Petroleum Geology

Source
Rock

Source Rocks - sedimentary rocks that are, may or have been able togenerate hydrocarbons.
Organic Matter (OM)
Kerogen solid or insoluble
Bitumen fluid or solvent extractable
Gas gaseous
Main Sources:
1. higher land plants (trees, ferns, etc)
2. lower aquatic plants (planktonic, algae)
3. bacteria
MAJOR TYPES OF SOURCE ROCKS

Hydrocarbon Generation
Out of the total volume of a potential source rock:
only 1% of it is organic matter (OM); 99% is rock material
of the 1% OM, less than 30% of this is ever converted intopetroleum while more than
70% of remains as residue
of the less than 30% of the OM converted to petroleum, only 1%is ever trapped while
99% of generated petroleum is lost ordispersed elsewhere.

The transformation of organic debris into petroleum is highly inefficient and selective
1

Petroleum Geology

Source
Rock

PROPERTIES OF THE SOURCE ROCK

A. Quantity or amount of organic matter
organic richness (Total Organic Carbon TOC %)
B. Type of organic matter
Kerogen Type I, II or III; oil prone or gas prone?
C. Level of Maturity/regional maturity boundaries
have hydrocarbons been generated? oil or gas?
D. Areal extent and lateral variation
E. Thickness of unit and degree or overpressuring
F. Interbedded sands or silts and degree of fracturing

Path of organic matter from where it formerly lived to its final resting place the sedimentary
basin.

Petroleum Geology

Source
Rock

QUANTITY OF ORGANIC MATTER

Sources of Petroleum
All living matter is composed of four main constituents, lipids, proteins, carbohydrates and
lignins.
Lipids
These cover all organism-produced substances that arepractically insoluble in water. This
encompasses fatty substancessuch as vegetable oil, waxes and animal fats. Lipids arestructurally
very similar to the non-aromatic NSO compounds.Lipids are one of the main sources for
petroleum.
Proteins
These are high-order polymers made from individual amino acids, and account for most of the
nitrogen and sulphur compounds in organisms. Therefore, most nitrogen and sulphur containing
compounds found in petroleum are derived from proteins.
Carbohydrates
This is a collective name for individual sugars and their polymers. The name is derived from the
formula Cn(H2O)n, which suggests hydrated carbons. Carbohydrates are not important sources
for petroleum.
Lignins
These are widespread in plants and are characterized by their aromatic (phenolic) structures.
They are high molecular weight structures (polyphenols). The aromatic content of petroleum is
derived from this group.

Petroleum Geology

Source
Rock

It can be seen that lipids are found in the lower life forms, such as algae, plankton and lower
plant forms, and that lignins are found only in high-order terrestrial plants (due to its stiff,
supportive structure. As can be seen, the main contributors to organic matter in sediments are; 1)
phytoplankton, 2) zooplankton, 3) higher plants, and 4) bacteria.
KEROGEN
general term describing any insoluble organic matter in sedimentary rocks.
4

Petroleum Geology

Source
Rock

dispersed within sediments and is intimately associated (absorbed) into the mineral/rock.
As organic matter matures from biopolymers (lipids, lignins, etc.) to something called
geopolymers (nitrogenous and humic complexes), it is called kerogen.

Three Major Types of Kerogen

Type I
This type of kerogen is characterized by having a high initial hydrogen to carbon atomic ratio
(H/C) of 1.5 or more, and a low oxygen to carbon atomic ratio (O/C) of less than 0.1. Type I
kerogen has a hydrogen index greater than 300 and an oxygen index less than 50. Its primary
source is from algal sediments, such as lacustrine deposits. Type I kerogen is also called alginite
kerogen, containing high concentrations of alkanes and fatty acids. It is the best source for oil
prone maturation, but unfortunately it is very rare.
Type II
This type of kerogen has a relatively high H/C ratio (1.0 to 1.4) and a low O/C ratio (0.09 to 1.5).
Type II kerogen has a hydrogen index between 200 and 300, and an oxygen index between 50
and 100. Type II kerogen is also called exinite, and is usually associated with marine sediments,
where autochthonous organic matter (bacteria, phytoplankton and zooplankton) have been
deposited in a reducing environment. It is a good oil or gas prone kerogen. It is more common
than alginite.
Type III This type of kerogen has a relatively low H/C ratio (usually < 1.0) and low O/C ratio
(0.2 to 0.3). Type III kerogen has a hydrogen index below 300 and an oxygen index above 100.
The main source of this type of kerogen are continental plants found in thick detrital
sedimentation along continental margins. This type of kerogen is also called vitrinite. It is less
favourable for oil generation, but will provide a source rock for gas.
A Type IV kerogen also exists, which is known as inertinite. This type of kerogen is usually
associated with coal or organic matter that has been greatly oxidized.
Note that all kerogen types experience chemical alteration during maturation. This results in the
formation of petroleum, and generally begins with the loss of oxygen, followed by hydrogen, to
arrive at a form of hydrocarbon.
The terms sapropelic and humic organic matter are often referred to when using visual
descriptions of kerogen. Humic material is thought to be derived from plant matter, while
sapropelic material originates from algae or plankton.

Petroleum Geology

Source
Rock

Petroleum Geology

Source
Rock

Stages of Petroleum Maturation

Diagenesis
The first stage in the transformation of freshly deposited organic matter into petroleum is
called diagenesis. This process begins at the sedimentary interface and extends to varying
depths, but usually no deeper than a few hundred meters. In cases where the
geothermalgradient is extremely low, diagenesis may extend to a depth of 2,000 meters.
During early diagenesis, one of the main agents of transformation is microbial activity.
Depending on the oxygen content of the sea water and sediments, microbial
transformation of organic matter is either aerobic or anaerobic.
Biological polymers (lipids, proteins, etc.) are destroyed by microbial activity and mild
chemical reactions occur during this time.
During diagenesis, organic matter loses a great deal of oxygen in the form of H2O and
CO2. The only significant hydrocarbon formed during diagenesis is microbial methane.
Catagenesis
Catagenesis is the stage of thermal degradation of kerogen that forms oil and gas. This
stage typically occurs between the depths of several hundred to several thousand meters.
The organic fraction undergoes major alteration during catagenesis. As a result of the
temperature, kerogen is cracked to form liquid petroleum and gas.
Metagenesis
The metagenesis stage is reached at great depths, or in areas of high geothermal gradients
at shallower depths. Metagenesis usually begins at depthsof approximately 4,000 meters.
At this stage, kerogen has very little hydrogen remaining and is forming methane as its
only hydrocarbon product.
Towards the end of metagenesis, virtually no hydrocarbons are being generated from the
kerogen.
OIL WINDOW
The depth range over which oil generation occurs
In the search for petroleum reservoirs, accurate determination of the oil window is
important, because if an organically rich, oil-prone, source rock has not reached the oil
window range of temperatures, it will not generate oil.
During the generation of petroleum from kerogen, both temperature and time play key
roles.
Thermal Maturity refers to the extent of time temperature driven reactions that
convert sedimentary organic matter (source rock) into oil, wet gas, and finally to dry gas
and pyrobitumen.

Petroleum Geology

Source
Rock

Kerogen exposed to relatively high temperatures for a short period of time, will mature
to about the same extent as kerogen which is exposed to relatively low temperatures for a
longer period of time.

In order for hydrocarbons to be generated from organic deposition, temperatures must

rise above 104F (40C) but not exceed 662F (350C). Higher temperatures than these
will destroy any remaining organic materials or hydrocarbons already generated.

Petroleum Geology

Source
Rock

Five Major Types of Hydrocarbons of Interest to Petroleum Exploration

Kerogen/Bitumens
Shale rock volume is composed of 99% clay minerals and 1% organic material. We have seen
that petroleum is derived mainly from lipid-rich organic material buried in sediments. Most of
this organic matter is in a form known as kerogen. Kerogen is that part of the organic matter in a
rock that is insoluble in common organic solvents. It owes its insolubility to its large molecular
size and heat is required to break it down. Maturation of kerogen is a function of increased burial
and temperature and is accompanied by chemical changes. As kerogen thermally matures and
increases in carbon content, it changes form an immature light greenish-yellow color to an
overmature black, which is representative of a progressively higher coal rank. Different types of
kerogen can be identified, each with different concentrations of the five primary elements,
carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and sulphur, and each with a different potential for
generating petroleum.
The organic content of a rock that is extractable with organic solvents is known as bitumen. It
normally forms a small proportion of the total organic carbon in a rock. Bitumen forms largely as
a result of the breaking of chemical bonds in kerogen as temperature rises. Petroleum is the
9

Petroleum Geology

Source
Rock

organic substance recovered from wells and found in natural seepages. Bitumen becomes
petroleum at some point during migration. Important chemical differences often exist between
source rock extracts (bitumen) and crude oils (petroleum).
Kerogen is of no commercial significance except where it is so abundant (greater than 10%) as to
occur in oil shales. It is, however, of great geological importance because it is the substance that
generates hydrocarbon oil and gas. A source rock must contain significant amounts of kerogen.

Crude Oil
Crude oil is a mixture of many hydrocarbons that are liquid at surface temperatures and
pressures, and are soluble in normal petroleum solvents. It can vary in type and amount of
hydrocarbons as well as which impurities it may contain. Crude oil may be classified chemically
(e.g. paraffinic, naphthenic) or by its density.
This is expressed as specific gravity or as API (American Petroleum Institute) gravity according
to the formula:

Specific gravity is the ratio of the density of a substance to the density of water. API gravity is a
standard adopted by the American Petroleum Institute for expressing the specific weight of oils.
The lower the specific gravity, the higher the API gravity, for example, a fluid with a specific
gravity of 1.0 g cm 3 has an API value of 10 degrees. Heavy oils are those with API gravities of
less than 20 (sp. gr. >0.93). These oils have frequently suffered chemical alteration as a result of
microbial attack (biodegradation) and other effects. Not only are heavy oils less valuable
commercially, but they are considerably more difficult to extract. API gravities of 20 to 40
degrees (sp. gr. 0.83 to 0.93) indicate normal oils. Oils of API gravity greater than 40 degrees
(sp. gr. < 0.83) are light.
10

Petroleum Geology

Source
Rock

Asphalt
Asphalt is a dark colored solid to semi-solid form of petroleum (at surface temperatures and
pressures) that consists of heavy hydrocarbons and bitumens. It can occur naturally or as a
residue in the refining of some petroleums. It generally contains appreciable amounts of sulphur,
oxygen, and nitrogen and unlike kerogen, asphalt is soluble in normal petroleum solvents. It is
produced by the partial maturation of kerogen or by the degradation of mature crude oil. Asphalt
is particularly suitable for making high-quality gasoline and roofing and paving materials.
Natural Gas
There are two basic types of natural gas, biogenic gas and thermogenic gas. The difference
between the two is contingent upon conditions of origin. Biogenic gas is a natural gas formed
solely as a result of bacterial activity in the early stages of diagenesis, meaning it forms at low
temperatures, at overburden depths of less than 3000 feet, and under anaerobic conditions often
associated with high rates of marine sediment accumulation. Because of these factors, biogenic
gas occurs in a variety of environments, including contemporary deltas of the Nile, Mississippi
and Amazon rivers. Currently it is estimated that approximately 20% of the worlds known
natural gas is biogenic. Thermogenic gas is a natural gas resulting from the thermal alteration of
kerogen due to an increase in overburden pressure and temperature. The major hydocarbon gases
are: methane (CH4 ), ethane (C2H6), propane (C3H8), and butane (C4H10). The terms sweet
and sour gas are used in the field to designate gases that are low or high, respectively, in
hydrogen sulfide. Natural gas, as it comes from the well, is also classified as dry gas or wet gas,
according to the amount of natural gas liquid vapors it contains. A dry gas contains less than 0.1
gallon natural gas liquid vapors per 1,000 cubic feet, and a wet gas 0.3 or more liquid vapors per
1,000 cubic feet.

11

Petroleum Geology

Source
Rock

Thermal Maturity Indicators

Condensates
Condensates are hydrocarbons transitional between gas and crude oil (gaseous in the subsurface
but condensing to liquid at surface temperatures and pressures). Chemically, condensates consist
largely of paraffins, such as pentane, octane, and hexane.
Temperature Gradient
Temperature is generally a function of depth because of the earths natural geothermal gradient.
Normal heat flow within the earths crust produces a gradient of approximately 1.5F for each
100 feet of depth below the surface. The temperatures required to produce crude oil occur
between 5,000 and 20,000 feet of depth. Temperatures below 20,000 feet are generally too high
and only generate gas. Temperatures above 5,000 feet are not usually sufficient enough to
transform the material into crude oil. There are, of course, exceptions to the rules. Geologic
conditions such as volcanism and tectonics (folding and faulting) can change or effect the
temperature gradient.

12

Petroleum Geology

Source
Rock

Temperature vs. Depth

Pressure Gradient
Most pressure that effects rocks is due to the weight of overlying rocks and is called
overburdenpressure. Overburden pressure is a function of depth and increases one pound per
square inch for each foot of depth. At 3000 feet, for example, the overburden pressure would be
3,000 pounds per square inch. Hydrocarbons evolve from an immature stage to oil generation, oil
cracking (wet gas stage), and finally to dry gas generation because of overburden pressure and
the associated increase in temperature.

13

Petroleum Geology

Source
Rock

Hydrocarbon formation as a
function of burial of the source
rock

14