Definition of Surveying

Surveying is defined as the science of making measurements of the earth specifically the
surface of the earth. This is being carried out by finding the spatial location (relative /
absolute) of points on or near the surface of the earth.
Different methods and instruments are being used to facilitate the work of surveying.
The primary aims of field surveying are :
to measure the Horizontal Distance between points.
to measure the Vertical elevation between points.
to find out the Relative direction of lines by measuring horizontal angles with reference to
any arbitrary direction and
to find out Absolute direction by measuring horizontal angles with reference to a fixed
direction.
These parameters are utilised to find out the relative or absolute coordinates of a point /
location.
<< Back | Next >>

Importance of Surveying to Civil Engineers

The planning and design of all Civil Engineering projects such as construction of highways,
bridges, tunnels, dams etc are based upon surveying measurements.
Moreover, during execution, project of any magnitude is constructed along the lines and
points established by surveying.
Thus, surveying is a basic requirement for all Civil Engineering projects.
Other principal works in which surveying is primarily utilised are
to fix the national and state boundaries;
to chart coastlines, navigable streams and lakes;

 to establish control points; Control points : Stations having known position.

to execute hydrographic and oceanographic charting and mapping; and
to prepare topographic map of land surface of the earth.
<< Back | Next >>
Objectives of Surveying
To collect field data;
To prepare plan( Orthographic representation of features on or near the surface of the earth in Large Scale
on a horizontal plane) or map( Graphical representation of features on or near the surface of the earth in small
scale on a horizontal plane and is constructed using a projection system other than orthographic.) of the area
surveyed;
To analyse and to calculate the field parameters for setting out operation of actual
engineering works.
To set out field parameters at the site for further engineering works.
<< Back | Next >>
Divisions of Surveying
The approximate shape of the earth can best be defined as an oblate(An oblate (spheroid) is a
surface of revolution obtained by rotating an ellipse about its minor axis i.e., having equatorial radius greater than
the polar radius.) tri-axial ovaloid( A pear shaped figure having dimension of one hemisphere larger than the
other for earth, southern hemisphere is larger than the northern.).

But, most of the civil engineering

works, concern only with a small portion of the earth which seems to be a plane surface.
Thus, based upon the consideration of the shape of the earth, surveying is broadly divided
into two types.
Geodetic Surveying: in this branch of surveying, the true shape of the earth is taken into consideration.
This type of surveying is being carried out for highly precise work and is adopted for surveying of large area.

Plane Surveying: In this method of surveying, the mean surface of the earth is considered to be a plane
surface. This type of survey is applicable for small area (less than 200 square kilometer). Thus for most of the
Civil Engineering projects, methods of plane surveying are valid.
This course is restricted to the different aspects of plane surveying. Henceforth, in this course work, the word
surveying implies plane surveying.

<< Back | Next >>

Fundamental assumptions in Plane surveying
All distances and directions are horizontal;
The direction of the plumb line( The direction of the lines of force of earth's gravity field. In field
surveying, it is defined by the direction of a freely suspended plumb-bob.) is same at all points within the
limits of the survey;
All angles (both horizontal and vertical) are plane angles;
Elevations are with reference to a datum(:

A levelled surface taken as reference for the determination

of elevations of points.)

<< Back | Next >>

Classifications of Surveying
Based on the purpose (for which surveying is being conducted), Surveying has been
classified into:
Control surveying : To establish horizontal and vertical positions of control points.
Land surveying : To determine the boundaries and areas of parcels of land, also known as
property survey, boundary survey or cadastral survey.
Topographic survey : To prepare a plan/ map of a region which includes natural as well as
and man-made features including elevation.
Engineering survey : To collect requisite data for planning, design and execution of
engineering projects. Three broad steps are
1) Reconnaissance survey : To explore site conditions and availability of infrastructures.
2) Preliminary survey : To collect adequate data to prepare plan / map of area to be used for
planning and design.
3) Location survey : To set out work on the ground for actual construction / execution of
the project.
Route survey : To plan, design, and laying out of route such as highways, railways, canals,
pipelines, and other linear projects.
Construction surveys : Surveys which are required for establishment of points, lines,
grades, and for staking out engineering works (after the plans have been prepared and the
structural design has been done).

 Astronomic surveys : To determine the latitude, longitude (of the observation station) and
azimuth (of a line through observation station) from astronomical observation.
Mine surveys : To carry out surveying specific for opencast and underground mining
purposes.
<< Back | Next >>
Principles of Surveying
The fundamental principles upon which the surveying is being carried out are

working from whole to part.

after deciding the position of any point, its reference must be kept from at least two
permanent objects or stations whose position have already been well defined.

The purpose of working from whole to part is

to localise the errors and

to control the accumulation of errors.

This is being achieved by establishing a heirarchy of networks of control points. The less
precise networks are established within the higher precise network and thus restrict the
errors. To minimise the error limit, highest precise network (primary network) Figure 1.1 of
control points are established using the most accurate / precise instruments for collection of
data and rigorous methods of analysis are employed to find network parameters. This also
involves most skilled manpower and costly resources which are rare and cost intensive.
Further elaboration has been done in Lesson 3 under "Overview of Land Surveying".
<< Back | Next >>

The reference of any point, say X, has to kept with respect to, at least, two permanent objects
or well defined points, say Y and Z. Generally, this has been achieved by taking measurement
of two parameters.The location of a point, say X can be done as shown in the figure below.
(a) Distances YX and ZX (Figure 1.2)

(b) Perpendicular distance OX and distance OY or OZ (Figure 1.3)

(c) Distance YX or ZX and angle YZX or ZYX (Figure 1.4(a))and (Figure 1.4(b))

(a)

(b)

Figure 1.4 Reference of a point using a distance and an angle

(d) Angles YZX and ZYX. (Figure 1.5)

The point of intersection of the two measured parameters defines the position of the point.
<< Back | Next >>

Operations in Surveying

Operations in surveying consists of :

Planning

Planning
To decide
the methods to be adopted for surveying;
the resources (instruments & personnel) to be used;
the control points / stations to be used ( those already available and/ or to set up).
The planning operation needs a-priori field visit and this is known as reconnaissance.
<< Back

Field Observation

Office Works

Setting out Works

<< Back | Next >>

Field Observation
It involves
Collection of field data by making necessary measurements;
Recording of observed data in a systematic manner.
Before starting any field observation, the permanent adjustments of all the instruments need
to be checked thoroughly by trained personnel and if required, it must be adjusted.
<< Back

Office Work

It involves
Processing, analysing and calculation of observed data;
Preparation of necessary data (for making plan or map of the area);
Making of a plan or map of the area;
Computation of relevant field parameters as per design for setting out engineering works at
site.
<< Back

Setting out Works

To locate and establish different parameters / dimensions at the site as per design for further
engineering works.
<< Back

Exercise 1

Ex.1-1 State two primary divisions of surveying.

Ex.1-2 Enumerate the fundamental parameters of surveying measurement?
Ex.1-3 State the basic principles of surveying.
Ex.1-4 State the basic assumptions of plane surveying.
<< Back

Objective of Lesson 2
To deal with the fundamentals of Map (scales, symbols, accuracy) and steps involved in its
making.
<< Back | Next >>

Mapping Fundamentals
The data collected through field surveying are presented in the form of a plan or a map.
Since, the actual surface of the earth is curved, and the surface of the map is flat, a method of
projection is usually used to fit a curved surface of earth into a plane surface of paper.
However, no map can represent a terrain without some distortion. To minimise the effect of
distortion, conformal projections are generally employed.

To prepare a map, first a grid of meridians and parallels of latitude is being prepared to
provide a framework of map. Control points are then plotted by their spherical coordinates
(latitude, longitude). A plane coordinate system is then used to plot other points accurately in
orthogonal coordinate system obviating direct use of spherical coordinates.
<< Back | Next >>

In case of plane surveying, the earth's surface is regarded as plane and thus, a map is
constructed by orthographic projection. Points are being plotted by their rectangular
coordinates, angles and distances as horizontal.
During the preparation of maps, the factors which need important considerations are:
Scales
Conventional symbols
Generalisation of details
Plotting accuracy
Rectangular Coordinates
<< Back | Next >>
Scales
The selection of scale is one of the most important considerations during mapping. It is
decided on the basis of :
purpose of the map;
nature of terrain to be mapped;
the size of the final sheet;
availability of resources to get it prepared and printed.
Some of these factors are of opposite and conflicting in nature.Therefore, in selecting the
scale, the map-maker has to make a judicious decision and to make a compromise.
Table 2.1 Suggested scales for different types of survey
Serial
Purpose of Survey
No
1.
Land Survey

Scale

R.F.

1 cm = 5 m to 50 m

1:500 to 1:5000

2.
3.
4.
5.

Topographical
Survey
Building Site
Route Survey
Town Planning

1 cm = 0.25 km to 2.5
km
1 cm = 10 m
1 cm = 100 m
1 cm = 100 m

1:25,000 to
1:250,000
1:1000
1:10,000
1:10,000
<< Back

Conventional Symbols
After the selection of scale of plotting, the map preparation should be carried out in such a
way that it becomes intelligible. It conveys useful meaning to the reader only when one can
identify the ground features identical with those shown on the map. In India, conventional
symbols, proposed by Survey of India, are used to depict objects on map. Symbols generally
used for preparation of topographical map are shown in Figure 2.1.
<< Back

Figure 2.1 Standard (Survey of India) Conventional Signs of Salient objects for Topographic
Map
Symbol

Description
Village (open)
Church
Temple

Symbol

Description
Telephone
Line
Electric Power
Line
Railway,Broad
Gauge Double
Line

Mosque

Bridge
carrying
Railway over
Road

Idgah

Metalled Road

Burial-Ground

National
Highway

Boundary pillar

UN-Metalled
Road

Aerodrome

Level Crossing

Well
Swamp or
Marsh with
Cultivation

Foot Path with

Bridge,Culvert
( Road or
Railway )
Embankment

Lake with
a)Defined Limit
b)Fluctuating
Limit

Orchard /
Garden /
Plantation

c)Embankment

Single Line
Stream
a) Perennial

a) Scattered

b) NonPerennial

b) Surveyed

Canal with
Navigation
Lock and Road
Aqueduct with
Road Alongside

Examples

Trees

Bench Mark
Triangulation
Station

Earthwork Dam

Broken or
Rocky Ground

Masonry dam
with Road

Contours

Ex2-1 In a plan, a 10 cm scale drawn shrunks to 9.7 cm. If the scale of the given plan is
written as 1:250, determine the actual length of a line which at present shows 10 cm.
Solution :

Present representative fraction (R.F.) =

Therefore Actual distance =

= 25.77 m
<< Back | Next >>

Exercise 2

Ex.2-1 Differentiate between plan and map.

Ex.2-2 Enumerate the essential elements of a map.
Ex.2-3 Which of the following scale is the smallest and largest respectively:
(i) 1 cm = 10 meter. (ii) 1: 10,000. (iii) R.F=1/100, 000 (iii) 1cm=1000 Km.
<< Back
Lesson 3 Overview of Surveying and Indian Topographic Map
Objective of Lesson 3

Overview of Land Surveying

Indian Topographic Maps

<< Back
Overview of Land Surveying

The fundamental objective of land surveying is to prepare a plan or map of an area. The map
thus prepared serves as the primary source of information about the surface of the earth for
further engineering works.The data required for making of a map gets collected through field
surveying. To start field surveying, it is required to know very accurately, the geographical
coordinates (latitude, longitude) of at least one point, known as control point and the length

as well as azimuth of a line, known as baseline (Figure 3.1). The Latitude of the point and the
azimuth of the line are determined through astronomical survey and longitude from time
measurement. The length of the line is measured with a distance measuring instrument.
From the control point in association with the base line, a number of intervisible points are
selected such that on joining these points well shaped triangles are required to be formed.
These triangles carry forward points whose geographical positions are calculated from the
measurements (horizontal distance, horizontal angles) taken from the network of triangles.
The calculated parameters undergo further adjustment by satifying the geometrical conditions
associated with the parameters as well as with figures. This helps in minimisation of errors
which may creep in further surveying operation. Inside the big triangles formed by widely
spaced control points, network of smaller triangles get established (Figure 3.2). This process
gets repeated materialising the basic priciple of surveying "to work from whole to part". Thus
the entire area to be surveyed gets covered with network of triangles.
The detail surveying is then carried out within the smallest triangle. During surveying,
measurements (distance, direction, angles, height etc.) for important objects/ points are taken.
The measurements are then used for necessary calculations and adjustments resulting in
identification and finding positions (with respect to standard reference) of salient objects.
To prepare map, first a grid of medians and parallels of latitudes is being prepared to provide
a frame work of map. Control points are then plotted by their spherical coordinates.
Then objects are graphically represented in a rectangular coordinate system for depicting
planimetric position. Terrain height is depicted by using contours at regular interval. The
identification of objects are depicted using conventional symbols and colours Figure 2.1.
To prepare map of the area, inside the marked area in Figure 3.3, first the surveying
measurements and plotting are being carried out for plot number 1(Figure3.4).
Next, detail surveying (Figure3.5) and plotting are being carried out for plot number 2
(Figure 3.6) and subsequently detail mapping is carried out for plot number 3 and plot
number 4. Then, a final map of the whole area is being prepared by mosaicing the component
maps (Figure 3.7)
<< Back | Next >>

Indian Topographic Maps

Topographic maps provides the graphical portrayal of objects present on the
surface of the earth. These maps provide the preliminary information about a
terrain and thus very useful for engineering works. For most part of India,
topographic maps are available which are prepared by the Survey of India. To

identify a map of a particular area, a map numbering system has been adopted
by Survey of India. The system of identification is as follows:
An International Series (within 4 N to 40 N Latitude and 44 E to 124 E
Longitude) at the scale of 1: 1,000,000 is being considered as base map. The
base map is divided into sections of 4 latitude x 4 longitude and designated
from 1 (at the extreme north-west) to 136, covering only land areas and leaving
any 4 square if it falls completely in the sea (Figure 3.8).

For Indian Topographic maps, each section is further divided into 16 sections (4
rows by 4 columns), each of 1 latitude x 1 longitude (1:250,000), staring from
a letter A (North-West corner) and ending on P, column-wise. These degree
sheets are designated by a number and an alphabet such as 53 C (Figure 3.9).

These degree sheets are further sub-divided in the following ways:

Each sheet is divided into four parts (2 rows by 2 columns),, each of 30' latitude
x 30' longitude (1:100,000) designating them by cardinal directions NW, NE, SW,
and SE. Such sheets are identified as 53 M/SE (Figure 3.10).

Degree sheets have also been divided into 16 sheets (4 rows by 4 columns),
each 15' latitude x 15' longitude (1:50,000) and numbered from 1 (at the northwest corner of the particular degree sheet) to 16 columnwise and are identified
as 53 B/3 (Figure 3.11).

Each 1:50,000 scale sheet contains four (2 rows by 2 columns) 1:25,000 sheet
( 7' 1/2 latitude x 7' 1/2 longitude ) which are numbered NW, NE, SW, and SE.
Such sheets are identified as 53 O/14/NE (Figure 3.12).

In this way, the topographic map of most of the area of India may be acqiured at
the scale available and subsequently can be updated and upgraded as required
for a particular project. For large scale maps, further surveying needs to carried
out.

<< Back
Objective of Lesson 5

The objective of Lesson 5 is to discuss different aspects (source, type etc) of errors present in
surveying measurement and their significance.
<< Back | Next >>

Error in Measurement
In case of repeated observation of any parameter, usually it has been found to
have variations, however small, in the resulting measurement. Moreover, there is

nothing definite in the amount of variation i.e., variations are random in nature.
Thus, a measurement usually differs from its true value . The difference between
a measured and its true value is called the measurement error. Thus, if x is a
given measurement and x t is the true value, then the error e is given by
e=x-x

error = measured value true value.

If an estimated value of xt is usually known and is denoted by x1. Then, an
estimate of error for a measurement value x of the parameter is obtained as
e1 = x - x 1
However, correction is the term more popularly being used to define the
magnitude of error but opposite in sign. Thus, rearranging the error relation,
correction = (-e1) = x1 - x
or, correction = (estimated / designated) true value - measured value.

<< Back | Next >>

Sources of Errors in Measurement

Depending on sources of origin, errors in measurements fall into three classes.They are

Natural Errors

Instrumental Errors

Personal Errors

<< Back | Next >>

Natural Errors

These are caused due to variations in nature i.e., variations in wind, temperature, humidity,
refraction, gravity and magnetic field of the earth.
<< Back

Instrumental Errors

These result from imperfection in the construction or adjustment of surveying instruments,

and movement of their individual parts.

<< Back

Personal Errors
These arise from limitations of the human senses of sight, touch and hearing.
<< Back

Types of Errors
Errors are traditionally been classified into three types.

Gross Error

Systematic Error

Random Error

<< Back | Next >>

Gross Error
Gross errors, also known as blunders or mistakes, are results from

Carelessness on the part of observer in taking or recording reading;

Faults in equipments;

Adoption of wrong technique.

Misinterpretation.

The blunders or mistakes result into large errors and thus can easily be detected
by comparing with other types of errors (generally small in value). The maximum
permissible error in an observation is 3.29 s (where s is the standard deviation
of sample distribution) and is used to separate mistakes or blunders from the
random errors. If any error deviates from the mean by more than the maximum
permissible error, it is considered as a gross error and the measurement is
rejected.

After mistakes have been detected and eliminated from the measurements, the
remaining errors are usually classified either as systematic or random error
depending on the characteristics of errors.

<< Back

Systematic Error

Systematic errors occur according to a system. These errors follow a definite pattern. Thus, if
an experiment is repeated, under the same conditions, same pattern of systematic errors
reoccur. These errors are dependent on the observer, the instrument used, and on the physical
environment of the experiment. Any change in one or more of the elements of the system will
cause a change in the character of the systematic error. Depending on the value and sign of
errors in successive observation, systematic errors are divided into two types.
Cumulative Error-If the sign in error remains the same throughout the measuring process, the
error will go on accumulating all throughout the process. This type of systematic error is
termed as cumulative error.

Compensating Error -If the sign of the systematic error changes, the resulting systematic
error is termed as compensating error.

Systematic errors are dealt with mathematically using functional relationships or models.
<< Back

Random Error

After mistakes are eliminated and systematic errors are corrected, a survey measurement is
associated with random error only. This error is small and is equally liable to be plus or
minus thus partly compensating in nature. Random errors are unpredictable and they cannot
be evaluated or quantified exactly.
<< Back | Next >>

Random errors are determined through statistical analysis based on following assumptions :

Small variations from the mean value occur more frequently than large
ones.

Positive and negative variations of the same size are about equal in
frequency, rendering their distribution symmetrical about a mean value.

Very large variations seldom occur.

Thus, to eliminate random error in a measurement, observations are repeated for number of
times. The mean (average) of observations is considered to be the true (or estimated) value of
the measurement. Normal or Gaussian distribution typifies the distribution of samples of any
measurement.
<< Back | Next >>

Figure 5.1 shows a normal or Gaussian distribution of samples of measurement of parameter.

Here , represents the mean value of the observed parameter, say the distance between two
points. The true value
(unknown) can never be found. Thus, mean value best represents
its true value. The random error of any observation, says di, be ei which is also not possible to
find. But, the variation of the measurement (vi) from the mean can be found and this
approximates the random error.

<< Back | Next >>

Exercise 5

Ex.5-1 List the different types of errors in survey measurement and state their significance.
Ex.5-2 The distance between two stations were repeated 10 times and observed
to be as follows: 500.335m, 500.360m; 501.345m, 500.395m, 500.420m,
500.355m, 500.315m, 500.360m, 500.415m, 500.325m. Justify, if there is any
observation having gross error.
<< Back

Lesson 8 Direct Measurement of Distance

Objective of Lesson 8
Introduction
Methods of measurement

Direct measurement

Ranging
1. Direct Ranging
2. Indirect Ranging

Reciprocal Ranging

Random Line Method

Taping
o

Field Problems

Mistakes in taping

Examples
Exercise 8
<< Back | Next >>
Objective of Lesson 8

Objective of Lesson 8 is to explain the methods, problems and mistakes occuring in direct
measurement of distance.
<< Back | Next >>

Introduction
The horizontal distance between points, projected onto a horizontal plane, is required to be
measured in order to prepare plan or map of the area surveyed.
<< Back | Next >>

Methods of measurement

In surveying there are several methods for measurement of distance. These are
1. Direct methods;
2. Optical methods; and
3. Electronic method.

In any work, the choice of a method depends on many factors like field condition, accuracy
required, availability of resources (instruments, time, skill, fund etc). Table 8.1 summarizes
the principal methods, instrument required, precision, use, errors of measurement of distance.
<< Back | Next >>

Table 8.1 Salient Methods of Measuring Distance

Instrument
Relative
Use
Required
Precision
(A) Direct Measurement of distance
Tape, pegs, plumb 1 / 3000 to 1 / Traverse for land surveys and topographic surveys
Taping
bob
5000
and during combustion.
(B) Optical Measurement of distance
1 / 300 to 1 / Location of detail for topographic mapping, rough
Stadia
Tacheometer
2000
traverse, checkingmore amount measurement.
(C) Electromagnetic measurement of Distance
Traverse, Triangulation and trilateration for control
surveys of all relative precision is defend as the
0.2 mm 1
EDM EDM Equipment
ratio of the type anf for allowed stand and
ppm
deviations to the distance type and for contraction
surveys.
Method

Direct Measurement
When the distance between points / stations are measured directly, usually by using tape, is
known as direct method.
<< Back | Next >>

Ranging

When the distance to be measured is more than a tape length, a straight line is required to be
laid between the points/ stations along which measurements are to be carried out. The
process of laying out a straight line between points is known as ranging.
Direct Ranging-When the end stations are inter visible, ranging is being carried out directly.
The intermediate points are placed at distances having interval less than one tape length. The
intermediate points are found by moving a ranging pole in transverse direction and thus,
points are selected in such a way that the end points and the intermediate points lie in a
straight line (Figure 8.1). In this method, two flags, one ranging pole and a bunch of pegs are
required in a team of at least one surveyor and one assistant.

Indirect Ranging -

Indirect Ranging

When the end stations between which a straight line is to be laid, are not inter visible,
indirect method of ranging is being adopted. It is being carried out either by reciprocal
method or by random line method.

1. Reciprocal Ranging
2. Random Line Method

<< Back

<< Back | Next >>

Reciprocal Ranging

Figure 8.2 shows the field operations involved in reciprocal ranging. Let A and B are the two
end points whose distance is required to be found and are not inter visible. To fix the
intermediate points in a straight line between these points, two more points say C and D are
chosen in such a way that D & B are visible from C and C & A from D. Then, direct ranging
is being carried out alternatively along DCA and CDB for a number of times so that ACDB
lie in a straight line.

<< Back

Ranging by Random Line Method

In this method, (Figure 8.3) a random line such as BQ is being laid such that R is visible
from Q. A perpendicular QR is being erected at Q and measure its distance. Then the desired
distance BR is being calculated using distance formula.

In laying the line BR, intermediate points are established first. These are laid by taking offset
from the random line at distances calculated by using the method of similar triangle such as

After locating the intermediate points on the line BR, the obstructions get cleared to make the
end points intervisible. Then, direct ranging is being carried out to obtain an extended
continous straight line.

<< Back

Taping
Taping involves measurement of the distance with tapes (steel/linen), either by placing it on
the ground or sometimes by getting it suspended between points. Additional equipments
employed during taping are plumb bob, the hand level, pegs/ pins and range pole (or flag or
ranging rod) etc. The precision of distance measured with tapes depends upon the degree of
refinement with which measurements are taken.
<< Back | Next >>

Field Problems

During measurement of distance, various obstacles may be encountered in the field.

Depending upon the type of obstacle, a suitable geometrical figure has to be framed and an
equivalent distance has to be measured or computed. Obstacles encountered in the field can
be divided into three broad categories.
Type I : Ranging along obstacle is possible but not measurement such as pond, river etc.

To carry measurement along the type of obstacles where measurement round the obstacle is
possible, perpendicular offsets are drawn from the line one at each side of the obstacle, as
shown in Figure 8.4(a). Then, a parallel distance equivalent to distance along the obstacle is
measured. In some cases, the distance is being calculated either adopting basic principle of
geometry and/or trigonometric relations Figure 8.4(b).

When

measurement round an obstacle is not possible, similar triangles are established as shown in
Figure 8.5(a), Figure 8.5(b). The unknown distance is calculated by solving similar triangles.
<< Back | Next >>

Ex8-1 During measurement of distance, a pond had been come across the path. Let P and Q
are the stations selected on the opposite side of the pond. A line PC = 900 m, was set out on
one side of PQ, and a line PD =1100m was set out on the other side, such that CQD was in a
straight line. The length of the lines CQ and QD are 500m and 600m respectively. Determine
the desired distance PQ.

Figure Ex8-1
Solution : Refer Figure for Ex8-1

<< Back | Next >>

Ex8-2 A survey line AB crosses a river. A line AP is run perpendicular to the survey line
having length 200m. Another line PB is set at right angle to QP such that the point Q lies on
the survey line at the extension of BA and at a distance of 50m from A. Compute the distance
AB.

Figure Ex8-2
Solution : Refer Figure for Ex8-2

<< Back | Next >>

<< Back | Next >>

Type II : Measurement along obstacle is possible but not ranging such as bush
etc.

In this case, either of method of reciprocal ranging or ranging by random line method is
being adopted to range a line between stations and subsequently measurement of distance is
being carried out.

Type III : Both ranging and measurement along the obstacle is not possible such as building.
In this case, two perpendicular offsets of equal length are erected from the line before the
obstacle and a parallel line is ranged, as shown in Figure 8.6. The parallel line is extended
and two perpendicular offsets, of same length as before, beyond the obstacle, are dropped
from the line beyond the obstacle. Equivalent distance along a line parallel to ranged line is
then measured to get the distance. However, depending on field condition surveyor can apply
suitable geometrical /trigonometric concepts to find the unknown distance.

<< Back | Next >>

Mistakes in Taping

During taping, mistakes generally made by individuals (usually inexperienced) are:

1. Adding or dropping a full length of tape

2. Adding or dropping a part of the length of tape
3. Other points incorrectly taken as 0 or 30 meter marks on tape
4. Reading numbers incorrectly
5. Calling numbers incorrectly or not clearly
<< Back | Next >>

Exercise 8

Ex.8-1 Describe how you would range a survey line between two stations which are not inter
visible?
Ex.8-2 A survey line AB crosses a river obliquely. P and Q are two points selected on the line
one at each end of the river. Another line EPF is run parallel to the centre line of the river and
point E is such that angle QEP is right angle and EP = PF = 100 m. A third point G is set at a
distance of 150 m from P such that angle GFP is also right angle. Compute the distance PQ.
<Answers>
<< Back