Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Master of Technology
by
M. Jagdishwar
(09310911)
Guide:
Prof. B. Ravi
June 2012
Abstract
Casting processes are widely used to produce complicated metal shapes with little or no
further machining, in a very economical way. Major casting defects, such as shrinkage cavity,
porosity, hot tears etc. occurs during or as a result of solidification phenomenon of the molten
metal. These defects can be minimized by appropriate changes in feeding parameters, such as
feeder location, feeder shape and size, feeder neck shape and size. Selecting the correct set of
parameters that lead to the desired quality and yield, is important but difficult to achieve.
There is a need for computer aided optimal feeder design coupled with solidification
simulation to reduce the number of shop floor trials and obtain enhanced yield and high
quality, in minimal possible time.
In this work a new approach for feeding system evaluation and its optimization is presented.
The feeder design parameters are evaluated using temperature gradient maps generated by
mapping temperature values from part hot spot to the feeder hot spot. Industrial case studies
have been studied to understand the effect of these feeding parameters on temperature
gradients. The feed paths which track the flow of molten metal microscopically during the
process of solidification are generated by Vector Element Method (VEM). The convergence
of these feed paths shows last freezing region thereby indicating shrinkage defect location.
An approach to evaluate and optimize casting feeder design by using feed paths based
method is presented. Further the feed paths are employed to validate the proposed approach
of feeder optimization using statistical Response Surface Method (RSM).
A new approach for feeder shape optimization using subtractive topology based optimization
has been studied and implemented for feeder optimization in a 3-dimensional Visual C#
environment coupled with solidification simulation using AutoCAST-X Solver. An initial
over-designed feeder appended to the casting surface is modeled, which is voxelized and
temperature values are assigned to each voxel using the solver. At each iterations a set of
voxels are removed from the feeder domain based on its temperature value, thereby reducing
the feeder volume, which is remodeled and solved for temperature data and defect analysis
again, till a defect free casting at an optimal feeder size is obtained. An algorithm for the
proposed topology based feeder shape optimization is presented. The above proposed
methodologies have been validated on a bench mark casting.
Key Words: shrinkage defect, directional solidification, feeder design and optimization,
temperature gradients, feed paths, topology optimization, shape optimization.
ii
Table of Contents
i
ii
iii
v
vii
Introduction
1.1
Metal Casting
1.2
Casting Feeding System
1
1
2
1.3
1.4
2
3
1.5
Literature Survey
2.1
Feeder Design
2.2
2.3
2.4
5
5
6
8
10
10
11
11
12
14
19
2.5
21
23
23
24
24
24
25
iii
4.3
4.4
26
26
27
29
31
33
35
36
40
41
41
42
48
48
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
49
50
51
52
55
55
56
References
Bibliography
Acknowledgement
57
61
62
iv
List of Figures
Figure Description
Page
1.1
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
12
2.6
13
2.7
15
2.8
18
2.9
20
4.1
27
4.2
27
28
4.4
28
4.5
30
4.6
30
4.7
31
4.8
31
4.9
32
4.10
32
4.11
33
4.12
33
4.13
34
4.14
34
4.15
35
4.16
35
4.17
36
4.18
37
4.19
38
4.20
(a) Feed path contours (b) Casting section for benchmark casting.
38
5.1
41
5.2
44
5.3
44
6.1
51
6.2
53
vi
List of Tables
Table
Description
Page
1.1
2.1
5.1
42
5.2
43
5.3
44
5.4
45
5.5
45
5.6
46
5.7
46
vii
Chapter 1
Introduction
1.1 Metal Casting
Metal casting is a 5000 years young manufacturing process in which molten metal is poured
in a mould and removed after solidification. These castings are all around us right from
simple rings to complex engine cylinders and are employed in industries varying from
aerospace, medical devices, automobiles, sanitary, electrical machineries, home appliances
etc. Indian casting industry with an annual production of 7.5 MT is the 2nd largest casting
producers in the world after China. With an approximated count of 4500 SME foundries and
accounting for employing nearly 1 million people, the process is still considered as an art in
itself to produce defect free and sound casting. The successful casting of pre-designed
geometry is heavily dependent on the skill and experience of foundry engineer.
be melted. Nearly 80% of the components produced by weight are made through sand casting
process only.
Method
Vendor
Web Address
ADSTEFAN
FDM
www.dm.hap.com
AnyCasting
FDM
www.anycasting.com
AutoCAST
GVM
www.autocast.co.in
CAPCAST
FEM
www.ekkinc.co
CastCAE
FVM
www.castech.fi
Flow-3D
FDM
www.flow3d.com
MAGMASOFT
FDM
www.magmasoft.com
Mavis Flow
FDM
www.alphacast-software.co.uk
NovaFlow
FDM
www.novacast.se
ProCAST
FEM
www.esi-group.com
SoftCAST
FDM
www.oriental-software.com
SUTCAST
FDM
www.sutcast.com
Virtual Casting
FDM
www.niist.res.in
WINCAST
FEM
www.rwp-simtec.de
SOLIDCast
FDM
www.finitesolutions.com
shrinkage related defects and accounts for maximum casting rejections. Simulation allows the
foundry men to analyze problems in detail, faster, and at an early stage in the design cycle,
thus enabling decisions to be made towards improving design and quality. Therefore, the
costs and the risks associated with the trial and error procedure of experimental castings are
minimized.
Coupling numerical simulation with feeding optimization technique is one way of adopting a
more systematic approach towards casting design and its optimization. This coupling enables
visualization of the process of freezing inside a casting and identification of the last freezing
regions or hot spots. This facilitates the placement of feeders and feeding aids in order to
ensure casting soundness while trying to maximize the overall yield without expensive and
time consuming shop floor trails.
The report is organized in seven chapters. The first chapter contains the introduction about
metal casting processes, feeding system, casting solidification simulation and feeder design
optimization. The second chapter covers the literature reviewed on theory of feeder design,
various optimization technique employed for feeder optimization, solidification simulation,
feed paths and there interpretation and topology optimization. The problem definition is
covered in chapter three which includes motivation for the research, objective of project,
research approach and scope of the project. The fourth chapter describes feeder optimization
problem, and introduction of feed path based optimization technique which mainly covers
ideal feed path (temperature gradient maps) and generated feed path by Vector Element
Method (VEM). It also covers major feeding parameters which affect the feeder design
studied through industrial cases. A statistical based Response Surface Method (RSM) is
described and implemented for feeder optimization in chapter five. Sixth chapter focuses on a
subtractive topology based optimization for 3-dimensional feeder shape optimization and in
the last chapter a brief conclusions and future work are presented.
Chapter 2
Literature Survey
Literature review of previous and related work, in the proposed area of research has been
carried out and briefly documented in this chapter. Casting feeder design based on
solidification phenomenon is presented first, followed by rules for feeder design, feeder
location and shape selection. Various feeder size optimization techniques, introduction to
feed paths and its capability in field of optimization is presented.
Figure 2.1: Solidification contraction regimes in liquid, freezing and solid range (Adapted
from Campbell, 2003)
5
Liquid Contraction: This contraction occurs while metal is cooling in liquid state, since
liquid grows in density as it cools. This type of contraction in the liquid state does not pose
a significant problem because most of the superheat of a melt is usually lost during or
quickly after pouring.
Solid Contraction: The solid contraction occurs after the casting has solidified and as it
cools from the solidification temperature to room temperature. The design engineer must
be concerned with this contraction. To ensure that the dimensions of the castings are
correct, the pattern used to produce the given casting is usually made slightly larger than
the casting dimension.
Solidification Contraction: Contraction during solidification occurs at the freezing
point, since density of the solid is greater than density of liquid. This type of contraction is
the root cause of solidification related defects which in turn causes (a) shrinkage porosity
or cavity and (b) the requirement for feeding, which is the result of failure of feeding to
operate effectively. To compensate solidification contraction extra metal needs to be fed to
the solidifying casting. This extra metal is provided by separate reservoir of metal called
as feeder, since its action is to feed the metal to casting.
Table 2.1: Solidification shrinkage for major cast metals
Melting Point
(C)
660
Liquid Density
(kg/m3)
2385
Solid Density
(kg/m3)
2700
Shrinkage
(%)
7.1
Copper
1084
8000
8960
5.3
Cast Iron
1370
6900
7100
3.0
Cast Steel
1640
7015
7870
5.0
Metal
Aluminum
The modulus criterion or heat transfer criterion is that the feeder must solidify at the
same time as, or later than the casting. This is satisfied by ensuring that the feeder has a
modulus (volume to surface area ratio) that is sufficiently larger than the casting by a
multiplication factor. The required modulus of the feeder is given by (Jacob et al., 2004)
6
where, M1, M2 are the moduli of the connected segments and is the center distance of
connected segments. The feeder has to be located to the section with highest modulus so
as to ensure effective and directional feeding.
The volume criterion states that the feeder must contain sufficient molten metal to
meet the volume contraction requirements of the casting. This is satisfied by ensuring that
the feeder has sufficient volume to feed all the shrinkage. The feeder volume should be at
least equal to the minimum volume given by (Campbell, 2003)
where, is the shrinkage factor of the alloy and is the feeding efficiency which is
volume fraction of the feeder that is actually available for feeding. The feeding efficiency
depends on the cooling rate of the feeder which in turn is affected by shape of the feeder
and the presence of insulations or exothermic sleeves.
There must be sufficient pressure at all points in the casting to suppress the formation
The pressure gradient requirement states that there should be sufficient pressure
differential to cause the feed metal to flow, and the flow needs to be in the correct
direction.
The feed path criterion states that there should be positive feed paths to flow from the
liquid to all parts of the casting it is supposed to feed. In order to meet the feed path
requirement, the principle of directional solidification is followed (Heine et al., 1968). If
the feeder can be placed on the highest modulus section of the casting, with progressively
thinner (lower modulus) sections extending away, then the condition of progressive
solidification towards the feeder can be met. The number and position of feeders should be
designed based on this criterion.
2.1.2 Feeder Connectivity and Shape
Depending on the position and connectivity to the casting, feeders are classified as top and
side. The top feeders are placed above the hot spot, whereas the side feeders are placed at
the side of the hot spot, usually at the parting line. A top feeder is more effective because
of the additional effect of gravity.
On the basis of the feeder location and type of connectivity, various parameters related to
feeder shape are considered and illustrated in figure 2.3. Taller feeders are used for steel
castings (e.g. for cylindrical feeders H/D = 2, where H and D are height and diameter of
(a)
(b)
Figure 2.3: Feeder shapes (a) Top, (b) Side with the connectivity (E-Foundry CDS Video
Lecture, 2011)
8
cylinder, respectively), which exhibit shrinkage pipe, whereas in iron and aluminum
castings, H/D value can be about 1.5 (Tavakoli and Davami, 2008).
Different types of shapes available for feeder, but commonly used feeder shapes are
rectangular, cylindrical, cruciform and spherical top. Efficiency of feeder is characterized
by modulus i.e. volume/heat transfer area. By selecting different feeder shape we can have
different efficiency. Casting yield is depending on volume of feeder so it is necessary to
reduce the volume of feeder.
(a)
(b)
Figure 2.4: Commonly used (a) Top and (b) Side feeder shapes (E-Foundry CDS Video
Lecture, 2011)
For small castings, cylindrical feeders are widely used. For larger castings, cylindrical
feeders with spherical bottom (side location) or spherical top (top position, blind type) are
widely used (Ravi, 2007).
After determining the feeder dimension, shape and connection point, feeder neck is
dsigned. Feeder neck (also called as breaker core) is an important parameter, designed in a
way to ensure decreasing modulus towards the casting. This is done to ensure that the neck
should solidify after the casting hotspot and to maintain the flow of liquid metal from the
feeder to casting hotspot.
Modulus of neck (Mn) = (Multiplication factor) * Modulus of casting (Mc)
The multiplication factor is assigned empirically as 1.2 to 1.5 times the casting again
depending on the cast metal. The shape of the feeder-neck depends on the feeder shape,
feeder position and the connected portion of the casting. The most widely used neck
shapes are cylindrical (for top cylindrical feeders) and rectangular (mainly for side
9
feeders). The neck may also be tapered down towards the casting (Ravi, 2010), thereby
gradually reducing the modulus towards the casting.
2.2 Solidification Simulation
The solidification process involves the transformation of the hot liquid metal to solid and
then subsequent cooling of the solid to the room temperature. Solidification of molten
metal after being poured into a mold cavity is an important phase in the casting process
which greatly affects the product quality and yield.
computer modeling of solidification simulation has been widely used in foundry with an
aim to:
Predict the pattern of solidification, including shrinkage cavities and associated defect
predictions.
Perform over a range of ferrous metals like steel, grey iron, ductile iron, nonferrous
metals like aluminum, copper etc. to precious metals like gold, silver etc.
Provide the choice of the quality level like amount of porosity to tolerate, thereby
producing castings in an acceptable range of quality.
In this expression Q represents the rate of heat generation, u, v, w are the velocities in the
directions x, y, and z respectively. K, , c are thermal conductivity, density and specific
heat respectively. The heat flow should also satisfy boundary conditions, which may be
specified as constant temperature at boundary or as known temperature gradient normal to
the boundary-specifying surface. In solidification of casting, Q is zero.
10
Where, S1 and S2 represent the portions of boundary on which these two boundary
conditions are specified. On application of these boundary conditions the governing
equation reduces to:
where, T and q are temperature and heat flux respectively. Initial condition gives
information of temperature at starting time. Boundary condition in different regions (solidliquid interface, casting-mold interface and outer surface of mold) is calculated by using
energy balance.
In this method the casting and mold regions are subdivided into small intervals of constant
space and time and the equation is solved by explicit finite difference method
In finite element method, variational approach method and weighted residue method are
used to solve the problem of heat flow. In variational approach method a function is
needed and minimization of this function is equivalent to solving the governing equation
of the problem. In weighted residual method the metal is assumed to be in complete
contact with the mold surface (no air gap is formed) and it is also assumed that metal
property does not vary in a particular element because it is very small. Again the transient
heat conduction equation is shown in above equation. Boundary conditions are same as
discussed in mathematical modeling of solidification analysis. Solving above equation by
weighted residue method gives nodal temperatures at the metal and mold node.
11
Figure 2.6: Framework of feeder design and optimization (Ravi and Joshi, 2007)
The total volume of feeders should be minimized to improve the casting yield,
productivity and thereby reduce the cost incurred by the foundry men (Ravi and
Srinivasan, 1996). In recent years casting simulation has emerged as a powerful tool in
foundry industry to predict shrinkage defects. Coupling numerical simulation technique
with optimization methods is one way of adopting a more systematic approach towards
casting design and optimization (Xor et al., 2009).
A detailed framework for feeder design and optimization driven by solidification
simulation is presented in a flowchart in figure 2.6, starts with importing CAD model of
casting. A suitable feeder connection point is located closest to the hot spot region.
The following algorithm is used for the connection of feeder.
Identify the faces of the cast part around the hot spot.
13
Sort the faces in a list according to their distance from the hot spot.
Feeder and neck dimensions are computed by using geometric modulus method. Then a
solid model of feeder is generated by creating its vertices, edges and faces based on
connection points and dimensions. This solid model is attached to part model. In next step
solidification simulation is carried out on model. Feed path and presence of hotspot inside
the casting is checked. If internal defects are present, then feeder design is modified. If not
possible to improve the quality by feeder design alone, then the part design is modified. In
last step by using volume of feeder and neck yield is calculated.
parameters modifications. The authors presented the shape sensitivity analysis for the
thermal system and coupled this analysis with non-linear programming to optimize the
design of a sand casting. The geometric modeler used by the author allowed shape
deformation using a mapping technique, thereby facilitating shape optimization.
Morthland et al., (1995) combined FEA of the solidification process with sensitivity
analysis based on the efficient direct differentiation method and numerical optimization to
optimize feeder dimensions and volume. Ebrahimi et al., (1997) applied this approach for
the investment casting and their numerical optimization algorithm used the sensitivities to
calculate the gradient information and upgrade the design until an optimum was found.
Recent development in the field of numerical based optimization was presented by Lin,
(2002). Lin proposed a neural network-based approach for optimization of injection-mold
cooling parameters and designed the injection mold cavity and cooling system model by
using FEM and neural network prediction. The author used simulated annealing
techniques to obtain optimal cooling system parameters.
The research in casting technology has been laboring toward achieving near optimal
solutions while attempting to keep the computational cost as low as possible. Trial and
error methods based on experiments and intuitive and accumulated hands-on experience
are quicker and easier to implement, but they do not necessarily always provide the
optimal solution. Gradient-based methods provide near optimal designs with higher
computational costs. The newly emerging evolutionary computing techniques, however,
may lead us toward the optimal designs and solutions but are computationally very
expensive (Figure 2.7). The availability of skilled foundrymen, computing power, relative
need for higher quality component s, and ease of implementation then influences the
decision making on choosing one of these methods.
Geometric Optimization Technique: In parallel with evolution of numerical
optimization methods, some conventional approaches to solidification analysis and
optimization have been driven by the casting geometry that essentially influences the
sequence of solidification. One of the earliest geometric based optimization efforts was
proposed on the modulus method that had its origin from Chvorinovs, (1996) classic rule,
which related solidification time ts of a casting to its modulus. The term modulus pertains
to the ratio of heat content volume V to the heat-transfer area A of the casting.
Wlodawer, (1966) used Chvorinovs rule to design the feeders in such a way that the
modulus (M) of the feeder is greater than that of the casting and must increase by 10%
from the casting across the ingate to the feeder for ensuring adequate feeding. He proposed
a relationship between casting, neck and feeder modulus as
Tiryakioglu et al., (2002) pointing to limitations in Chvorinovs rule, authors proved that
the modulus includes the effect of both casting shape and size and proposed that the shape
factor (k) separate these two independent factors. Using their own superheat model,
authors found that the solidification time (t) for an optimum-sized feeders in a feedercasting combination was only fractionally longer than that of the casting ( a = 51.046 for
Al-12% Si alloy and 1.005 for steel castings).
Roschen et. al., (2004) presented a novel approach to the problem of feeder design by
augmenting genetic algorithms with CAD to optimize the feeder dimensions. Genetic
algorithms based on empirical rules were used as an optimization tool. A 3-dimentional
CAD model of casting is modeled using CAD software. The casting is further divided into
feeding sections and their volume, surface area were calculated. For each feeding section
feeder is designed by using parallel search in the domain of all possible solution and thus a
population of probable solutions are prepared. A fitness function is defined on the basis of
16
Optimization
evolutionary topology optimization to improve the feeding system design for sand casting.
In this approach, finite-difference analysis of the solidification process is combined with
the optimization technique. The optimal feeder design is formulated as an evolutionary
topology optimization problem. Initial design for this purpose is over designed feeder
topology. An evolutionary algorithm is performed iteratively on initial design until
stopping criterion is satisfied. In every iterations heat conduction equation is solved and
performance indices of feeder voxels are computed. Voxels having lowest performance
index is removed. Neck optimization is also done by same method with additional criteria
of critical neck contact area.
Two types of stopping criteria for the functioning of the algorithm were proposed namely
global and local criterion. The global criterion is maximization of casting yield and local
criterion is to satisfy constraint of maximum allowable macro shrinkage. Casting of low
alloy carbon steel was considered as the problem case in silica sand for optimization. The
result showed that the directional solidification is preserved during optimization while the
17
casting yield is increased gradually and the final design is free from the macro-shrinkage
defects
Tavakoli and Davami (2008) also presented an approach for automatic optimal feeder
design in casting processes.
initialization, (2) defect prediction, (3) defect distribution and finding suitable location of
the feeder-neck connection, (4) feeder and feeder-neck design, (5) shape optimization of
the added feeder, (6) topology optimization of the added feeder (if it is desired), (7) going
to step 2 and repeat the same procedure until defects in the casting fall below a defined
threshold (or other defined stopping criteria are met). Overall flowchart of the presented
method is shown in figure 2.8 and the subsections are discussed in details.
Initialization: The casting geometry (as cast part) with physical properties and
Defect prediction: In this step the defect field in the casting (original casting + added
feeders, if some feeders are added in previous cycles) is determined by solving energy
equation with the macroscopic or microscopic defect prediction methods.
Defect distribution: One of the main steps during feeder design is selection of a
suitable point on the casting surface to connect the feeder-neck. If there is only one major
hot spot inside the casting, selection of the hottest point on the casting surface is
connection point of neck. But when we have two or more isolated hot spots, automatic
selection of feeder-neck connection point is very difficult. For this purpose multiple
feeders, one for each hot spot is needed. If there are several hot spots, with different
solidification times, the feeder can be first designed for the hottest one, followed by
analysis to verify if the same feeder can also feed any other hot spots. Then the feeder is
designed for the next largest hot spots and so on (Ravi, 2005).
Feeder and feeder-neck design: Connection point for feeder neck to the cast surface is
Feeder shape optimization: Shape of feeder is optimized with a simple gradient search
method. This step has a sub-iteration cycle in which the feeder length scale is modified.
The sub-iteration is exploited so that the feeder volume is minimized and the distributed
defect value at the connection point of feeder-neck become below a specified threshold at
the end of iterations. After each feeder modification, energy equation is solved and
remained defects are determined.
casting system. In this method of feed path generation the casting geometry is divided into
a number of segments from a given point and the modulus vector is computed for each
geometric segment. The length of the vector is given by the ratio of volume to heat
transfer surface area of each segment. The resultant of these vectors gives the feed-path at
that point. The computation can be repeated at the new point along the feed-path,
eventually leading to the local hot spot. Multiple feed-paths can be generated starting from
different points along the boundary of the cast part. The profile of these feed-paths
provides a clear insight about the direction of solidification whereas the convergence point
indicates the location of shrinkage related defects.
Figure 2.9: Vector Element Method for square shape casting (Sutaria et al., 2012)
The methodology is illustrated with a square shaped casting shown in figure 2.9. Consider
a point Pi near the part boundary. Divide the part around the point, with equal segment
angle, . Here a large segment angle (45) is shown to illustrate the concept, so that the
number of segments n is only eight. For each segment, modulus vector is computed using
equation 1 and plotted with dotted arrows.
V
A
(1)
Their vector sum represents the direction of the adjacent point with the highest modulus as
shown by the thick arrow. A pre-defined step is taken along this direction to obtain the
next iteration point Pi+1. The procedure is repeated at point Pi+1 and continued till it
reaches a location where the resultant modulus vector is below a pre-defined lower limit.
This last point Pi+m indicate the local maxima of temperature (hot spot), where
temperature gradient tends to be zero. The locus of the points during the iteration from Pi
to Pi+m represents the feed-path. During solidification, when temperature Ti of the molten
20
metal at point Pi reaches the solidus temperature, feed metal is supplied from point Pi+1 to
compensate solidification shrinkage. Multiple hot spots if present are automatically
discovered by separate points of convergence of the feed paths.
A casting (along with feeders) should be designed in such a way that, controlled
progressive directional solidification is achieved, so as to minimize solidification
related defects.
Seven feeding rules are important for feeder design which considers essential
requirements of feeding system. Violation of any of the rule can result in bad feeder
design.
Quality and yield of the casting largely depends upon casting feeding system design,
driven by solidification phenomenon.
Framework for feeder design and optimization gives guideline about finding suitable
feeder-casting location point to connect feeder on casting surface and also algorithm
for feeder optimization driven by solidification simulation.
Stopping criterion for the optimization technique decides number of iterations that has
to be carried out, to achieve optimal solution and amount of time employed in
obtaining the convergence point.
Feed paths generated by vector element method has proved to predict exact location
for shrinkage defects where the computational time involved is comparatively less.
21
Feed paths can be explored as an optimization tool to achieve an optimal solution for
feeder design with a relatively faster convergence rate.
22
Chapter 3
23
3.2 Goal
Goal of the research is development of an integrated framework for an automatic feeder
optimization, driven by key parameters (location, dimension and shape) to achieve the
desired quality at the maximum yield and to validate it through bench mark casting.
Study of feed path characteristics and employing it as an optimization tool for feeder size
and shape optimization.
Development of feed path based optimization algorithm for feeder design and its
optimization.
Validation of the feed path based optimization with statistical based RSM method and
also to study sensitivity of the influencing parameters.
Study of subtractive topology based optimization method and its implementation in 3dimensional geometry for feeder optimization.
Implementation of the optimization model and validating it using experimental data and
bench mark casting.
A detailed literature survey on feeding system design and parameters affecting it for
achieving an optimal solution for feeder dimension is done.
Study of feed path generation by Vector Element Method (VEM) and employing it as an
optimization tool for feeder optimization. This methodology is examined for part having
single hot spot that could be addressed through single feeder connected closest to it.
Comparison of feed path based method with statistical based RSM method:
Studying and implementation of statistical based Response Surface Method (RSM) for multivariable optimization and verifying the results with the feed path based optimization is
performed.
24
Validation of feed path based and topology based optimization analysis through experimental
casting on a benchmark part.
3.5 Scope
Scope for this project is being limited to feeder optimization for castings considering three
different metal-mould combinations which accounts for nearly 90% of all casting produced.
Al-Die casting
Al-Sand casting
This project as of now is focused on casting parts which produces single hot spot in the
geometry, which has to be addressed through single feeder and optimization of the same. The
approach can be easily implemented for 3-dimensional complex geometry, thereby
approaching towards an automatic methodology for feeder design and its optimization.
25
Chapter 4
26
In this chapter an approach to evaluate feeding system parameter using temperature gradients
maps is studied. This methodology gives an insight about the effect of feeding parameters
that affect the feeder design and hence are key parameters for feeder optimization. These are
illustrated by presenting some industrial case studies, which are being taken from different
consultants, each dealing with different feeding parameter. Also a methodology for feeder
optimization by using feed paths computed by VEM are studied and illustrated.
(a)
(b)
(a)
(b)
The highest temperature (hot spot) is seen in the center of the thickest section. This feeds the
adjacent middle section, which in turn feeds the thinnest section that solidifies first. The
shrinkage occurring at the hot spot can be prevented by connecting a side feeder. The
temperature profiles with undersized and correctly sized side feeders are shown in figure 4.1
and 4.2. While it is clear that the feeder has a bigger hot spot compared to that in the part for
the second layout, this does not guarantee feeding unless sufficient temperature gradients
exist in the intervening region. This can be further evaluated by plotting the temperature at
points along the center line of casting section versus their distance from the hot spot in the
casting.
28
In both the layouts shown above, the hot spot in the feeder is measured from the hot spot in
the casting. The initial layout (figure 4.3, temperatures plotted in black color with a square
marker), positive gradients are seen up to a certain distance from the feeder (solid line), and
the remaining distance exhibits a negative gradient (dashed line). This clearly implies that the
feeder will be unable to feed the hot spot in the casting due to negative temperature gradient
in the middle section. In the revised layout (figure 4.4, temperatures plotted in green color
with circular markers), the gradients are positive throughout, indicating a strong possibility of
proper feeding.
The line connecting the highest temperature values are perpendicular to the isothermal
contour that actually represents the solidification front. This temperature gradient line gives
insight information about directional solidification from the part to the feeder in the crosssection. The effects of different parameters namely feeder position, its shape & size and neck
dimension in a feeding system are described and evaluated using the temperature gradient
plots on few of the industrial cases which are taken from the consultants.
29
Figure 4.5: Part methoding, solidification temperature contour and defect image of
initial layout.
31
Figure 4.9: Part methoding, solidification temperature contours, defect image of initial
layout
diameter 60 mm and height 105 mm with a square neck of side 35 mm. In this case a feeder
neck design is studied by varying its dimension keeping the feeder dimension constant based
on the temperature gradient maps. The original layout as shown in figure 4.8 resulted in a
shrinkage cavity. The temperature gradient map was generated by plotting temperature values
along the center line of sections from the hot spot in the casting to the feeder. It shows that
the feeder is effective for a certain distance toward the hot spot, covering only half of the total
feeding distance.
Figure 4.13: Part methoding, solidification temperature contours, defect image of intial
layout
The above proposed methodology for identifying the important feeding parameters for feeder
optimization by temperature gradients maps can be automated by computer generation and
interpretation of temperature gradient maps, followed by automatic modification of feeding
system design, and verification by casting simulation. A new approach to evaluate and
optimize casting feeding system design using feed paths computed by Vector Element
Method (VEM) is being proposed. It is actually possible to automatically track the direction
of the feed metal flow from a given point, and to check if a feeder is effective. The
35
convergence of the feed paths provides a clear indication of directional solidification and
location of shrinkage defects. Initial investigation and comparison has found that this method
takes much lesser time than FEM-based simulation, making it more useful for practical
application. The proposed approach is demonstrated by automatically optimizing the feeder
size for a benchmark casting of Al-alloy castings made in sand molds.
Feed paths are usually generated from the part boundary to visualize the direction of
solidification (from early freezing regions to later freezing regions). The point of
convergence of the feed paths indicates the shrinkage defect location and is checked to ensure
it is inside the feeder, implying adequate feeding. A benchmark part with multiple junctions
is designed to illustrate the methodology for feeding system evaluation and optimization is
shown in figure 4.17. Feed paths are first computed for this part without any feeder and the
convergence point of the feed paths indicates a hot spot inside the heavy boss. The results are
compared with the VEM based AutoCAST simulation images, FEM-based solver, ProCAST
images and is further validated with the original casting as shown in figure below.
Figure 4.17: Benchmark part (a) Temperature contours (VEM), (b) Feed paths contours
(VEM), (c) Temperature contours (FEM), (d) Casting section with shrinkage defect
4.4 Optimization Module and Algorithm
Optimization of feeding system involves achieving the desired internal quality (free of
shrinkage defects) at the lowest cost. The quality is ensured by feed paths converging inside
36
the feeder. A smaller feeder gives higher yield, which implies lower melting cost and higher
productivity. The exercise is initiated by connecting a sub-optimal size feeder to the casting
and computing the feed path from the hot spot in the casting. If this feed path reaches inside
the feeder, then the feeder is considered effective. If the feed path stops inside the part itself,
then the feeder is enlarged and feed path computed again. This is continued until the feed
path moves into the feeder. The above methodology is applied to the benchmark part. A
cylindrical top feeder is designed using Chvorinov's equation with diameter of 65mm and
height of 86mm; the neck is designed with a diameter of 35mm and length of 10mm. The
feed paths computed for this part (as shown in figure 4.17) converge inside the part. For
optimizing the feeder design, iterations are performed by changing the feeding size in steps,
maintaining the same aspect ratio (height/diameter) as constant. The modified feeder
diameter is given by
, till
where,
is the maximum
Figure 4.19: Feed path track starting from part hot spot
Figure 4.20: (a) Feed path contours (b) Casting section for benchmark casting with 75 mm
feeder diameter and 100 mm feeder height.
This limit of the feed path or convergence point is driven by either minimum yield criteria
(say, 50% for this casting) or some geometric length constraints of feed path. Considering
and
and
In each iteration, feed path is computed from part hot spot and tracked till it stops, as shown
in figure 4.19. The length of the feed path from part hot spot to the stopping point is
computed in each case. In the first two cases corresponding to feeder sizes 65mm and 70mm,
the feed path stops inside the part itself, indicating shrinkage defect in the part itself. In the
case of 75 mm diameter feeder, the feed path stops inside the feeder just above the neck, thus
reaching an optimal feeder design. Feed paths are now computed from all the boundary
points for the part with feeder dimension of 75mm diameter and 100 mm height and result is
38
shown in figure 4.20. They are distinctly converging inside the feeder, indicating feeder
solidifies later as compared to the part. Same is confirmed by doing experiments with Alalloy in sand mold. Location of shrinkage porosity as shown in Figure 4.20, closely matches
with the feed-path convergence point. This optimal solution results in 62 % yield.
39
Chapter 5
Near optimal region, Ist order model has high lack-of-fit whereas IInd order model fits
significantly. Optimal solution is determined by computing stationary point of the developed
model, which represents a point of maximum response or a saddle point. The flow chart of
the proposed methodology is shown in the figure 5.1.
Coded Variables
Feeder
Dia.- D (mm)
Feeder
Ht.- H (mm)
X1
X2
Feed-path
Length- L (mm)
Feeder
Modulus- M (mm)
ResponseL/M (Y)
55
75
-1
-1
13
11.62
1.12
55
85
-1
21
11.84
1.77
65
75
-1
22
13.36
1.65
65
85
28
13.64
2.05
60
80
20
12.63
1.58
60
80
21
12.98
1.62
60
80
21
12.81
1.64
60
80
22
12.68
1.73
42
Sum of
Squares
Degree of
Freedom
Mean Square
F-Value
P-Value
0.460
0.153
48.17
0.001
Linear
0.444
0.029
9.10
0.032
Interaction
0.016
0.016
4.92
0.091
Residual Error
0.013
0.01
0.930
0.003
Lack-of-fit
0.00004
0.00003
Pure Error
0.013
0.004
Total
0.472
The calculated coefficients or the model equations however need to be tested for statistical
significance and thus Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) is performed as shown in Table 5.2.
P-value is less than 0.05, which indicates that model is significant at 95% confidence level
and F-value of lack-of-fit is 0.01, indicating Ist order linear model fits significantly. Also,
regression coefficient for interaction term is -0.002; hence not considered in the mathematical
model Eq. (1).
Y = -17.03 + 0.24D + 0.19H
(1)
Contour plot of response surface is shown in Figure 5.2 along with direction of steepest
ascent having the slope 0.24/0.19. Increase in response y is possible by moving up the
steepest ascent path. Maintaining the slope of the steepest ascent path, feeder diameter/height
is increased in step size of 5/6.5 mm, and simulation trails are performed along the path, till
significant improvement in response is observed as shown in Table 5.3.
The experiments are carried out with increase in feeder dimension keeping the slope
0.24/0.19 constant (obtained from Ist order model). The responses are plotted against the steps
at each feeder dimension configuration. The response factor gradually starts increasing till
trial 3, where feeder diameter is 75 mm and height is 100 mm and then starts decreasing after
trial 3 as shown in figure 5.3. This step or feeder dimension configuration is identified as
region II and to check for optimality, simulation experiments are designed using CCD
scheme in this region.
43
Feeder
Ht.- H ( mm)
Feed-path
Length- L (mm)
Feeder
Modulus- M (mm)
ResponseL/M (Y)
Origin
60
80
20
13.64
1.47
Step size
6.5
65
86
23
13.67
1.68
70
94
30
14.73
2.04
75
100
67
15.76
4.25
80
106
70
16.80
3.52
Simulation
Trials
Direction of
steepest ascent
Figure 5.2: Response surface plot at region I, showing direction of steepest ascent
At region II, 8 simulation runs are carried out and the response were recorded (table 5.4) and
a first order model is formulated. During ANOVA of first order model at region II, F-value of
lack-of-fit is found to be 625, which is significantly too high and indicates that the first order
model highly unfits at this region as shown in table 5.5. Now since the first order model
doesnt fit at the region II, hence a second order model is developed by adding, additional 4
axial points to CCD. Thus, total 12 simulation runs are carried out, coded and un-coded
feeding parameters along with simulated response given in table 5.6.
Table 5.4: Central Composite Design points at region II (Unfit Model)
Feeder Variables
Coded Variables
Feeder
Dia.-D (mm)
Feeder
Height (mm)
X1
X2
Feed Path
Length (mm)
Feeder Modulus
(mm)
Response
(Y)
70
95
-1
-1
30
14.78
2.03
70
105
-1
66
15.00
4.40
80
95
-1
68
16.52
4.12
80
105
70
16.80
4.17
75
100
68
15.79
4.31
75
100
68
15.97
4.26
75
100
69
16.19
4.26
75
100
69
16.40
4.20
Sum of Squares
Degree of
Freedom
Mean Square
F-Value
P-Value
2.323
1.161
2.87
0.418
1.161
2.87
0.418
625.70
0.00
Linear
2.323
Residual Error
2.023
Lack-of-fit
2.019
1.009
Pure Error
0.004
0.002
Total
1.436
2
5
0.405
45
Coded Variables
Feeder
Dia.- D ( mm)
Feeder
Ht.- H ( mm)
X1
X2
Feed-path
Length- L (mm)
Feeder
Modulus- M (mm)
ResponseL/M (Y)
70
95
-1
-1
30
14.78
2.03
70
105
-1
66
15.00
4.40
80
95
-1
68
16.52
4.12
80
105
70
16.80
4.17
75
100
68
15.79
4.31
75
100
68
15.97
4.26
75
100
69
16.19
4.26
75
100
69
16.40
4.20
65
100
-2
29
13.98
2.07
85
100
76
17.53
4.34
75
110
69
16.01
4.31
75
90
-2
42
15.51
2.71
Table 5.7: Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) for the second order model at region II
Source of
Variation
Regression
Sum of
Squares
Degree of
Freedom
Mean Square
F-Value
P-Value
8.873
1.775
44.33
0.001
Linear
6.022
1.418
35.43
0.000
Square
1.507
0.754
18.82
0.003
Interaction
1.345
1.345
33.59
0.001
Residual Error
0.240
Lack-of-fit
0.166
0.055
2.24
0.262
Pure Error
0.074
0.025
Total
9.113
0.040
11
46
ANOVA (Table 5.7) shows that P-value is very close to zero, indicating that model is
significant at 95% confidence level. Smaller F-value ensures that second order model fits the
analysis. Regression analysis gives model as:
Y = -311.9 + 3.914D + 3.214H 0.023DH 0.01 D2 0.007H2
(2)
Stationary point giving optimal level of feeder diameter and height is computed using
equation:
(3)
Where, Xs being stationary point, b is the vector of first order regression coefficients and B is
a symmetric matrix whose main-diagonal elements are the pure quadratic coefficients and
off-diagonal elements are one-half the mixed quadratic coefficients.
b =[
] and B = [
Therefore,
[ ]
Thus the calculated optimal feeder diameter is 76.809 mm and feeder height is 103.38 mm,
which approximately matches with the result observed in feed path based feeder optimization
methodology as discussed in section 4.4.
47
Chapter 6
The initial design of the presented method is simulated with the multiple junction bench mark
casting (shown in figure 4.17), but with an over-designed feeder as shown in figure 6.2. In
fact this method needs the feeder layout, i.e., the number of feeders and their relative
configuration, as an initial design. The optimization method gradually improves the design by
minimizing the total volume of feeder(s), simultaneously ensuring a defect-free casting.
Consider Y= f (X) as the characteristic function, where Y = 1 inside the (molten) metal (cast
and feeder) and Y= 0 inside the sand mold. As topology of the casting component (without
feeder) is always fixed, we take Y = 1 on casting and feeder region. The optimal feeder
design is defined as indication of the Y field on design space, so that the desired objective of
defect free casting with minimum feeder volume is satisfied.
6.2 Optimal Feeder Design Formulation
The method starts with an initial over-designed feeder dimension i.e., the initial design is
healthy from functionality viewpoints (initial feeder design generates a defect-free casting)
but it is not efficient from consumed material resource point of view (casting yield or feeder
volume).
The initial overestimated feeder design is the feasible feeder design domain and the final
(optimal) design will be a subset of the initial design, which is formed of sufficiently fine
cubic element called voxels. Every voxel has a topology indicator flag, w, where w = 1 inside
the main phase (molten metal) and w = 0 inside the background phase (mold). Therefore w =
1 inside the casting, w = 0 inside the sand mold and w takes either 0 or 1 inside feeder
domain (varies during topology evolution). At the starting point of optimization, we have an
overestimated feeder design and w = 1 inside the feeder domain. The objective of the
topology based optimization technique in optimal feeder design is to find the best distribution
of w inside the feeder domain that produces a sound casting with minimum consumption of
the molten metal. For this purpose, low performance feeder voxels (w = 1) are gradually
removed from the feeder by altering the corresponding topology indicator flag from one (w
1) to zero (w 0). Since the feeder must be separated from the casting after complete
solidification, the connection area of the feeder-casting which is called as the feeder-neck
should also be taken under consideration. It has being observed that during the successive
iteration a thin separation is being formed between the casting and the feeder which is termed
as Neck Growth Region.
49
50
Figure 6.1: Flow chart for topology based feeder optimization method
1. Initialization: Defining the initial feeder position (an over designed dimension) on the part
surface, model it using CAD modeling package and save it as a STL file.
2. STL file is imported and voxelized for solidification simulation and defect analysis of
initial casting design along with the feeder layout is carried out using VEM based
solidification simulation package AutoCAST-X.
3. The voxelized temperature data for casting + feeder and mold data are stored in particular
array format as a binary file.
4. The binary files are imported in Visual C# environment and the topology optimization is
carried out in successive iteration.
5. 1st iteration for voxel removal is carried out by removing all the feeder voxels having
temperature value less than (say 100 C), thereby reducing or removing outer most shell of
voxels and hence reducing the feeder volume.
51
6. The modified voxelized part model along with the reduced feeder dimension is converted
to STL file and again the solidification simulation is carried out.
7. Steps 2-6 are repeated, till we observe that the next iteration contains defect in the casting
and feeder as well. The reduced feeder dimension in the previous iteration is taken as a
final optimum solution.
6.5 Results
The potential of the presented methodology of topology optimization by successive removal
of voxels based on its temperature details is shown in a multi junction bench mark casting.
Initial part with an over designed feeder of diameter 100 mm and height 130 mm connecting
directly to the part without any neck connection is being modeled using CAD package and
saved in *.STL format, which is being imported and voxelized in AutoCAST-X simulation
software. The VEM based solidification simulation gives the temperature details of the
voxelized model. In 1st iteration the voxels having temperature value less than 100 C are
being removed or converted to mold voxel (w 0), thereby reducing the feeder diameter to
94.52 mm, feeder height to 125.65 mm. It is being observed that outer most shell of voxels
are removed which indeed generates a small separation between feeder and the part. This
projection is termed as growth of neck, which separates feeder with the casting. The initial
neck diameter is calculated out to be 40 mm diameter and 3.46 mm height. Now, with the
available feeder and neck dimension the feeder is remodeled on the part and voxelized for the
2nd iteration i.e., again the voxels are removed or converted to mold voxel (w 0), whose
temperature values are less than 100 C. The 2nd iteration resulted in further reduction of
feeder diameter to 86.29 mm, feeder height to 113.14 mm, neck diameter 40 mm and neck
height to 6.86 mm. With this dimension the feeder is remodeled and is again solved for
temperature details and defect location. The solidification simulation shows the defect is still
inside the feeder, thereby indicating that further removal of the voxels can be done. With the
current feeder and neck dimension, the part is voxelized for 3rd iteration and, the voxels
having temperature value less than 100 C are removed resulting in a feeder diameter to 81.16
mm, feeder height to106 mm, neck diameter to 40 mm and neck height to 8.695 mm. With
this feeder and neck dimension the part is remodeled and the solidification simulation is
performed for temperature and defect analysis. This reduced dimension resulted in hot spot
formation inside the casting and the feeder, which indicates that the current feeder and neck
52
53
dimension is undersized for the part and it cannot be further reduced. Thus the feeder
dimension obtained by the previous iteration (feeder diameter 86.29 mm, feeder height
113.14 mm, neck diameter 40 mm and neck height 6.86 mm) is taken as final optimal
solution. The overall casting yield observed to be 57%. Although the optimal feeder diameter
and feeder height obtained from feed based optimization and RSM method (described in
chapter 4 and 5 respectively) are approximately 75 mm and 100 mm respectively. The error
observed is justified, as after each successive iteration the reduced feeder dimension is being
remodeled in STL format which causes some dimensional inaccuracy. The main advantage of
the above mentioned technique over the previously mentioned technique of feed path based
optimization is that it can easily be implemented in 3D complex parts, and can be automated
using the algorithm mentioned in section 6.4, thus can be implemented for an automated
feeder system design and its optimization.
54
Chapter 7
Casting feeding system design has a direct influence on the quality and efficiency of
overall quality of casting, as it takes care for majority of solidification related defects,
which accounts for maximum casting rejections.
Casting defects elimination and thereby production of defect free casting, can be achieved
by optimizing and controlling process parameters.
Temperature gradient maps are generated by plotting temperatures along the center line of
sections from hot spot in part to the feeder, which gives a better picture about directional
solidification and evaluation of various feeding parameters and thereby optimization of
feeding system.
The proposed approach of feed path based optimization technique overcomes major
limitation of using FEM based solidification simulation which generates only temperature
profiles indicating location of hotspot inside the casting, but not the direction of feeding
of molten metal.
55
Application of Response Surface Method for feeder optimization by the usage of feed
path based technique helps in analyzing and comparing the feed path based optimization
approach, which further eases the assessment of feeder design.
The topology based optimization method starts with an over-designed feeder dimension
and gradually improves casting yield, simultaneously ensuring defect free casting at each
iteration of voxel removal.
The ease of implementation of the methodology indicates a good degree for using it as a
tool for automatic feeding system design and its optimization.
The feed path based optimization tool can only be evaluated for symmetric parts in which
a cross section is analyzed for feeder optimization. This approach can be implemented on
a 3D environment thereby addressing more complex part geometry.
The methodology is currently employed for part having single hot spot, although it can be
further refined so that it can address the problem of multiple feeders optimization that has
multiple hot spots locations.
Topology based optimization which is currently based on temperature details of the part
and feeder, can be extended or combined with feed path based technique so as to achieve
more accurate optimal results.
Effect of various other boundary conditions which includes different feed aids (sleeves,
covers on feeder, chills etc.) can be incorporated with the topology based optimization
coupled with feed path based algorithm as these are important parameters to be analyzed.
56
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61
Acknowledgement
I would like to express my deepest gratitude to Prof. B. Ravi, my research supervisor, for
being a great mentor to me. I am grateful to him for his patience, constant support and,
inculcating motivational thoughts to me.
I am thankful to Mr. Mayur Sutaria, Mr. Maxwel Dsouza, Mr. Renukananda K.H.
and Mr. Vasudev Shinde who shares the same research domain and helped me with their
valuable knowledge whenever needed.
I am also grateful to the Mr. Akash Chavan, Mr. Rupesh Ghyar and Mr. Onkar
Paradkar my lab-mate for being a great support.
M. Jagdishwar
IIT Bombay
62