Holism

Not to be confused with -holism.

ontology.
The following is an overview of Smuts opinions regarding the general concept, functions, and categories of
Holism; like the denition of Holism, other than the idea
that the whole is greater than the sum of its parts, the
editor is unaware of any authoritative secondary sources
corroborating Smuts opinions.

Holism (from Greek holos all, whole, entire) is

the idea that systems (physical, biological, chemical, social, economic, mental, linguistic, etc.) and their properties should be viewed as wholes, not as collections of
parts. This often includes the view that systems function
as wholes and that their functioning cannot be fully understood solely in terms of their component parts.[1][2]
The term Holism was coined by J C Smuts in Holism and
Evolution.[3][4] It was Smuts opinion that Holism is a concept that represents all of the wholes in the universe, and
it is a factor because the wholes it denotes are the real
factors in the universe. Further, it was his opinion that
Holism also denoted a theory of the universe in the same
vein as Materialism and Spiritualism; that the ultimate reality in the universe is neither matter nor spirit but wholes
as dened in Holism and Evolution. While he oered
these dierent denitions, Smuts clearly stated his opinion that its primary and proper use was to denote the totality of wholes which operate as real factors and give to reality its dynamic evolutionary creative character.[3]:120121
Aside from the idea that the whole is greater than the sum
of its parts, the editor has been unable to identify authoritative secondary sources corroborating Smuts definitions. When elaborations for the mental, personal and
social categories are provided, and a case is made that
Holism is a bonade monistic ontology, we can revisit
the vision of Holism that Smuts held.

1.1 Structure
Wholes are composites which have an internal structure, function or character which clearly dierentiates
them from mechanical additions, aggregates, and constructions, such as science assumes on the mechanical
hypothesis.[3]:106 The concept of structure is not conned
to the physical domain (e.g. chemical, biological and artifacts); it also applies to the metaphysical domain (e.g.
mental structures, properties, attributes, values, ideals,
etc.)[3]:161

1.2 Field

The eld of a whole is not something dierent and additional to it, it is the continuation of the whole beyond
its sensible contours of experience.[3]:113 The eld characterizes a whole as a unied and synthesised event in the
system of Relativity, that includes not only its present
1 Synopsis of Holism and Evolution but also its pastand also its future potentialities.[3]:89
As such, the concept of eld entails both activity and
[3]:115
After identifying the need for reform in the fundamental structure.
concepts of matter, life and mind (chapter 1) Smuts examines the reformed concepts (as of 1926) of space and
time (chapter 2), matter (chapter 3) and biology (chapter 4) and concludes that the close approach to each other 1.3 Variation
of the concepts of matter, life and mind, and the partial overow of each others domain, implies that there Darwins theory of organic descent placed primary emis a fundamental principle (Holism) of which they are phasis on the role of natural selection but there would be
the progressive outcome.[3]:86 Chapters 5 and 6 provide nothing to select if not for variation. Variations that are
the general concept, functions and categories of Holism; the result of mutations in the biological sense and varichapters 7 and 8 address Holism with respect to Mecha- ations that are the result of individually acquired modnism and Darwinism, chapters 9-11 make a start towards ications in the personal sense are attributed by Smuts
demonstrating the concepts and functions of Holism for to Holism; further it was his opinion that because varithe metaphysical categories (mind, personality, ideals) ations appear in complexes and not singly, evolution is
and the book concludes with a chapter that argues for the more than the outcome of individual selections, it is
universal ubiquity of Holism and its place as a monistic holistic.[3]:190192
1

1.4

Regulation

reciprocally inuence and determine each other, and appear more or less to merge their individual characters: the
whole is in the parts and the parts are in the whole, and
this synthesis of whole and parts is reected in the holistic
character of the functions of the parts as well as of the
whole.[3]:88

The whole exhibits a discernible regulatory function as it

relates to cooperation and coordination of the structure
and activity of parts, and to the selection and deselection
of variations. The result is a balanced correlation of organs and functions. The activities of the parts are directed
to central ends; co-operation and unied action instead of
1.8
the separate mechanical activities of the parts.[3]:125

1.5

Creativity

It is the intermingling of elds which is creative or causal

in nature. This is seen in matter, where if not for its dynamic structural creative character matter could not have
been the mother of the universe. This function, or factor
of creativity is even more marked in biology where the
protoplasm of the cell is vitally active in an ongoing process of creative change where parts are continually being
destroyed and replaced by new protoplasm. With minds
the regulatory function of Holism acquires consciousness
and freedom, demonstrating a creative power of the most
far-reaching character. Holism is not only creative but
self-creative, and its nal structures are far more holistic
than its initial structures.[3]:18, 37, 6768, 8889

1.6

Causality

As it relates to causality Smuts makes reference to Whitehead, and indirectly Spinoza; the Whitehead premise is
that organic mechanism is a fundamental process which
realizes and actualizes individual syntheses or unities.
Holism (the factor) exemplies this same idea while emphasizing the holistic character of the process. The whole
completely transforms the concept of Causality; results
are not directly a function of causes. The whole absorbs and integrates the cause into its own activity; results appear as the consequence of the activity of the
whole.[3]:121124,126 Note that this material relating to
Whiteheads inuence as it relates to causality was added
in the second edition and, of course, will not be found in
reprints of the rst edition; nor is it included in the most
recent Holst edition. It is the second edition of Holism
and Evolution (1927) that provides the most recent and
denitive treatment by Smuts.

1.7

INDICATIONS OF HOLISM IN PHILOSOPHY

Progressive grading of wholes

A rough and provisional summary of the progressive grading of wholes that comprise Holism is as
follows:[3]:109
1. Material structure e.g. a chemical compound
2. Functional structure in living bodies
3. Animals, which exhibit a degree of central control
that is-primarily implicit and unconscious
4. Personality, characterized as conscious central control
5. States and similar group organizations characterized
by central control that involves many people.
6. Holistic Ideals, or absolute Values, distinct from human personality that are creative factors in the creation of a spiritual world, for example Truth, Beauty
and Goodness.

2 Indications of Holism in Philosophy

Main articles: Conrmation holism and Semantic holism

In philosophy, any doctrine that emphasizes the priority

of a whole over its parts is holism. Some suggest that such
a denition owes its origins to a non-holistic view of language and places it in the reductivist camp. Alternately,
a 'holistic' denition of holism denies the necessity of a
division between the function of separate parts and the
workings of the 'whole'. It suggests that the key recognizable characteristic of a concept of holism is a sense of
the fundamental truth of any particular experience. This
exists in contradistinction to what is perceived as the reductivist reliance on inductive method as the key to verThe whole is greater than the sum of its ication of its concept of how the parts function within
parts
the whole.

The fundamental holistic characters as a unity of parts

which is so close and intense as to be more than the sum of
its parts; which not only gives a particular conformation or
structure to the parts, but so relates and determines them in
their synthesis that their functions are altered; the synthesis aects and determines the parts, so that they function
towards the whole; and the whole and the parts, therefore

2.1 Philosophy of Language

In the philosophy of language this becomes the claim,
called semantic holism, that the meaning of an individual word or sentence can only be understood in terms of
its relations to a larger body of language, even a whole

3
theory or a whole language. In the philosophy of mind, 3 Indications of Holism
a mental state may be identied only in terms of its reScience
lations with others. This is often referred to as content
holism or holism of the mental. This notion involves
the philosophies of such gures as Frege, Wittgenstein, Main article: Holism in science
and Quine.[5]

2.2

Epistemological
Holism

and

in Physical

Conrmation
3.1 Agriculture

Epistemological and conrmation holism are mainstream

There are several newer methods in agricultural science
ideas in contemporary philosophy.
such as permaculture and holistic planned grazing that integrate ecology and social sciences with food production.
Organic farming is sometimes considered a holistic ap2.3 Ontological Holism
proach.
Ontological holism was espoused by David Bohm in his
theory[6] on The Implicate Order.

3.2 Chaos and Complexity

2.4

Hegel

Hegel rejected the fundamentally atomistic conception

of the object, (Stern, 38) arguing that individual objects exist as manifestations of indivisible substanceuniversals, which cannot be reduced to a set of properties
or attributes; he therefore holds that the object should be
treated as an ontologically primary whole. (Stern, 40) In
direct opposition to Kant, therefore, Hegel insists that
the unity we nd in our experience of the world is not
constructed by us out of a plurality of intuitions. (Stern,
40) In his ontological scheme a concrete individual is not
reducible to a plurality of sensible properties, but rather
exemplies a substance universal. (Stern, 41) His point
is that it is a mistake to treat an organic substance like
blood as nothing more than a compound of unchanging
chemical elements, that can be separated and united without being fundamentally altered. (Stern, 103) In Hegels
view, a substance like blood is thus more of an organic
unity and cannot be understood as just an external composition of the sort of distinct substances that were discussed at the level of chemistry. (Stern, 103) Thus in
Hegels view, blood is blood and cannot be successfully
reduced to what we consider are its component parts; we
must view it as a whole substance entire unto itself. This
is most certainly a fundamentally holistic view.[7]

In the latter half of the 20th century, holism led to systems

thinking and its derivatives, like the sciences of chaos and
complexity. Systems in biology, psychology, or sociology
are frequently so complex that their behavior is, or appears, new or "emergent": it cannot be deduced from
the properties of the elements alone.[14]
Holism has thus been used as a catchword. This contributed to the resistance encountered by the scientic
interpretation of holism, which insists that there are
ontological reasons that prevent reductive models in principle from providing ecient algorithms for prediction of
system behavior in certain classes of systems.
Scientic holism holds that the behavior of a system cannot be perfectly predicted, no matter how much data is
available. Natural systems can produce surprisingly unexpected behavior, and it is suspected that behavior of
such systems might be computationally irreducible, which
means it would not be possible to even approximate the
system state without a full simulation of all the events occurring in the system. Key properties of the higher level
behavior of certain classes of systems may be mediated
by rare surprises in the behavior of their elements due
to the principle of interconnectivity, thus evading predictions except by brute force simulation.

Complexity theory (also called science of complexity)

[Editors note:work in progress, moving references to
is
a contemporary heir of systems thinking. It comprises
Hegel to a common section] Hegel[8][9] and Edmund
both
computational and holistic, relational approaches toHusserl.[10][11]
wards understanding complex adaptive systems and, especially in the latter, its methods can be seen as the polar opposite to reductive methods. General theories of
2.5 Spinoza
complexity have been proposed, and numerous complexity institutes and departments have sprung up around the
The concept of holism played a pivotal role in Baruch world. The Santa Fe Institute is arguably the most famous
Spinoza's philosophy[12][13]
of them.

INDICATIONS OF HOLISM IN SOCIAL SCIENCE

cal purposes. A disturbance on any levelsomatic, psychic, or socialwill radiate to all the other levels, too.
In this sense, psychosomatic thinking is similar to the
biopsychosocial model of medicine.
Many alternative medicine practitioners claim a holistic
approach to healing.

3.5 Neurology

The Earth seen from Apollo 17.

3.3

Ecology

See also: Holistic community

A lively debate has run since the end of the 19th century regarding the functional organization of the brain.
The holistic tradition (e.g., Pierre Marie) maintained that
the brain was a homogeneous organ with no specic subparts whereas the localizationists (e.g., Paul Broca) argued that the brain was organized in functionally distinct
cortical areas which were each specialized to process a
given type of information or implement specic mental
operations. The controversy was epitomized with the existence of a language area in the brain, nowadays known
as the Brocas area.[18]

4 Indications of Holism in Social

Science

Ecology is one of the most important applications of

holism, as it tries to include biological, chemical, physical and economic views in a given area. The complexity 4.1 Architecture
grows with the area, so that it is necessary to reduce the
characteristic of the view in other ways, for example to a Architecture is often argued by design academics and
specic time of duration.
those practicing in design to be a holistic enterprise.[19]
[15]
John Muir, Scots born early conservationist,
wrote Used in this context, holism tends to imply an all-inclusive
When we try to pick out anything by itself we nd it design perspective. This trait is considered exclusive to
architecture, distinct from other professions involved in
hitched to everything else in the Universe.
design projects.
More information is to be found in the eld of systems
ecology, a cross-disciplinary eld inuenced by general
systems theory.
4.2 Branding
A holistic brand (also holistic branding) is considering the
entire brand or image of the company. For example, a
universal brand image across all countries, including evIn primary care the term holistic, has been used to deerything from advertising styles to the stationery the comscribe approaches that take into account social considerapany has made, to the company colours.
tions and other intuitive judgements.[16] The term holism,
and so-called approaches, appear in psychosomatic
medicine in the 1970s, when they were considered one 4.3 Economics
possible way to conceptualize psychosomatic phenomena. Instead of charting one-way causal links from psyche With roots in Schumpeter, the evolutionary approach
to soma, or vice versa, it aimed at a systemic model, might be considered the holist theory in economics. They
where multiple biological, psychological and social fac- share certain language from the biological evolutionary
tors were seen as interlinked.[17]
approach. They take into account how the innovation sys-

3.4

Medicine

Other, alternative approaches in the 1970s were psychosomatic and somatopsychic approaches, which concentrated on causal links only from psyche to soma, or from
soma to psyche, respectively.[17] At present it is commonplace in psychosomatic medicine to state that psyche and
soma cannot really be separated for practical or theoreti-

tem evolves over time. Knowledge and know-how, knowwho, know-what and know-why are part of the whole
business economics. Knowledge can also be tacit, as described by Michael Polanyi. These models are open, and
consider that it is hard to predict exactly the impact of a
policy measure. They are also less mathematical.

4.6

Sociology

4.4

Education reform

4.5

Psychology

Edgar Morin, the French philosopher and sociologist, can

be considered a holist based on the transdisciplinary naThe Taxonomy of Educational Objectives identies many ture of his work.
levels of cognitive functioning, which can be used to creMel Levine, M.D., author of A Mind at a Time,[21] and
ate a more holistic education. In authentic assessment,
co-founder (with Charles R. Schwab) of the not-for-prot
rather than using computers to score multiple choice tests,
organization All Kinds of Minds, can be considered a
a standards based assessment uses trained scorers to score
holist based on his view of the 'whole child' as a product
open-response items using holistic scoring methods.[20] In
of many systems and his work supporting the educational
projects such as the North Carolina Writing Project, scorneeds of children through the management of a childs
ers are instructed not to count errors, or count numbers
educational prole as a whole rather than isolated weakof points or supporting statements. The scorer is instead
nesses in that prole.
instructed to judge holistically whether as a whole is
it more a 2 or a 3. Critics question whether such a
process can be as objective as computer scoring, and the
4.6 Sociology
degree to which such scoring methods can result in different scores from dierent scorers.
4.6.1 Anthropology

4.5.1

Psychology of perception

A major holist movement in the early twentieth century

was gestalt psychology. The claim was that perception
is not an aggregation of atomic sense data but a eld,
in which there is a gure and a ground. Background
has holistic eects on the perceived gure. Gestalt psychologists included Wolfgang Koehler, Max Wertheimer,
Kurt Koka. Koehler claimed the perceptual elds corresponded to electrical elds in the brain. Karl Lashley
did experiments with gold foil pieces inserted in monkey
brains purporting to show that such elds did not exist.
However, many of the perceptual illusions and visual phenomena exhibited by the gestaltists were taken over (often
without credit) by later perceptual psychologists. Gestalt
psychology had inuence on Fritz Perls' gestalt therapy,
although some old-line gestaltists opposed the association
with counter-cultural and New Age trends later associated
with gestalt therapy. Gestalt theory was also inuential on
phenomenology. Aron Gurwitsch wrote on the role of the
eld of consciousness in gestalt theory in relation to phenomenology. Maurice Merleau-Ponty made much use of
holistic psychologists such as work of Kurt Goldstein in
his Phenomenology of Perception.
4.5.2

Teleological psychology

Alfred Adler believed that the individual (an integrated

whole expressed through a self-consistent unity of thinking, feeling, and action, moving toward an unconscious,
ctional nal goal), must be understood within the larger
wholes of society, from the groups to which he belongs
(starting with his face-to-face relationships), to the larger
whole of mankind. The recognition of our social embeddedness and the need for developing an interest in the
welfare of others, as well as a respect for nature, is at
the heart of Adlers philosophy of living and principles
of psychotherapy.

There is an ongoing dispute as to whether anthropology

is intrinsically holistic. Supporters of this concept consider anthropology holistic in two senses. First, it is concerned with all human beings across times and places,
and with all dimensions of humanity (evolutionary, biophysical, sociopolitical, economic, cultural, psychological, etc.) Further, many academic programs following
this approach take a four-eld approach to anthropology that encompasses physical anthropology, archeology,
linguistics, and cultural anthropology or social anthropology.[22]
Some leading anthropologists disagree, and consider anthropological holism to be an artifact from 19th century
social evolutionary thought that inappropriately imposes
scientic positivism upon cultural anthropology.[23]
The term holism is additionally used within social and
cultural anthropology to refer to an analysis of a society
as a whole which refuses to break society into component
parts. One denition says: as a methodological ideal,
holism implies ... that one does not permit oneself to
believe that our own established institutional boundaries
(e.g. between politics, sexuality, religion, economics)
necessarily may be found also in foreign societies.[24]
4.6.2 mile Durkheim
Main article: Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft
See also: Ubuntu (philosophy)
mile Durkheim developed a concept of holism which
he set as opposite to the notion that a society was nothing more than a simple collection of individuals. In more
recent times, Louis Dumont[25] has contrasted holism
to "individualism" as two dierent forms of societies.
According to him, modern humans live in an individualist society, whereas ancient Greek society, for example, could be qualied as holistic, because the individual found identity in the whole society. Thus, the individual was ready to sacrice himself or herself for his or

6 NOTES

her community, as his or her life without the polis had no

sense whatsoever.

Organismic theory

4.6.3

Polytely

Cosmomorphism

The French Protestant missionary Maurice Leenhardt

coined the term cosmomorphism to indicate the state
of perfect symbiosis with the surrounding environment
which characterized the culture of the Melanesians of
New Caledonia. For these people, an isolated individual
is totally indeterminate, indistinct, and featureless until he
can nd his position within the natural and social world in
which he is inserted. The connes between the self and
the world are annulled to the point that the material body
itself is no guarantee of the sort of recognition of identity
which is typical of our own culture.[26][27]

4.7

Theology

Holistic concepts are strongly represented within the

thoughts expressed within Logos (per Heraclitus),
Panentheism and Pantheism.
In theological anthropology, which belongs to theology
and not to anthropology, holism is the belief that body,
soul and spirit are not separate components of a person,
but rather facets of a united whole.[28]

See also
Antireductionism
Antiscience
Atomism
Determinism
Emergentism
Gaia hypothesis
Gross National Happiness

Panarchy

Synergetics
Synergy
Systems theory
Writers:
Christopher Alexander
Buckminster Fuller
Arthur Koestler
Howard T. Odum
Allan Savory
Herbert A. Simon
Victor Skumin
Ken Wilber

6 Notes
[1] Oshry, Barry (2008), Seeing Systems: Unlocking the Mysteries of Organizational Life, Berrett-Koehler.
[2] Auyang, Sunny Y (1999), Foundations of Complex-system
Theories: in Economics, Evolutionary Biology, and Statistical Physics, Cambridge University Press.
[3] Smuts, Jan Christiaan (1927). Holism and Evolution 2nd
Edition. Macmillian and Co.
[4] The rst publication of Holism and Evolution was by MacMilian and Co. in 1926. Smuts published a 2nd edition in 1927 and there have been at least three subsequent
reprints; Compass/Viking Press 1961, Greenwood Press
1973, Sierra Sunrise Books 1999 (a version edited by Sanford Holst). The full text of the 1927 2nd edition is available on the Internet Archive site and this is the source used
in updating the Holism page

Holarchy

[5] Holism, The Basics of Philosophy

Holism in ecological anthropology

[6] Bohm, D. (1980). Wholeness and the Implicate Order.

London: Routledge. ISBN 0-7100-0971-2

Holistic management in agriculture

Holistic modeling language
Holon (philosophy)
Janus
Logical holism
Organicism
Organic wholes

[7] Robert Stern, Hegel, Kant and the Structure of the Object,
London: Routledge Chapman Hall, 1990 (full text download)
[8] Robert Stern, Hegel, Kant and the Structure of the Object,
London: Routledge, 1990, p. 6 & p. 135
[9] Merold Westphal, Hegel, Freedom, and Modernity, New
York: SUNY, 1992, pp.79-81, & p. 86
[10] Michael Eseld, Holism in Philosophy of Mind and Philosophy of Physics, Springer, 2001, p. 7

[11] Johanna Maria Tito, Logic in the Husserlian Context,

Northwestern University Press, 1990, p. 245
[12] Charles Huenemann, Interpreting Spinoza: Critical Essays,
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008, p. 41
[13] Eccy De Jonge, Spinoza and Deep Ecology: Challenging
Traditional Approaches to Environmentalism, UK: Ashgate Publishing, 2003, p. 65
[14] von Bertalany 1971, p. 54.
[15] Reconnecting with John Muir By Terry Giord, University of Georgia, 2006
[16] Julian Tudor Hart (2010) The Political Economy of Health
Care pp.106, 258
[17] Lipowski, 1977.
[18] 'Does Brocas area exist?': Christofredo Jakobs 1906 response to Pierre Maries holistic stance. Kyrana Tsapkini, Ana B. Vivas, Lazaros C. Triarhou. Brain and Language, Volume 105, Issue 3, June 2008, Pages 211-219
doi:10.1016/j.bandl.2007.07.124
[19] Holm, Ivar (2006). Ideas and Beliefs in Architecture: How
attitudes, orientations, and underlying assumptions shape
the built environment. Oslo School of Architecture and
Design. ISBN 82-547-0174-1.
[20] Rubrics (Authentic Assessment Toolbox) So, when
might you use a holistic rubric? Holistic rubrics tend to be
used when a quick or gross judgment needs to be made
[21] (Simon & Schuster, 2002)
[22] Shore, Bradd (1999), Strange Fate of Holism, Anthropology News, 40 (9): 45, doi:10.1111/an.1999.40.9.5.
[23] Cliord, James; Hodder, Ian; Lederman, Rena; Silverstein, Michael (2005), Segal, Daniel A; Yanagisako, eds.,
Unwrapping the Sacred Bundle: Reections on the Disciplining of Anthropology, Duke University Press
[24] anthrobase denition of holism
[25] Louis Dumont, 1984
[26] Anne Bihan, The Writer, a Man Without Qualities, Literature and Identity in New Caledonia.
[27] Susan Rasmussen, Personahood, Self, Dierence, and
Dialogue (Commentary on Chaudhary)", International
Journal for Dialogical Science, Fall 2008, Vol. 3, No. 1,
31-54.
[28] The traditional anthropology encounters major problems
in the Bible and its predominantly holistic view of human
beings. Genesis 2:7 is a key verse: Then the LORD God
formed man from the dust of the ground and breathed into
his nostrils the breath of life, and the man became a living being (NRSV). The living being (traditionally, living soul) is an attempt to translate the Hebrew nephesh
hayah, which indicates a living person in the context.
More than one interpreter has pointed out that this text
does not say that the human being has a soul but rather is a
soul. H. Wheeler Robinson summarized the matter in his

statement that The Hebrew conceived man as animated

body and not as an incarnate soul." (Martin E. Tate, The
Comprehensive Nature of Salvation in Biblical Perspective, Evangelical review of theology, Vol. 23.)

7 References
von Bertalany, Ludwig (1971) [1968], General
System Theory. Foundations Development Applications, Allen Lane.
Bohm, D. (1980) Wholeness and the Implicate Order. London: Routledge. ISBN 0-7100-0971-2
Leenhardt, M. 1947 Do Kamo. La personne et le
mythe dans le monde mlansien. Gallimard. Paris.
Lipowski, Z.J. Psychosomatic medicine in seventies. Am. J. Psychiatry. 134 (3): 233244.
Jan C. Smuts, 1926 Holism and Evolution MacMillan, Compass/Viking Press 1961 reprint: ISBN
0-598-63750-8, Greenwood Press 1973 reprint:
ISBN 0-8371-6556-3, Sierra Sunrise 1999 (mildly
edited): ISBN 1-887263-14-4

8 Further reading
Descombes, Vincent, The Institutions of Meaning:
A Defense of Anthropological Holism. Cambridge,
MA: Harvard University Press. 2014.
Dusek, Val, The Holistic Inspirations of Physics:
An Underground History of Electromagnetic Theory
Rutgers University Press, Brunswick NJ, 1999.
Fodor, Jerry, and Ernst Lepore, Holism: A Shoppers
Guide Wiley. New York. 1992
Hayek, F.A. von. The Counter-Revolution of Science. Studies on the abuse of reason. Free Press.
New York. 1957.
Mandelbaum, M. Societal Facts in Gardner 1959.
Phillips, D.C. Holistic Thought in Social Science.
Stanford University Press. Stanford. 1976.
Dreyfus, H.L. Holism and Hermeneutics. The Review of Metaphysics. 34: 323.
James, S. The Content of Social Explanation. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge, 1984.
Harrington, A. Reenchanted Science: Holism in German Culture from Wilhelm II to Hitler. Princeton
University Press. 1996.
Lopez, F. Il pensiero olistico di Ippocrate, vol. I-IIA,
Ed. Pubblisfera, Cosenza Italy 2004-2008.

9
Robert Stern, Hegel, Kant and the Structure of the
Object, London: Routledge Chapman Hall, 1990
Sen, R. K., Aesthetic Enjoyment: Its Background in
Philosophy and Medicine, Calcutta: University of
Calcutta, 1966

External links
Brief explanation of Koestlers derivation of holon
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy article:
Holism and Nonseparability in Physics
James Schombert of University of Oregon Physics
Dept on quantum holism
Theory of sociological holism from World of
Wholeness

EXTERNAL LINKS

10
10.1

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

Text

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YurikBot, Al Silonov, RussBot, Ksyrie, Yrithinnd, Jessesaurus, Grafen, Johann Wolfgang, JTBurman, JamesMadison, Jpbowen, Lomn,
Supten, Jussi Hirvi, Action potential, ColinFine, Wardog, 2over0, Xaxafrad, GraemeL, Johnadowell, ArielGold, Borisshah, SmackBot,
AustinKnight, Cessator, Cazort, Jthomere, Apers0n, Ohnoitsjamie, Hraefen, Iain.dalton, Gil mo, Robocoder, Colonies Chris, Sholto Maud,
Rrburke, Xarshiax, Bapu~enwiki, Bansp, BullRangifer, Lacatosias, Springnuts, Byelf2007, SashatoBot, Lambiam, Esrever, Lapaz, Scientizzle, Metaholist, Kokot.kokotisko, 16@r, Stampit, TPIRFanSteve, JoeBot, Tawkerbot2, Bubbha, Dan1679, Sketch051, CmdrObot, Gregbard, Hardys, Cydebot, Peterdjones, Kallerdis, Hopping, Doug Weller, Danogo, Landroo, RDates, Thijs!bot, Peter morrell, Headbomb,
Geoser, Infophile, GideonF, Natalie Erin, ThomasPusch, SnoopJeDi, Fayenatic london, MECU, Yubal, Colin MacLaurin, Jjk@nexial.org,
JAnDbot, EmersonLowry, JenLouise, The Growl, MaxPont, Bothar, NicoDetourn, Mother.earth, Sud Ram, Catgut, MooJew, Sugarcaddy,
EagleFan, Calgary, Hveziris, FredRoter, DerHexer, Adriaan, R'n'B, Erkan Yilmaz, Geonarva, Tokyogirl79, It Is Me Here, Wadehudson,
Merceris, Belovedfreak, Pjmpjm, Cometstyles, Pietopper, VolkovBot, Pleasantville, Fences and windows, Mimansquared, Innitymmx3,
Robert1947, Eubulides, Ecotao, Lova Falk, Cnilep, DigitalC, Botev, John71x, Aristolaos, Frankbaby, Keilana, Oxymoron83, Scorpion451,
Khvalamde, Sunrise, Dodger67, Nitenfu, JL-Bot, Ethicsandkids, ClueBot, SummerWithMorons, Rodhullandemu, Jazzclubber, Desoto10,
Uncle Milty, Alexbot, Arjayay, Sjjvdberg, Calrosng, P1415926535, Editor2020, Ajoshi.usc, CorticoSpinal, Kembangraps, Addbot,
Shazbotalleymorrocanshuttlebus, Intuitivebodyworker, AndersBot, Tide rolls, Verbal, Lightbot, OlEnglish, Zorrobot, Ale66, Luckas-bot,
Yobot, Denispir, Fmrauch, Isotelesis, Gazal Cotre, N1RK4UDSK714, AnomieBOT, Boscovich, Wansmith, Citation bot, ArthurBot, Obersachsebot, KenSamarra, Omnipaedista, SassoBot, Croissant5, SlayerBloodySlayer, Aukikco, FrescoBot, Haeinous, I dream of horses, LittleWink, Jonkerz, Brichard37, Mean as custard, Tesseract2, EmausBot, John of Reading, Immunize, Gfoley4, Unacorda, Makecat, Jstovell,
Mabrycaroline, Donner60, Huanhoon, Pandeist, ClueBot NG, Mechanical digger, Ckoune, JohnsonL623, Dream of Nyx, Carl presscott,
MerlIwBot, Helpful Pixie Bot, Faus, Dr. CTG, BG19bot, PhnomPencil, Narveen aryaputri, Graham11, Dlw1159, Supremeaim, Oabernhardt, HMman, JYBot, Webclient101, Entomy, Stand123, Froukj3, Jimwong357, 93, Rasforte, Santurwoman, Danny Sprinkle, Lgfcd,
New worl, Redddbaron, Ddgandra, Lizia7, The king of the sun, Tigercompanion25, RyanEast, Cgq144, Stefsera, DictionaryOfThe$oul,
Blackhat999, Nkkenbuer, Lithespirit, Randall.h.parkersr, Omni Flames and Anonymous: 242

10.2

Images

File:Ambox_important.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work, based o of Image:Ambox scales.svg Original artist: Dsmurat (talk contribs)
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Contributors:
Created from scratch in Adobe Illustrator. Based on Image:Question book.png created by User:Equazcion Original artist:
Tkgd2007
File:The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/97/The_Earth_seen_from_
Apollo_17.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.nasa.gov/images/content/115334main_image_feature_329_ys_full.jpg
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created by Smurrayinchester

10.3

Content license

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