + 11 ) ( 1 + 21 ) ( 1 + 13 ) ... ( 1 + 11 ) ( 1 + 21 ) ( 1 + 13 ) ...
(z )(1 z ) =
z ( 1 + z1 )( 1 + z2 )( 1 + z3 ) ... ( 1 z ) ( 1 + 11 z )( 1 + 12 z )( 1 + 13 z ) ..
( 1 + 11 )( 1 + 21 )( 1 + 13 )...
=
z ( 1 + z )( 1 + z )( 1 + z ) .. ( 1 z ) 2 ( 1 z ) 3 ( 1 z ) 4 ( 1 z )..
2
3
2 2
3 3
4
=
1
z ( 1 + z1 )( 1 + z2 )( 1 + z3 ) .. ( 1 z ) ( 1 z2 )( 1 z3 )( 1 z4 ) ..
1
z ( 1 + z )( 1 z ) ( 1 + z2 )( 1 z2 )( 1 +
z (1 z 2 ) 1 z2
)(
(z )(1 z ) =
15.6
1 z 2 ...
sin z
Proof: By 15.5,
(z )(1 z ) =
)( 1 z3 )...
2
z (1 z 2 ) 1 z2
61
z
3
)( 1 z3 )..
z 1 (z2)
)(
1 (z )2
(2 )
)(
H. Vic Dannon
1 (z )2 ..
(3 )
.
sin z
( (21) )
15.7
Proof: Substituting z =
1
2
in (z )(1 z ) =
( 21 ) ( 1 21 ) =
, we obtain
sin z
.
sin 2
That is,
( 1) 2 = .
2
This can be obtained directly through the Wallis Product for .
( 1 ) 2 = 2 2 2 4 4 6 6 8 8 10 10 12 12 ...
2
1 3 3 5 5 7 7 9 9 11 11 13
15.8
Proof: By 15.5,
1
( 1 )2 =
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
...
2
22
42
62
82
102
=
1
1 1 3
3 5 5 7 7 9 9 11
2 2 2 2 2 ...
2 2 4 6 8 10
62
2 2 4 4 6 6 8 8 10 10
= 2 ....
3 5 5 7
7 9
9 11
1 3
63
H. Vic Dannon
H. Vic Dannon
16
Products of (z )
(1 + z1 )
, where z1 = w1 + w2
(1 + w1 )(1 + w2 )
16.1
)(
) (1 + )(1 + ) ...
)
(1 + )
1
( 1 + w1 )( 1 + w2 ) 1 + 2 1 +
(1 + z1 )
=
z
(1 + w1 )(1 + w2 )
( 1 + z1 )
1 + 21
w2
2
w1
3
z1
3
Proof:
(1 + z1)
=
(1 + w1)(1 + w2 )
1+ z1
( 1 + 11 )
( 1 + z1 ) ( 1 +
1+ z 1
( 1 + 21 )
1+ z 1
1
)(1 +
( 1 + w1 )( 1 + 1+1w
1+w1
( 1 + 11 )
1+w2
)(1 +
)(1 +
1+w1
2
1+w1
)(1 +
1+w2
2
z1
2
)(
1+
z1
z1
3
)(
)(1 +
)(1 +
1+
64
....
z1
4
....
)....
1+w1
3
)...
...
1+w2
3
1+w2
( 1 + 13 )
( 1 + 11 ) ( 1 + 21 ) ( 1 + 13 )
( 1 + z1 ) 1 +
1+ z1
3
1+w1
1+w2
z1
....
( 1 + 13 )
( 1 + 21 )
z1
1+ z1
2
( 1 + 21 )
( 1 + w2 )( 1 + 1+1w
( 1 + 11 )
1+ z 1
( 1 + 13 )
w2
3
...
)... .
( 1 + w1 )( 1 + w2 )( 1 + w3 )( 1 + w4 )...
1
w1
1
2
w1
1
3
w1
...
( 1 + w2 )( 1 + w2 )( 1 + w3 )( 1 + w4 )...
2
w2
w2
w2
(1 + ) (1 + ) (1 + )
1
1
1
2
1
3
...
( 1 + w1 )( 1 + w2 )( 1 + w3 )...( 1 + w2 )( 1 + w2 )( 1 + w3 )...
1
(1 + ) (1 + ) (1 + )
1
1
H. Vic Dannon
( 1 + z1 )( 1 + z2 )( 1 + z3 )( 1 + z4 )...
1
( 1 + w1 )( 1 + w2 ) ( 1 + 2 )( 1 +
=
( 1 + z1 )
(1 + z2 )
w1
w2
2
16.2
) (1 + )(1 + ) ...
(1 + )
w1
3
w2
3
z1
3
(1)
= sinh x
(1 + ix )(1 ix )
Proof:
(1)
= ( 1 + ix )( 1 ix ) ( 1 + ix2 )( 1 ix2 )( 1 + ix3 )( 1 ix3 )...
(1 + ix )(1 ix )
= (1 + x 2 ) 1 +
x2
22
= sinh x .
Similarly, we obtain
65
)(1 + x3 )...
2
16.3
H. Vic Dannon
(1 + z1)(1 + z 2 )
, where z1 + z 2 = w1 + w2 + w 3 .
(1 + w1)(1 + w2 )(1 + w 3 )
(1 + z1)(1 + z 2 )
=
(1 + w1)(1 + w2 )(1 + w 3 )
( 1 + w1 )( 1 + w2 )( 1 + w3 ) ( 1 + 2 )( 1 + 2 )( 1 +
=
( 1 + z1 )( 1 + z 2 )
(1 + z2 )(1 + z2 )
w1
w2
w3
2
(1 + )(1 + )
w1
3
w2
3
z1
3
w3
3
z2
3
More generally,
16.4
If z1 + z 2 + ... + z k = w1 + w2 + ... + wl ,
(1 + z1)(1 + z 2 )...(1 + z k )
may be simplified
(1 + w1)(1 + w2 )....(1 + wl )
66
H. Vic Dannon
17
Product Calculus of
For
a complex number ,
J (x )
2d
dz 2
+z
dw
+ (z 2 2 )w = 0 .
dz
For real, J (z ) has infinitely many real zeros, all simple with
the possible exception of z = 0 .
For 0 , the positive zeros
sequence
z
1
z 2
z 2
z 2
J (z ) =
1 2 1 2 1 2 ...
2 ( + 1)
j,1
j,2
j,3
17.2
...
J (x )
x
j,1 x 2 j2,2 x 2 j2,3 x 2
67
2 ( + 1)
H. Vic Dannon
D (0)x
x 2
x 2
x 2
j,1
j,2
j,3
= e 0e
Dx
x
2x
2x
2x
2
2
2
2
2
j ,1x j ,2 x j ,3 x 2
x
=e e
e
e
...
2x
2x
2x
2
j ,1x 2 j2,1x 2 j2,2 x 2
x
=e e
...
Thus,
DJ (x )
2x
2x
2x
= 2
...
J (x )
x
j,1 x 2 j2,2 x 2 j2,3 x 2
68
...
H. Vic Dannon
18
Product Calculus of Trigonometric
Series
If
1
n x
n x
f (x ) = a 0 + an cos
+ bn sin
L
L
2
n =1
f (x ) 1a
2 0
a cos x +b sin x
1
L
L
1
a cos 2 x +b sin 2x
2
L
L
2
....
sin x
sin 2x
sin 3x
+
+
+ ...
x = 2
1
2
3
Therefore,
=e
2 sin x
sin 2x
sin 3x
2
2 e
3 .... .
1 2
x x
2
=e
cos 2x
2
2 cos x 22
cos 3x
2
32
....
Hence,
1 2
cos 2x
cos 3x
x x = 2 cos x + 2 2 + 2 2 + ....
2
2
3
69
H. Vic Dannon
19
Infinite Functional Products
Euler represented Analytic functions by infinite products, [Saks].
to which the Geometric Mean derivative may be applied.
)(1 + x ).... .
23
1x
2 1 22 x 2 1 23 x 2 1
2n x 2 1
1 2x
2
22
23
2n
e 1+x e 1+x e 1+x e 1+x ....e 1+x ...
Hence,
1
1
1
21x 2 1 22 x 2 1
2n x 2 1
=
+
+
+ ...
+ ...
n
2
1x
1 + x 1 + x 21
1 + x2
1 + x2
70
H. Vic Dannon
20
Path Product Integral
20.1 Path Product Integral in the plane
Let P (x, y ) , and Q(x , y ) be positive, and smooth so that
dx
dy
( P(x, y ) ) (Q(x, y ))
=e
e
Proof:
y P Q
P Qx dxdy
inerior ( )
By Greens Theorem.
71
H. Vic Dannon
dy
dz
( log P (x ,y,z ))dx +( logQ (x ,y,z ))dy +( log R(x ,y,z ) )dz
20.4
log P (x ,y ,z ) dydz
log Q (x ,y ,z ) i dxdz
72
H. Vic Dannon
21
Iterative Product Integral
21.1 Iterative Product Integral of f (x , t )
Let f (x , t ) be positive in the rectangle
[x 0, x1 ] [t0, t1 ]
so that
log f (x , t )
is integrable on the rectangle.
Then, the double product integral is defined iteratively by
dt
dx
e
f (x , t ) =
t =t 0 x = x 0
t =t0
t =t1
dt
t =t1 x = x1
x = x1
t =t1 x =x1
log f (x ,t )dxdt
= e t =t0 x =x 0
t =t1 x =x1
r (x ,t )dxdt
t =t x =x
t =t1 x =x1
0
73
H. Vic Dannon
22
Harmonic Mean Integral
22.1
dq
dq(x )
dx
=
,
C (q ) C (q(x ))
f (x )
b a
,
n
(
)
f (x1 )
f (x 2 )
f (x n )
f
x
1
2
n
x =a
1
dx .
f (x )
x =a
f (x ) .
74
H. Vic Dannon
23
Harmonic Mean, and Harmonic Mean
Derivative
f (x ) over [a,b ]
b a
,
n
ci ,
and consider the Harmonic Mean of f (x )
1
1
1
1
+
+ ... +
f (c1) f (c2 )
f (cn )
b a
1
1
1
+
+ ... +
x
f (cn )
f (c1 ) f (c2 )
b a
x =b
x =a
1
dx
f (x )
b a
,
H (b) H (a )
where
75
t =x
H (x ) =
t =0
H. Vic Dannon
1
dt .
f (t )
Therefore,
b a
x =b
x =a
1
dx
f (x )
23.2
b a
x =b
x =a
23.3
= f (c)
1
dx
f (x )
x
t = x +x
t =x
1
dt
f (t )
76
H. Vic Dannon
lim
x 0 t = x +x
t =x
= f (x ) .
1
dt
f (t )
H (x ) =
t =0
1
dt
f (t )
D (1)H (x ) lim
x 0 t =x +x
t =x
D (1)H (x ) =
23.5
1
dt
f (t )
1
Dx H (x )
Proof:
1
.
Dx H (x )
77
dx
H (x + dx ) H (x )
H. Vic Dannon
24
Harmonic Mean Calculus
24.1 The Fundamental Theorem of the Harmonic Mean
Calculus
Dx
Proof:
Dx
t =x
(1)
(1)
I
t =a
t =x
(1)
(1)
I
t =a
f (t ) = f (x ) .
t =x
1
(1)
f (t ) = Dx
dt
t =a f (t )
1
t =x
Dx
t =a
1
dt
f (t )
= f (x ) .
78
f (x )
x
D (1) f (x )
x2
1
2x
1
ax a 1
xa
1
x
x 2
log x
ex
ex
e 2x
cos x
tan x
1 2x
e
2
1
x x (log x + 1)
1
cos x
1
sin x
sin2 x
eex
exeex
xx
sin x
H. Vic Dannon
I (1)f (x )
log x
1
x
1
(a 1)x a 1
1 2
x
2
1
log x dx
ex
79
1 e2x
2
1
x x dx
dx
sin x
dx
cos x
logsin x
1
ee dx
e sin xdx
e cos xdx
x
H. Vic Dannon
25
Quadratic Mean Integral
25.1 Quadratic Mean Integral
Given a Riemann integrable, positive f (x ) on [a,b ] , partition the
interval into n sub-intervals, of equal length
x =
b a
,
n
ci ,
and consider the finite products,
f 2 (x )dx .
x =a
x =a
f (x ) = f
2
L2[a,b ]
80
H. Vic Dannon
x =b
2 x =b
2 x =b
2
(2)
(2)
(2)
I f (x ) + g(x ) I f (x ) + I g(x )
x
=
a
x
=
a
x
=
a
Proof:
1
2
x =b
(2)
I f (x ) + g(x )
x =a
x =b
2
= ( f (x ) + g(x ) ) dx
x =a
By Cauchy-Schwartz Inequality,
x =b
1/2 x =b
1/2
2
2
( f (x ) ) dx + ( g(x ) ) dx
x =a
x =a
x =b
(2)
1
2
1
2
x =b
(2)
= I f (x ) + I g(x ) .
x =a
x =a
25.3
x =a
Proof:
x =b
2 x =b
2
(2)
(2)
f (x )g(x ) dx I f (x ) I g(x )
x =a
x =a
By Holders inequality,
x =b
x =a
x =b
1/2 x =b
1/2
x =a
x =a
81
H. Vic Dannon
x =b
2 x =b
2
(2)
(2)
I f (x ) I g(x ) .
x =a
x =a
82
H. Vic Dannon
26
Quadratic Mean and Quadratic Mean
Derivative
26.1
b a
,
n
2
2
2
1
2
n
n
b a
1/2
1/2
1
Q
(
b
)
Q
(
a
)
2
f (x )dx =
,
b
a
b
a
x =a
where
t =x
Q(x ) =
f 2 (t )dt .
t =0
x =b
1/2
1
f 2 (x )dx
b a x =a
83
26.2
H. Vic Dannon
x =b
2
1
There is a point a < c < b , so that b a f 2(x )dx = f (c)
x =a
x < c < x + x ,
so that
t =x +x
1/2
1
2
x f (t )dt = f (c) .
t =x
Letting x 0 , the Quadratic Mean of f (x ) at x equals f (x ) .
t =x +x
1/2
1
lim
f 2(t )dt = f (x ) .
x 0 x
t =x
84
H. Vic Dannon
Q(x ) =
f 2 (t )dt
t =0
1/2
1
D (2)Q(x ) lim
f 2 (t )dt
x 0 x
t =x
1/2
D (2)Q(x ) = ( DxQ(x ) )
26.5
Proof:
dx
(2)
1/2
= ( DxQ(x ) )
85
H. Vic Dannon
27
Quadratic Mean Calculus
27.1 The Fundamental Theorem of the Quadratic Mean
Calculus
t =x
(2)
(2)
Dx I f (t ) = f (x )
t =a
Proof:
t =x
(2)
(2)
Dx I
t =a
t =x
(2)
f (t ) = Dx ( f (t ) ) dt
t =a
t =x
2
2
= Dx ( f (t ) ) dt
t =a
= f (x ) .
86
f (x )
1
2
a
D (2) f (x )
x2
2x
xa
ax a 1
x 1
ln x
0
0
0
I (2)f (x )
x
4x
a 2x
1 3
x
3
1 5
x
5
1
x 2a +1
2a + 1
x 1
x 1
x
H. Vic Dannon
1/2
ex
e x /2
e2x
2e x
eax
sin x
cos x
aeax /2
tan x
1
sin x
cos x
sin x
87
( ln x ) dx
1 2x
e
2
1 4x
e
4
1 2ax
e
2a
( sin2 x )dx
( cos2 x )dx
( tan2 x )dx
e 2 sin xdx
e 2 cos xdx
H. Vic Dannon
References
[Abram]. Abramowitz, Milton and Stegun, Irene, Handbook of Mathematical Functions
with Formulas, Graphs, and Mathematical Tables, United States Department of
Commerce, National Bureau of Standards, 1964.
[Bert] Bertrand, Joseph, Traite de Calcul Differentiel et de Calcul Integral, Volume I,
Calcul Differentiel, Gauthier-Villars, 1864. Reproduced by Editions Jacques Gabai,
2007.
[Doll]. Dollard, John, and Friedman Charles, Product Integration with Applications to
Differential Equations. Addison Wesley, 1979.
[Euler1] Euler, Leonhard, Introduction to Analysis of the Infinite, Book I, SpringerVerlag, 1988.
[Grob] Grobner, und Hofreiter, Integraltafel, Volume I, Springer Verlag, 1975.
[Haan] De Haan, D. Bierens, Nouvelles Tables DIntegrales Definies, Edition of 1867
Corrected. Hafner Publishing.
[Kaza] Kazarinoff, Nicholas, Analytic Inequalities, Holt, Reinhart, and Winston, 1961.
[Melz] Melzak, Z., Companion to Concrete Mathematics, Wiley, 1973.
[Rain] Rainville, Earl, Infinite Series, Macmillan, 1967.
[Saks] Saks, Stanislaw, and Zygmond, Antoni, Analytic Functions, Third edition,
(Second is fine), Elsevier, 1971.
[Spieg] Spiegel, Murray, Mathematical Handbook of Formulas and Tables, McGraw-Hill
1968.
[Spiv] Spivey Michael, The Product Calculus, in ABSTRACTS of papers presented to
the American Mathematical Society, Volume 28, Number 1, Issue 147, p. 327.
[Zeid]. Zeidler, Eberhard, Oxford Users Guide to Mathematics, Oxford University
Press, 2004.
88