Concepts of Computer Control: Example: Production of Sheet Steel-There Are Various Types of Steel Like

Chap-02
Computer Control Concepts
Chapter 02
CONCEPTS OF COMPUTER CONTROL

1. INTRODUCTION:
The computer control in various field applications can be broadly classified as
follows:
a. Batch
b. Continuous
c. Laboratory
Note:
1) The above classification is used only for describing the general
characteristics of the process.
2) The above categories are not rigid separation of the computer control
methods i.e., they are mutually exclusive. In a particular process there
will be certain activities which fall into more than one of the above
categories.
a. BATCH:
It refers to the manufacturing process in which a sequence of operation is
followed to manufacture a given number of products. The number of products
is referred to as the batch.
The sequence of operations is repeated to produce further batches.
The specification of the product or the exact composition of the raw materials
can be changed between successive batches.
Example: Production of sheet steel- there are various types of steel like
Carbon
steel,
Stainless steel, Maraging steel, Alloy steel, Tool steel wherein each of them
has a different set of raw materials.
So to manufacture one class of steel one set of manufacturing
specification and raw materials is used. When the class of steel that needs to
be manufactured changes, then there is a batch change because of change in
the manufacturing specifications and the raw materials.
Timing specifications in batch production:
i.
Setup time or Change over time: time taken for the

preparing the equipment for the next production batch.
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Dept. of ECE, Reva ITM
Chap-02

ii.
iii.
Operation time:
manufactured.
the time during which the product is
The ratio of set up time and the production time determines the
batch size.
b. CONTINUOUS:
The production is maintained for long durations of time, typically they are
unchanged for few months to years.
Example: Catalytic Cracking of crude oil- the crude oil enters at one end
in to the cracking column and the various products, i.e., the result of the
fractional distillation are removed at the other end. The ratio of the products
can be changed without having to stop the distillation process.
A problem associated with the continuous process is that when a changeover
has to happen from one set up to the other the output of the plant is often
not within the product tolerance and must be scrapped.
Hence it is financially important that the change be made as quickly and
smoothly as possible.
c. LABORATORY SYSTEMS:
They are generally operator initiated type; the computer is used to control
some complex experimental test or some complex equipment used for
routine testing.
Example: Control
chromatograph.
and analysis
of data from a vapour phase
2. ACTIVITY LIST:
Irrespective of the application and its classification the following are the
most possible common activities that are carried out:
i.
Data acquisition
ii.
Sequence control
iii.
Loop control(DDC)
iv.
Supervisory control
v.
Data analysis
vi.
Data storage
vii.
Human computer interfacing(HCI)
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3. OBJECTIVES OF USING COMPUTER CONTROL:

i.
Efficiency of operation
ii.
Ease of operation
iii.
Safety
iv.
Improved products
v.
Reduction in waste
vi.
Reduced environmental impact
vii.
Reduction in direct labor
4. SEQUENCE CONTROL:
4.1 Sequence control for Batch processing
Sequence control is mostly used in the batch processing which is widely used
in the food and chemical industries.
The essence of sequential control can be explained taking a simple example
of chemical reactor vessel.
Problem Identification:
A chemical is produced by the reaction of two chemicals at a specified
temperature.
The two chemicals are mixed together in a sealed reactor and the
temperature of the reaction is controlled by feeding hot or cold water
through the water jacket which surrounds the system.
The water flow in the jacket is controlled by adjusting the valves C & D
as shown in fig 2.1.
The flow of the two raw materials (chemicals) into the reactor is
controlled by the valves A&B, while the valve E controls out flow of the
resultant chemical from the reactor.
The temperature of the contents of the vessel and the pressure in the
vessel are constantly monitored.
Now the set up has to be computer controlled, such that there is very
little human interference.
Method of computer control of the chemical manufacturing:

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The hardware implementation for the above problem is as shown in the
fig 2.1. The figure includes the basic reactor and other components
required for producing the chemicals and also the controllers and
measurement devices like temperature and pressure transducers to
achieve computer control.
When the whole set up is implemented for computer control, the
following sequence of actions will be initiated to satisfy the problem
identification.
The following sequence of actions and their timings would be based
upon software.
Fig 2.1: Simple Chemical Reactor Vessel

Sequence of operations:
i.
Open valve A to charge the vessel with chemical I.
ii.
Check the level of the chemical in the vessel by monitoring the

pressure in the vessel; when the required amount of chemical has
been admitted close valve A,
iii.
Start the mixer to mix the chemicals.
iv.
Repeat stages 1 & 2 with valve B in order to admit the second

chemical.
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v.
Switch on the 32-term controller and supply the set

pouints(standard parameters) so that the chemical mix is heated up
to the required reaction temperature.
vi.
Monitor the reaction temperature; when it reaches the set point

start a timer to monitor the reaction duration.
vii.
When the timer indicates that the reaction is complete, switch off
the controller and then open valve C to cool down the reactor
contents. Switch off the stirrer.
viii.
Monitor the temperature, when the contents have cooled open the
valve E to remove the product from the reactor.
The above steps highlight the use of computer sequence control. The above
example is generally a part of a more complex industrial manufacturing
process which can be enumerated as in figure2.2.
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Figure 2.2: Generic chemical batch process

Study of the block diagram (fig 2.2)
i.
There are two reactors R1 and R2 which are used alternatively in a

process similar to fig2.1. So the process of preparing for the next
batch, cleaning up after the completion of the current batch can be
carried out in the parallel in the actual production.
ii.
Initially we will assume that R1 is undergoing the chemical reaction

process using sequence control.
iii.
Parallely the R2 will be cleaned and the next batch of raw materials
will be measured and mixed in the mixing tank.
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iv.
Along with these two sequences the third operation of thinning

down the previous batch resultant chemical (from R2) is carried out
thin down tank and later transfer to the appropriate storage tank.
v.
After this sequences are completed assuming reaction in R1 is

complete the next batch is loaded into R2 starting the reaction
process while simultaneously the output of R1 is transfer to the
storage tank via the thindown tank.
The various sequence of operations can become complex and simultaneously

complex decisions has to be made regarding when to begin the sequence
To address this problem the mixed supervisory systems, where the computer
does the complex computations and then presents the results to the human
operator for confirmation or rejection.
Sequence control for Continuous processing
In continuous processing we see a mixture of sequence, loop and supervisory
control.
The same is explained below assuming the example of float glass process as
shown in fig 2.3
Fig 2.3: float glass process schematic

The following computer control activities can be seen in the fig2.3
i.
The raw materials for glass are mixed in the batches and fed into the
furnace where it is melted and for this process accurate temperature
control is required and is achieved through sequence control.
ii.
The molten glass flows out of the furnace onto the float bath forming
ribbon where temperature control is important, so as to cool the ribbon
as it passes over the roller without damaging the surface, and this is
achieved through loop control.
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Chap-02
iii.
Next the glass ribbon is passed through the lehr to achieve annealing;
where temperature control plays the vital role again it is achieved
using loop control.
iv.
For fault detection the inspection unit searches for the damage and
then identifies them by spraying paint over the damaged area. This is
achieved by supervisory control.
v.
At the end sequence control is used to cut the glass sheets for required
sizes and then lifts the sheets from production line.
5. LOOP CONTROL (DIRECT DIGITAL CONTROL):

This process involves the use of a computer operating in feedback loop in the
process. The same is illustrated in fig 2.4
Fig 2.4 Direct Digital Control

As a result of using the computer in the feedback is that it becomes non
replaceable component of the whole system in terms of reliability.
This being the situation the design of the system must be done with great
care to ensure that in the event of failure or mal functioning of the computer,
the process should not be stopped.
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Chap-02
This can be ensured by allowing the DDC computer to make incremental

changes to the actuator on the plant and to limit the rate of change of the
actuator for DDC settings.
Advantages claimed for DDC over analog control are:
1. Cost
2. Performance
3. Safety
5.1 DDC Applications:

The types of DDC are as follows:
i.
i.
Feedback control
ii.
Inferential control
iii.
Feed forward control
iv.
Adaptive control
Feedback Control:
This type of control can be used either to a single-loop system implemented

on a small microprocessor or to a large system involving several hundred
loops.
Fig 2.5 illustrates the feedback control system. Here the computer is the
controller block which is placed between the measured output and the input
(manipulated variables) and thus it is identified as the feed back loop control
system.
Disturbances are the uncontrollable environmental parameters which has
impact on the process.
A part of the process output is used as feedback (Measured output) while the
rest is used as the output of the process (unmeasured).
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Set points to the controller are the standard parameters with which the feed
backed output is compared with. The output of the controller serves as the
manipulated variables or rather calibrated input to the process.
Fig2.5: Feedback control system

Example: Steam boiler control system.
Problem Identification: The steam pressure is controlled by regulating the
supply of fuel oil to the burner, but in order to comply with the pollution
regulations a particular mix of air and fuel is required. For this purpose a
computer feedback control has to be designed to check the flow of fuel and
air and to monitor the steam pressure. The block diagram for the same is as
shown in fig 2.6.
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Fig 2.6 Scheme of Steam boiler control system

Working:
The steam pressure control system based on a signal from pressure
transducer generates an actuation signal which is fed to an auto/manual bias
station. Based on the signal from pressure controller system, the air- oil flow
is controlled into the combustion chamber is controlled.
If the station is switched to auto then the actuation signal is transmitted; if it
is in manual mode a signal which has been entered manually is transmitted.
The signal from the bias station is connected to two units, a high signal
selector and a low signal selector.
The high selector has two inputs viz, signals from auto/manual bias unit and
oil flow controller. It transmits the higher of the two input signals as the
output. This acts as a set point to the air flow controller.
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The low selector has two inputs viz, signals from auto/manual bias unit and air
flow controller. It transmits the lower of the two input signals as the output.
This acts as a set point to the oil flow controller.
A ratio unit is installed in the air flow measurement line.
The combustion flame intensity is monitored using an optical pyrometer and
this is used as one of the inputs to the air flow controller.
ii.
Inferential control:
Inferential control is the term applied to control where the variables on which
the feedback control is based cannot be measured directly, but have to be
'inferred' from measurements of some other quantity. Fig 2.7 illustrates the
inferential control.
Fig 2.7: inferential control configuration

In Figure 2.7, some of the outputs can be measured and used directly in the
feedback control; other outputs required by the controller cannot be
measured directly and hence some other process measurement is made and
from this the value of the controlled variable is inferred.
Example: Binary distillation column control.
Problem Identification: The schematic of the binary distillation column is as
shown in the fig 2.8.
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Chap-02
The chemical composition of the contents of the distillation column needs to

be monitored.
The composition can be directly measured using spectrographic techniques.
But due to difficulties involved in direct measurement we need to infer the
composition by measuring the temperature and the pressure of the column
contents.
Working:
The four independent variables usually controlled are the liquid levels Ha and
Hb in the accumulator and the reboiler, and the compositions Xo and Xb of the
top and bottom products, as shown in the figure
The temperatures at points Ya and Yb are measured near the top and bottom of
the column and the pressure P in the column. The temperatures represent
the boiling points of the mixture.
And from these measurements of temperature and pressure, the composition
of the chemicals can be known.
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Fig 2.8: Schematic of Binary distillation column
iii.
Feed Forward control:

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This control technique involves measuring the disturbances on the system

rather than measuring the outputs and then inferring the error rate as in
feedback control system.
Feedforward control is frequently used in the process industries. The effect of
introducing feed forward control is to speed up the response of the system to
disturbances; it can, however, only be used for disturbances which can be
measured, and in plants where the effects of the disturbances can be
predicted accurately.
The general block diagram of feedforward control is shown in fig 2.9.
Fig 2.9: Block diagram of feed forward control

In the above figure the disturbances are measured at the input stage by the
measurement unit and the error is transferred to the controller for
manipulating the variables before feeding it to the process unit.
Example: In the hot rolling of sheet steel, if the temperature of the semi
finished product i.e., ingot is known as it approaches the first-stage mill, the
initial setting of the roll gap can be calculated accurately and estimates of the
reduction at each stage of the mill can be made; hence the initial gaps for the
subsequent stages can also be calculated.
If this is done the time taken to get the gauge of the steel within tolerance
can be much reduced and hence the quantity of scrap (out of tolerance) steel
reduced.
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Chap-02
iv. Adaptive Control:

A special type of nonlinear control system which can alter its parameters to
adapt to a changing environment. The changes in environment can represent
variations in process dynamics or changes in the characteristics of the
disturbances.
Adaptive control is different from robust control in the sense that it does not
need a priori information about the bounds on these uncertain or timevarying parameters; robust control guarantees that if the changes are within
given bounds the control law need not be changed, while adaptive control is
precisely concerned with control law changes.
Example: As an aircraft flies, its mass will slowly decrease as a result of fuel
consumption; we need a control law that adapts itself to such changing
conditions.
Three most common types of adaptive control are:
a. Preprogrammed adaptive control;
b. Self-tuning; and
c. Model-reference adaptive control.
a. Preprogrammed adaptive control:
Fig 2.10 Block diagram of programmed adaptive control

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Chap-02
Also known as the gain scheduled control. The control system is illustrated in fig
2.10
The adjustment mechanism makes due changes based upon the changes in
auxiliary process measurements.
Example: In a reaction vessel the gain of the temperature controller can be
changed by measuring the level of liquid in the vessel.
An alternative form of programmed adaptive control is as shown in Figure 2.11 in
which measurements of changes in the external environment are used to select
the gain or other controller parameters.
Fig 2.11 Block diagram of programmed adaptive control using open loop
Example: In an aircraft auto stabilizer, control parameters may be changed

according to the external air pressure.
b. Self Tuning Adaptive Control:

Adaptive control using self-tuning uses identification techniques to achieve
continual determination of the parameters of the process being controlled;
changes in the process parameters are then used to adjust the actual controller.
It is illustrated in fig 2.12.
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Chap-02
Fig 2.12 Block diagram of self tuning adaptive control
c. Model Reference Adaptive Control:

An accurate model of the process is used as reference and the disturbances that
affect the reference are compared with it. The same is illustrated in fig 2.13.
Fig 2.13: Block diagram of Model Reference Adaptive Control
6. SUPERVISORY CONTROL:
Supervisory control is a general term for control of many individual
controllers or control loops, whether by a human or an automatic control
system, although almost every real system is a combination of both. The
same is illustrated in fig 2.14.
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Fig 2.14: block diagram of supervisory control
Supervisory control often takes one of two forms.

i.
The process continues autonomously. It is observed from time to time
by a human who, when deeming it necessary, intervenes to modify the
control algorithm in some way.
ii.
The process accepts an instruction, carries it out autonomously,
reports the results and awaits further commands. With manual control,
the operator interacts directly with a controlled process or task using
switches, levers, screws, valves etc, to control actuators .
This concept was incorporated in the earliest machines which sought
to extend the physical capabilities of man.
The early computer control schemes used supervisory role and not for DDC.
The main reasons for this were
(a) Computers in the early days were not always very reliable;
(b) Computers were very expensive and it was not economically viable to
use a computer to replace the analog control equipment.
The circles labeled C in Figure 2.14 represent individual controllers in the
feedback loop; these can be digital computers (or some other form of
controller), but their operation is supervised by a digital computer.
Example: Evaporation Plant:
Fig 2.15 Schematic of evaporation plant

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Chap-02
Problem Identification:
The schematic of the evaporation plant is as shown in the fig 2.15.
The purpose of the plant is to evaporate water from the solution.
Two evaporators are connected in parallel and solution is fed to each unit.
Steam is supplied to a heat exchanger linked to the first evaporator and the
steam for the second evaporator is supplied from the vapors boiled off from the
first stage.
It is necessary to achieve a balance between the two evaporators; if the first is
driven at its maximum rate it may generate so much steam that the
safety thresholds for the second evaporator are exceeded.
Working:
A supervisory control scheme can be designed to balance the operation of the
two evaporators to obtain the best overall evaporation rate.
The pressure transducer is used in both the columns to measure the pressure in
respective column which intern is used to control the steam generation and flow.
7. CENTRALISED COMPUTER CONTROL
In the early days use of computer in control systems was mainly for the
control of the whole plant.
The main reason for this was the high cost of the computer involved.
General purpose computer can be used for this purpose but the main
hindrance is the problem of interrelating the different time scales of different
programs.
The alternative for the situation was the use of digital controllers with analog
backup.
This involved the use of standard analog controllers which could receive
the digital signals from the digital computer. I f the controller did not receive
the signal within predetermined time interval then it dropped to local analog
control. This was mainly intended if a computer failed, then the plant could
be still operated.
The next generation of computers was cost effective which meant the dual
computer system could be used .The same is illustrated in figure 2.16.
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Chap-02
Fig 2.16: Dual computer scheme

Here if one system failed then the next system could be used.
The automatic failure detection, change over equipment and the software
design become critical and was the impairment factor.
The continued improvement in the I C technology reduction in the cost as
enabled the use of multiple computers in a given system.
The multi computer system can be classified into three types:
1. Hierarchical systems
2. Distributed systems
3. Hierarchical Distributed systems
1. Hierarchical Systems:
A typical company decision making structure as shown in the Figure 2.17 is
used as the basis of hierarchical systems.
Each decision element receives commands from the level above and sends
information back to that level and, and on the basis of information received
from the element or elements below and from, constraints imposed by
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Chap-02
elements at the same level, sends commands to the below elements and
information to elements at the same level.
At the bottom of the pyramid, or hierarchy, a fast response system is used: as
one progresses up the hierarchy the complexity of the calculations increases
as does the time allowed for the response.
Figure 2.17 Hierarchical Decision Making
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Chap-02
2. Distributed Systems:
The basic assumptions of the distributed approach are that:
i.
Each unit is carrying out similar tasks to all the other units;
ii.
In the event of failure or overloading of a particular unit the work

can be transferred to other units.
The work is not divided by function and allocated to a particular computer as

in hierarchical systems: instead the total work is divided up and spread
across several computers.
3. Hierarchical Disturbed Systems:
Currently a mixture of distributed and hierarchical approaches is used as
shown in Figure 2.18. The tasks of measurement, DDC, operator
communications, etc., are distributed among a number of computers which
are linked together via a common serial communications highway and are
configured in a hierarchical command structure.
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Chap-02

Figure 2.18 Distributed and Hierarchical Decision Making
8. HUMAN COMPUTER INTERFACE:

The key to the successful adoption of a computer control scheme depends
on the facilities provided to the plant operator.
A simple and clear system for the day-to-day operation of the plant must be
provided. All the information relevant to the current state of its operation
should be readily available and facilities to enable interaction with the plant to change set points, to adjust actuators by hand, to acknowledge alarm
conditions, etc. - should be provided.
A typical operator station has specially designed keyboards and several

display and printer units.
The standard software packages typically provide a range of display types
like:
i.
An alarm overview presenting information on the alarm status of

large areas of the plant;
ii.
Display of the control systems associated with each area;
The exact nature of the displays is usually determined by the engineer

responsible for the plant.
The plant manager requires access to different information: hard copy
printouts induding graphs - that summarize the day-to-day operation of the
plant and also provide a permanent plant operating history. Data presented to
the manager will frequently have been analyzed statistically to provide more
concise information and to make decision-making more straightforward. The
manager will be interested in assessing the economic performance of the
plant and in determining possible improvements in plant operation.
The design of user interfaces is a specialist area.
9. ECONOMICS AND BENEFITS OF COMPUTER CONTROL

SYSTEMS:
Initially before the advent of the computer control was expensive and was
used in really justified case.
During this time the computer was used the computer use was justified by
the increased profit.
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Chap-02
The advantages of using computer are that it provides flexibility and can be
used repeatedly with increased reliability and accuracy.
The cost of computer control has reduced drastically by the advent of
microprocessors.
Currently the major costs of computer control are the system design,
software cost, software construction and testing. This can be compared to
the initial days where the use of computer was debatable on the issue of
cost.
The availability of powerful, cheap and highly reliable computer hardware and
communications systems makes it possible to conceive and construct large,
complex, computer-based control systems.
The complexity of such systems raises concern about their dependability and
safety.
A major concern arises from the difficulty of verifying the correctness of
software and of validating a system which contains software.
Verification is concerned with answering the question: are we building the
product correctly? Validation is concerned with the question: are we building
the right product?
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You can easily judge the character of a man by how he treats those who can do
nothing for him.
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Chap-02
QUESTION BANK
1. Explain batch, continuous and laboratory system of processing with
examples.
2. What are the basic activities that are involved in a computer based control
system?
3. List the objectives of using a computer in a control system.
4. Explain sequence control for batch processing with a suitable example.
5. Repeat Q no. 4 for continuous processing.
6. What are the different types of loop control systems?
or
What are the different DDC applications?
7. What is loop control? Explain with a neat block diagram and what is the
advantage of using DDC over analog controls?
8. Explain feedback control system with the block diagram. Illustrate the same
taking the example of steam boiler control system.
9. Considering an example of binary distillation column explain inferential
control system. Draw the block diagram representing the inferential control.
10.What is feed forward control system? Represent the same with a block
diagram and example.
11.What is adaptive control? Explain with block diagram and example the
different types of adaptive control.
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Chap-02
12.What is supervisory control system? Explain the same considering an

example of evaporation plant.
13.Define centralized computer control system and what are the different types
of multi computer system?
14.Explain a) Hierarchical systems
b) Distributed systems
15.Write short notes on :
a) Human computer interface
b) The economics and benefits of a computer controlled systems
ASSIGNMENT
1. List the characteristics of (a) batch processes and (b) continuous processes.
2. In a chemical plant which can produce ten different chemical products in
batches which can be between 500 and 5000 kg. What factors should be
considered in calculating the optimum batch size?
3. What are the advantages/disadvantages of using a continuous oven? How will
the control of the process change from using a standard oven on a batch
basis to using an oven in which the batch passes through on a conveyor belt?
Which will be the easier to control?
4. List the advantages and disadvantages of using DDC.
5. List the advantages of using several small computers instead of one large
computer in control applications. Are there any disadvantages that arise from
using several computers?
6. 'The design of user interfaces is a specialist area'- Justify the statement
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Chap-02
28

Concepts of Computer Control: Example: Production of Sheet Steel-There Are Various Types of Steel Like

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Chap-02

Computer Control Concepts