Comparative Anatomy of the

Vertebrates:

[CHAPTER 10:

Girdles, Fins Limbs and Locomotion ]

OUTLINE
I. Pectoral Girdle
a. Ostracoderms
b. Teleost
c. Chondrichthyes
d. Early Tetrapods
- clavicles
- coracoid plate
- coracoid process
- scapula
e. Mammals
II. Pelvic Girdle
- pelvic plate
- sacroiliac joint
- prepubic cartilage
- epipubic and hypoischial bone
- innominate bone
- relaxin
III. Fins
A. Fin Rays
B. Skeletal Base of Fin Rays
C. Paired Fins
D. Medial Fins
E. Caudal Fins
F. Origin of Paired Fins
IV. Tetrapod Limbs
A. Manus
B. Pes
C. Origin of Limbs
D. Locomotion on Land without Limbs

APPENDICULAR SKELETON girdles, fins and limbs

Limb buds where tetrapod limbs arise during
embryogenesis
may be transitory, incomplete or
functionless vestiges which bespeaks an
ancestor with functional tetrapod limbs
Fin folds where fins arise during embryogenesis
I. PECTORAL GIRDLES dermal + replacement bones
a.) OSTRACODERMS with pectoral appendages;
girdles remain unclear
b.) TELEOSTS cleithrum as the major bone of the
girdle
no clavicle
scapulocoracoid (coracoid+scapula)

c.)
d.)

CHONDRICHTHYES
components

calcified

endoskeletal

EARLY TETRAPODS interclavicle (addnl

membrane bone)
no posttemporal (braced the girdle
against the skull in fishes)
supracleithrum is missing

*Please refer to The Skeletal System 4 Handout for the

tabulated components of pectoral girdle in representative
vertebrates.
CLAVICLES fate is correlated with that of the coracoid
clavicle and/or coracoid and procoracoid
brace the scapula against the sternum
long bones of furculum (wishbone) in
birds
CORACOID PLATE 2 ossification centers:
a. Anterior gives rise to procoracoids
b. Posterior gives rise to coracoids
CORACOID PROCESS OF THE SCAPULA vestige of
the procoracoids and coracoids in Eutheria
SCAPULA present in all tetrapods that retain any
vestiges of anterior limbs
bears part or all of the glenoid fossa for
articulation of the girdle with the head of the
humerus
e.) MAMMALIAN SCAPULA (Recall scapula of cat!):
1. Scapular spine
2. Supraspinous fossa
3. Infraspinous fossa
4. Acromion process
Mammalian clavicle large in monotremes,
insectivores and primates
in bats, brace the scapula against the
sternum
no clavicle in cats (to withstand the shock
of landing upright on their forelimbs),
ungulates (facilitates grazing) and
ungulates
Observation: Dermal bones predominate in the pectoral
girdle of bony fishes, whereas replacement
bones predominate in tetrapods.

Comparative Anatomy of the

Vertebrates:

[CHAPTER 10:

Girdles, Fins Limbs and Locomotion ]

II. PELVIC GIRDLES no dermal bones

1. PELVIC (ISCHIOPUBIC) PLATES paired (brace for
the pelvic fins) that meet in the midventral pelvic
symphysis in fishes
fused as one structure in chondrichthyes
and lungfishes
with 2 ossification centers to form a pubis
and an ischium in tetrapods
acetabulum for articulation of head
of femur
ilium from blastema dorsal to the
pelvic plate
pubic,
ischial
and
ishiopubic
symphyses absent in birds to
provide a wider outlet from the
pelvic cavity for laying eggs
pelvis sacrum + girdle (amniotes);
encircles caudal end of the
coelom
pelvic cavity contains the urogenital
organs; terminal portion of large
intestine
2. SACROILIAC JOINT junction b/n sacrum and ilium;
shock absorber; immobile

2. LEPIDOTRICHIA bony; teleosts

Actinotrichia distal to the fin rays; stiffen the fin rays
B. SKELETAL BASE OF FIN RAYS
1. BASALIA absent in specialized teleosts
2. RADIALIA vestiges in specialized teleosts
Archipterygium ancestral fin type
C. PAIRED FINS
1. LOBED FINS sarcopterygians (actinistians
and rhipidistians); fleshy proximal lobe and
membranous distal portion
2. FIN FOLD FINS chondrichthyans; with broad
base; basalia: propterygia, mesopterygia,
metapterygia
3. RAY FINS actinopterygians (most like tuna
have no pelvic fins for streamlinings); very
flexible (teleosts)
4. SPINY FINS acanthodians; supported by
hollow spines (not fin rays)
Biserial fin with two series of radials; e.g. dipnoan
Neoceratodus
Claspers modified basalia in male chondrichthyans

3. PREPUBIC (YPSILOID) CARTILAGE urodeles; for

attachment of respiratory muscles
4. EPIPUBIC AND HYPOISCHIAL BONE reptiles,
monotremes and marsupials; epipubic bone is
marsupial bone (supports marsupium) in
marsupials
Archaeopteryx no synsacrum
5. INNOMINATE (COXAL) BONE ankylosed ilium,
ischium and pubis in mammals
6. RELAXIN ovarian hormone which softens the
fibrocartilage of pelvic symphyses during
parturition
III. FINS
Functions:
1. steering devices for changing direction
2. stabilizers to prevent the body from rolling
3. control of body inclination when swimming away
from the horizontal
4. serve as brakes to decrease forward motion
A. FIN RAYS
1. CERATOTRICHIA keratinized; elasmobranchs

D. MEDIAN FINS
1. DORSAL FINS act as keels, keeping
motionless fishes from rolling to the left and
right; may be used for locomotion in rare
cases; impt in Rajiformes (inc. number),
lampreys and bony eels (elongated)
2. ANAL FINS modified as gonopodia
(analogous to claspers) in some viviparous
teleosts
E. CAUDAL FINS
1. HETEROCERCAL notochord turns upward;
placoderms, Paleozoic and modern sharks,
some acanthodians, and chondrosteans
(sturgeons and spoonbills)
2. HYPOCERCAL vertebral column turns
downward;
ichthyosaurs
(result
of
evolutionary convergence)
3. DIPHYCERCAL externally symmetrical,
vertebral column ends with a little
upbending; dipnoans and Latimeria
4. HOMOCERCAL notochord turns far dorsad;
teleosts
*Heterocercal condition most primitive; the rest are
modifications of it

Comparative Anatomy of the

Vertebrates:

[CHAPTER 10:

Girdles, Fins Limbs and Locomotion ]

*Similaities in morphologic features of caudal fins may

be the result of convergent evolution
F. ORIGIN OF PAIRED FINS
1. FIN FOLD HYPOTHESIS paired fins are
derived from a pair of continuous fleshy
folds of lateral body wall analogous to the
metapleural folds of an amphioxus; no
evidence; of historical interest only
2. GILL ARCH HYPOTHESIS pectoral and pelvic
girdles are modified gill arches, and the
skeleton within the fin is an expansion of the
gill rays
3. FIN SPINE HYPOTHESIS membranes in 2
pairs develop in rays supported by radial
elements
*Pelvic fins appear to be a gnathostome feature.
*Spines in acanthodians derived feature

IV. TETRAPOD LIMBS

*Early tetrapods first segment is horizontal from the
trunk; second segment perpendicular to the first,
directed downward; among amphibians and
basal lizards
THREE SEGMENTS:
1. PROPODIUM upper arm, thigh
2. EPIPODIUM forearm, shank
3. AUTOPODIUM

manus,
modifications

pes;

most

PATELLA (KNEECAP) sesamoid bone; in birds and

mammals; protects the joint from the abrasive
action of the tendon
PENTADACTYL LIMB five-digit limb
A. MANUS
1. CARPUS wrist with 3 rows of bones:
a. Proximal Carpals
radiale
intermediale
ulnare
pisiform sesamoid bone; in most
reptiles and mammals
b. centralia 3 or more bones
c. distal carpals 5
th
th
hamate fused 4 and 5 distal
carpals
2. METACARPUS skeleton of the palm
3. PHALANGES bones of the digits; 2-3-4-5-3
(generalized
phalangeal

formula); 2-3-3-3-3 in late

therapsids and mammals with
pentadactyl limbs
PREPOLLEX elongated carpal; can be seen in a
panda
POLLEX thumb
MODIFICATIONS OF MANUS:
1. reduction in the number of bones by evolutionary
loss or fusion
2. disproportionate lengthening or shortening of
some of the bones
3. increase in the number of phalanges
ADAPTATIONS OF MANUS:
1. Flight
CARPOMETACARPUS fused three
distal carpals and three metacarpals; in
birds
ALULA first finger in brids; for braking
PATAGIUM wing membrane; pterosaurs,
bats, gliding lemurs; a result of
convergent evolution if present in
unrelated mammals
2. For life in the ocean became flippers
3. For swift-footedness
PLANTIGRADE common in mammals
with pentadactyl limbs (monotremes,
marsupials,
insectivores,
bears,
arboreal raccoons and primates);
primitive tetrapod stance
DIGITIGRADE rabbits, rodents and most
carnivores; increased speed and agility
and more silent than plantigrade
UNGULIGRADE stance that is wellsuited for running
a. PARAXONIC FEET body
weight borne on two
parallel axes; artiodactyls
b. MESAXONIC FEET body
weight borne on the
middle digit; perissodactyls
4. For grasping accomplished by flexing the
fingers at each interphalangeal joint; primates,
rodents; opposable thumb
B. PES
1. TARSALS wrist with 3 rows of bones:
a. proximal tarsals
fibulare
intermediale
tibiale
b. centralia 3 or more bones

Comparative Anatomy of the

Vertebrates:

[CHAPTER 10:

Girdles, Fins Limbs and Locomotion ]

c. distal tarsals 5
cuboid fused 4th and 5th tarsals
2. METATARSALS skeleton of the palm
3. PHALANGES bones of the digits
2-3-4-5-4 (Sphenodon); 2-3-4-4-0 (alligator);
2-3-4-4-0 (turtles); 2-3-4-5-4 (generalized for
reptiles); and 2-3-3-3-3 in early therapsids
and mammals
PREHALLUX vestiges of a tarsal or metatarsal
HALLUX great toe
ASTRAGALOCALCANEUS fused proximal tarsals and
a centrale; in lizards
TIBIOFIBULA fused of tibia and fibula (frogs); splinter
in birds; lost in deer and other ungulates
TIBIOTARSUS fused of tibia and proximal tarsals
(birds)
TARSOMETATARSUS fused distal tarsals and
metatarsals
*There is an intratarsal joint between the tibiotarsus and
tarsometatarsus and a joint between the
tarsometatarsus and toes.
ZYGODACTYLY X; woodpeckers and parrots
*Mammals have a hinge joint instead of an intratarsal
joint. The tibiale is the principal weight-bearing
bone of the ankle.
METATARSAL arch in hominoids; distributes the body
weight over four solid bases; absorbs some of
the shock generated by bipedal locomotion;
provides spring for walking and running
*In wriggling seals, walruses, cetaceans and sirenians,
the anterior flippers are for maneuvering.
Wirggling seals move using their posterior
flippers and with lateral undulations of the trunk.
Walruses, cetaceans and sirenians move by
dorsal and ventral undulations.
C. HYPOTHESES (ORIGIN OF THE LIMBS):
1. MODIFICATION OF EXISTING STRUCTURES
(supported by fossil record)
Rhipidistian pectoral fin with basal bone
articulates proximally with scapula and
distally with a pair of radials
Loss of fin rays and modifications of
distal radials could have produced the
skeleton of the tetrapod limb

Preaxial and postaxial radials could

have formed the digits
2. FORMATION OF NEW FEATURES (based on
developmental studies)
Initial cell proliferations develop the limb
buds at the sides of the trunk of the
body
Second period of cell proliferation
occurs at right angles to the limb axis
(distal to the wrist) giving rise to the
digits
D. LOCOMOTION ON LAND WITHOUT LIMBS
1. SERPENTINE or LATERAL UNDULATION by
forming loops; limbless lizards and
snakes
2. RECTILINEAR LOCOMOTION gliding forward
on the substrate while keeping the entire
body in a straight line; depends on
generating friction between sections of
the ventral skin and the substrate
3. SIDEWINDING rattlesnakes and snakes
(desert)
4. CONCERTINA
MOVEMENT

modified
serpentine movements; bracing S-shaped
loops against the burrow wall and
exerting horizontal force while thrusting
the head and forebody forward