Wireless Techniques - Wireless Channel and Radio Wave Propagation

Lecture notes
Wireless Techniques by Jorma Kekalainen
Wireless Techniques
Jorma Kekalainen
450
Wireless Techniques
Chapter 4: Wireless channel and
radio wave propagation
451
Wireless channel and radio wave propagation
Page 1
Lecture notes
Wireless Channel and Radio

Wave Propagation
Radio wave basics
452
Maxwells equations
Electromagnetic waves were first postulated by
James Maxwell.
Maxwell derived a wave form of the electric and
magnetic equations.
Maxwells equations govern the propagation of
electromagnetic waves in various media, including
free space,
waveguides,
optical fibers, and
optical crystals.
All
electric,
magnetic,
electromagnetic, and
optical phenomena
are governed by the same fundamental laws of

electromagnetism.
453
Page 2
Lecture notes
Maxwells equations
These laws are written mathematically in terms of the
Maxwells equations:
D =
B = 0
B
E +
=0
t
D
H
=J
t
These four equations completely determine the
electromagnetic field and are the fundamental equations
of the theory of such fields.
454
This theory is also called electrodynamics.
Field vectors
In these equations, the quantities D and B are called
the electric displacement vector or the electric flux
density (in coulombs per square meter) and magnetic
induction vector or the magnetic flux density (in
webers per square meter), respectively.
These two vectors (D ,B) include the effect of the
electromagnetic field on matter.
The quantities E and H are the electric field vector (in
volts per meter) and magnetic field vector (in amperes
per meter), respectively.
These two field vectors (E , H) are employed to
describe an electromagnetic field or a wave.
455
Page 3
Lecture notes
Source of the electromagnetic

radiation
The quantities and J are the electric
charge density (in coulombs per cubic meter)
and electric current density vector (in
amperes per square meter), respectively.
The electric charge and current may be
considered the source of the
electromagnetic radiation, represented by
the E and H vector fields.
456
Material equations
Maxwells equations cannot be solved uniquely unless the
relationships between
B and H
E and D
are known.
To obtain a unique determination of the field vectors,
Maxwells equations must be supplemented by the so-called
material equations,
D =E
B = H
where the parameters and are known as the dielectric
tensor (or permittivity tensor) and the permeability tensor,
respectively.
457
Page 4
Lecture notes
Material parameters
The permittivity of a vacuum is constant
0=8.854 x 10-12 F/m.
The constant 0 is the permeability of a
vacuum and has a value of 0=410-7 H/m.
If the material medium is isotropic, both
material parameters and reduce to scalars.
458
Electromagnetic waves
In communications, we often deal with the
propagation of electromagnetic radiation in such
regions of space where both charge density and
current density are zero.
In fact, if we set = 0 and J = 0 in Maxwells
equations, we find that nonzero solutions exist.
This means that an electromagnetic field can exist
even in the absence of any charges or currents.
Electromagnetic fields occurring in media in the
absence of sources are called electromagnetic
waves.
459
Page 5
Lecture notes
Maxwells equations for free space

According to Maxwell's equations, a spatially-varying electric
field generates a time-varying magnetic field and vice versa.
D = = 0
B = 0
B
=0
t
D
H
=J =0
t
E +
Maxwells equations
for free space
(=J=0)
Therefore, as an oscillating electric field generates an

oscillating magnetic field, the magnetic field in turn generates
an oscillating electric field, and so on.
460
Characteristics of a medium: Terminology

There are certain standard terms used to describe the nature
of the materials.
If the characteristics of the material do not depend on position,
the term homogeneous applies, otherwise the material is said
to be inhomogeneous.
An important inhomogeneous medium is the atmosphere.
This may have refractive index changes in space because of temperature
and humidity variations, or ionization at the higher levels, producing a
bending of electromagnetic waves.
If the behavior of the medium is the same regardless of the

direction of any of the field vectors, it is called isotropic.
If the relations depend on field directions, the medium is
anisotropic.
Some solids (e.g. crystals) are anisotropic, as are ionized gases and ferrites
with applied magnetic fields.
A material is linear if the relations between the physical

quantities in question do not depend on their magnitudes.
Many materials are linear in cases of small magnitudes.
Materials may also have time-varying characteristics, as when

material parameters of a medium vary by applying strong time461
varying field or some other reason.
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Lecture notes
Wave equations in a vacuum

These oscillating fields together form an
electromagnetic wave
2 E 0 0
2
E =0
t 2
2 H 0 0
2
H =0
t 2
These wave equations are a vector-valued differential

equations for the electric field, and for the magnetic
field.
The electric and magnetic field waves are traveling at
the speed of
462
Solution of the wave equation

Here we consider the propagation of electromagnetic plane waves in
homogeneous and isotropic media, where both and are scalar
constants.
The electromagnetic wave equations
2
2
E=0
t 2
2
2 H H = 0
t 2
are satisfied by the monochromatic plane wave
= A exp[ j (t k r )]
where A is the amplitude, is the angular frequency of the field,
k is the wavevector, r is the location vector, and can be any
Cartesian component of E and H.
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Lecture notes
Solution of the wave equation

The angular frequency is related to the magnitude of the
wavevector k by
k =
A wavenumber or a phase coefficient
The wavevector k gives the direction of propagation (the

propagation vector) and the rate of change of phase with
distance.
The components of r specify the coordinate point at which the
field is observed.
The previous solution represents the field component as a
function of time and space.
At any point in space, the field is a sinusoidal function of time.
Correspondingly, at each given moment, the field is a sinusoidal
function of space.
464
Plane wave
It is clear that the field has the same value for coordinates r
and times t, which satisfy
t k r = constant
where the constant is arbitrary and determines the field value.
The above equation determines a plane normal to the
wavevector k at any instant of time.
This plane is called a surface of constant phase or wavefront.
The electromagnetic wave represented by the previous solution
of the wave equation is called a plane wave.
The wavefronts travel in the direction of k with a speed
v=
This speed is the phase velocity of the wave.
465
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Lecture notes
Phase velocity and refraction index

The value of the phase velocity is a property of the medium and
can be expressed in terms of
the permittivity and the permeability or
the phase velocity of the electromagnetic radiation in a
vacuum and the refraction index of the medium
v=
c
n
where c is the phase velocity of the electromagnetic radiation in

a vacuum and
n=
0 0
is refraction index of the medium.

466
Refraction index and phase velocity

in a vacuum
The refraction index in a vacuum is
n=
0 0
=
= n0 = 1
0 0
0 0
and the phase velocity of the electromagnetic radiation in

a vacuum is
v=
c
=c=
n0
0 0
= 2.99792458 10 8 m/s
467
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Lecture notes
Dispersion
Most media are nonmagnetic and have a magnetic
permeability =0.
In that case,
n=
The permittivity and therefore the index of refraction n are

functions of the frequency .
The variation of n with frequency gives rise to the
phenomenon of chromatic dispersion.
In a dispersive medium, the phase velocity of a wave depends on
the frequency .
Different frequency components of the pulse propagate with
different speeds.
This leads to a spreading of the pulse
468
Wave propagation
An electromagnetic
wave consists of two
fields
an electric field and
a magnetic field.
Both of these fields

have
a direction and
a strength (or amplitude).
These fields oscillate in

time and space as the
wave propagates.
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Lecture notes
Wave propagation
Within the electromagnetic wave the two fields are oriented at
90 to one another.
The fields move (by definition at the speed of electromagnetic
wave) in a direction at 90 to both of them.
In three dimensions, we could consider the electric field to be
oriented on the x-axis, and the magnetic field on the y-axis.
Direction of travelling wave would then be along the z-direction.
470
Transverse fields
Not only are the electric and magnetic field waves
traveling at the speed of light, but they have a
special restricted orientation and proportional
magnitudes, E = H, where the parameter is the
impedance of space
=
The electric field, magnetic field, and direction of

wave propagation are all orthogonal, and the wave
propagates in the same direction as EB.
Electromagnetic waves can be imagined as a selfpropagating transverse oscillating wave of electric
and magnetic fields
Note. In a vacuum, the impedance of space is
0 =
0
= 377
0
471
Page 11
Lecture notes
Polarization
If an electromagnetic wave traveling forward, the
electric field might be oscillating up and down, while
the magnetic field oscillates right and left.
This picture can be rotated with the electric field
oscillating right and left and the magnetic field
oscillating down and up.
This is a different solution that is traveling in the
same direction.
This arbitrariness in the orientation with respect to
propagation direction is known as polarization
472
Polarization
The polarization of any vector field is defined by the
geometrical locus of the tip of the vector, as it varies during
one period.
In case of electromagnetic radiation the polarization of wave is
defined by means of the electric vector, as it varies during one
period.
In an isotropic medium, the direction of oscillation is always
perpendicular to the direction of propagation.
A wave is said to be elliptically polarized if the curve traced by
the end point of the electric field vector is an ellipse (in the xyplane).
The special cases of the elliptically polarized wave are:
circularly polarized
if the electric field vector uniformly rotates in the xy-plane.
So, wave is circularly polarized when the tip of the electric field vector
describes a circle.
linearly polarized
if the electric field vector vibrates in a constant direction in the xy-plane
(plane polarized wave).
So, wave is linearly polarized when the tip of the electric field vector moves
along a straight line.
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Lecture notes
Polarization
Circular
Linear
Elliptical
If the direction of oscillation (in the transverse plane) is random, wave is said474
to be
unpolarized. For all thermal sources in nature, the direction of vibration is random.
Wave properties
Reflection the change of direction of waves, due
to hitting a reflective surface
Refraction the change of direction of a wave due
to them entering a new medium
Diffraction the spreading out of waves, for
example when they travel through a small slit
Interference the superposition of two waves that
come into contact with each other
Dispersion the splitting up of waves by frequency
Rectilinear propagation the movement of waves in
straight lines
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Page 13
Lecture notes
Wave
A disturbance that propagates periodically
Transfers energy
A mechanical wave exists in a medium
Electromagnetic wave can travel through vacuum
Radio waves are low frequency EM waves
Radio waves can be made to carry information by
varying a combination of the amplitude, frequency and
phase of the wave within a frequency band.
476
Amplitude
Magnitude of the maximum disturbance in
the medium during one wave cycle
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Lecture notes
Frequency
Number of times that a repeated event occurs per unit time
Measured in hertz (Hz)
where, T is the time period of one cycle

The frequency is equal to the speed of the wave divided by
the wavelength of the wave
If frequency is 900MHz
then wavelength
= (3 * 108 )/(900 * 106)
= 0.333 meters
When waves travel from one medium to another, their

frequency remains same - their wavelength and/or speed
changes
478
Wavelength
Distance between repeating units of a wave pattern
Designated by the Greek letter lambda ()
479
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Lecture notes
Phase
Phase describes the current state of
something that changes periodically
sin(2f0t)
sin(2f0t+90)=cos(2f0t)
Note:
480
Asin(2f0t+)
The angle is known as the zero

phase angle of the sinusoidal
quantity.
It determines the value of the
sinusoidal function at t = 0;
therefore, it fixes the point on
the periodic wave at which we
start measuring time.
Changing the phase angle shifts
the sinusoidal function along the
time axis but has no effect on
either the amplitude or the
frequency.
Note also that if is positive,
the sinusoidal function shifts
to the left. (If is negative,
the function shifts to the right)
481
Page 16
Lecture notes
Three sine waves with the same amplitude and frequency,

but different phases
482
Note
Phase describes the position of the

waveform relative to time 0.
483
Page 17
Lecture notes
Delay and phase shift

If the function v(t) = sin(t) is delayed by seconds,
we get v(t-)=sin[(t-)]=sin(t+), where =- .
The delay shifts the graph of v(t) to the right by an
amount of seconds, which corresponds to a phase
shift (lag) of =- = -2f.
A time shift of seconds to the left on the graph
produces v(t + ), resulting in a leading phase angle
called an advance.
Conversely, a phase shift of corresponds to a
time shift of .
Therefore, for a given phase shift the higher is the
frequency, the smaller is the required time shift.
= =
2f
484
Antenna
An antenna is a transducer designed to transmit or
receive electromagnetic waves.
In other words, antennas convert electromagnetic
waves into electrical currents and vice versa.
They are a necessary part of all radio equipment.
Antennas are used in broadcasting, point-to-point radio
communication, wireless LAN, cell phones, radar, and astronomy.
Physically, an antenna is an arrangement of one or

more elements (conductors).
485
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Lecture notes
Antenna
In transmission, an alternating current is created in the
elements by applying a voltage at the antenna terminals, causing
the elements to radiate an varying electromagnetic field.
In reception, the inverse occurs: an varying electromagnetic
field from another source induces an alternating current in the
elements and a corresponding voltage at the antenna's
terminals.
Some receiving antennas (such as parabolic and horn types)
incorporate shaped reflective surfaces to collect EM waves
from free space and direct or focus them onto the actual
conductive elements.
EM radiation couples to the conductor, travels along it, and
induces an electric current on the surface of that conductor by
exciting the electrons of the conducting material.
This effect (the skin effect) is used in antennas.
486
Decibel (dB) and dBm

dB (Decibel) = 10 log 10 (Pr/Pt)
Log-ratio of two signal levels (Named after Bell).

For example, a cable has 3 dB loss or an amplifier has 10 dB of gain.
System gains and losses can be added/subtracted.
Handy to use especially when changes are in several orders of
magnitude.
dBm (dB milliWatt)

dBm is "a unit for expression of power level in decibels with
reference to a power of 1 milliwatt."
Relative to 1mW, i.e. 0 dBm is 1 mW (milliWatt).
Small signals are negative (e.g. -83dBm).
Typical 802.11b WLAN cards have +15 dBm (32mW) of output power
and a -83 dBm receiver sensitivity (minimum received signal level
required for 11Mbps reception).
For example, if power level is 1 microwatt
Power in dBm = 10 log [(10-3 mW)/ (1mW)] = -30 dBm
Since the dBm has a defined reference it can be converted back

to watts if desired.
Since it is in logarithmic form it may also be conveniently
487
combined with other dB terms
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Lecture notes
Examples
If power level is 1 milliwatt:
Power(dBm) = 10 log[(1mW)/(1mW)]
= 10 log (1)
= 10 (0)
=0
Thus a power level of 1 milliwatt is 0 dBm.
If the power level is 1 watt
1 watt power in dBm = 10 log[(1000mW)/(1mW)]
= 10 (3)
= 30
488
dBi and dBd

dBi (dB isotropic) for EIRP (Effective Isotropic
Radiated Power)
The gain a given antenna has over a theoretical isotropic (point
source) antenna.
The gain of microwave antennas (above 1 GHz) is generally given in
dBi.
dBd (dB dipole)
The gain an antenna has over a /2-dipole antenna.

A dipole antenna is the least gain practical antenna that can be
made.
A /2-dipole antenna has 2.15 dB gain over a isotropic antenna (0
dBi).
Thus, a simple dipole antenna has a gain of 2.15 dBi or 0 dBd and is
used as a standard for calibration.
The term dBd (or sometimes just called dB) generally is used to
describe antenna gain for antennas that operate under 1GHz.
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Lecture notes
Some definitions
Isotropic RF source
A point source that radiates RF energy uniformly in all
directions (i.e.: in the shape of a sphere)
Theoretical only: does not physically exist.
Has a power gain of unity i.e. 0dBi.
Effective Radiated Power (ERP)
The radiated power from a half-wave dipole.
A lossless half-wave dipole antenna has a power gain of 0dBd
or 2.15dBi.
Effective Isotropic Radiated Power (EIRP)
The radiated power from an isotropic source
EIRP = ERP + 2.15 dB
490
ERP
0.4
0.2
0
-0.2
-0.4
0.5
0.5
0
0
-0.5
-0.5
In practice, Effective Radiated Power (ERP) is used

to denote the maximum radiated power as compared
to a half-wave dipole antenna.
491
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Lecture notes
EIRP
Effective Isotropic Radiated Power
EIRP = Pt Gt
which represents the

maximum radiated
power available from a
transmitter
in the direction of
maximum antenna gain,
as compared
to an isotropic radiator.
492
Example: Effective Isotropic Radiated

Power (EIRP)
EIRP (Effect Isotropic Radiated Power): effective
power found in the main lobe of transmitter antenna.
EIRP = PtGt
In dB, EIRP is equal to sum of the antenna gain, Gt (in dBi) plus the
power, Pt (in dBm) into that antenna.
For example, a 12 dBi gain antenna fed directly with

15 dBm of power has an Effective Isotropic Radiated
Power (EIRP) of:
12 dBi + 15dBm = 27 dBm (500 mW).
493
Page 22
Lecture notes
Free-space and received fields
494
Channel definition
Channel is a medium used to convey information from a
sender to a receiver.
Channel is a path for conveying electrical or
electromagnetic signals, usually distinguished from other
parallel paths.
In a communications system, the part that connects a data
source to a data sink is called channel.
A channel can be modelled physically by trying to calculate
the physical processes which modify the transmitted
signal.
495
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Lecture notes
Basic architecture of a
communication system
496
Source
Digital radio link

antenna
Source
Coder
Multiplex
Source
Coder
Multiple
Access
Channel
Coder
Power
Amplifier
Modulator
Carrier fc
transmitted
symbol stream
Destination
Radio
Channel
received (corrupted)
symbol stream
Source
Decoder
Demultiplex
Source
Decoder
Multiple
Access
Channel
Decoder
Demodulator
& Equalizer
RF
Filter
antenna
Carrier fc
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Page 24
Lecture notes
Transmitted signals
Transmitted signal with power Pt, is
where
is the complex baseband signal with bandwidth B, fc is
the carrier frequency, and 0 is the initial phase.
For simplicity, it is often assumed that u(t) is real for
propagation model analysis.
498
Received signals
Received signal is
where v(t) = u(t)c(t) for the baseband channel model

c(t).
Doppler frequency shift
may also be introduced in the received signal

499
Page 25
Lecture notes
Radio propagation
In free space, all electromagnetic waves obey
the inverse-square law, which states that
the power density of an electromagnetic wave
is proportional to the inverse of the square of
the distance from the source
Radio propagation near earth surface is
somewhat unpredictable
Radio waves at different frequencies
propagate in different ways.
500
Signal strength
Strength of signal falls off with distance over
transmission medium
Received signal must have sufficient strength
so the receiver can detect the signal
Signal must maintain a level sufficiently
higher than noise to be received without
error
Attenuation is greater at higher frequencies
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Page 26
Lecture notes
Signal propagation ranges

Transmission range
communication possible
low error rate
Detection range
detection of the signal
possible
no communication,
because high error rate
Interference range
signal may not be
detected
signal gets lost in the
background noise and interference
sender
transmission
distance
detection
interference
502
Unbalanced link
Communication must be
two-way.
Increasing the cell
transmit power
increases downlink
coverage but does not
affect uplink coverage.
The link will become
unbalanced.
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Page 27
Lecture notes
Loss /attenuation
The loss/attenuation are composed of two main
contributions
Propagation losses
(Due to Earths atmosphere, obstacles and
terrain)
Branching losses
(comes from the hardware used to deliver the
transmitter/receiver output to/from the
antenna)
Some of these losses are caused by random
phenomena (e.g. moving antennas, moving objects
and varying weather conditions as rain, fog,
variation of air refractive index in the radio path)
504
Propagation mechanisms
Especially, the following propagation
mechanisms
reflection, diffraction, and scattering
play a central role in a mobile communication

system
The most important parameter, received
power is predicted by large scale propagation
models based on the physics of reflection,
diffraction and scattering
505
Page 28
Lecture notes
Multipath
506
Multipath and fading

The most common cause of
fading is multipath
conditions.
As the term implies, signal
energy follows multiple paths
from the transmit antenna to
the receive antenna.
Two additional paths, besides
the main ray beam, are shown
next figure.
Most of the time the
delayed signal energy (from
the reflected/refracted
paths) will be out of phase
with the principal ray beam
which causes fading.
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Page 29
Lecture notes
Multipath and dispersion

In digital systems, there is the additional
impairment of dispersion caused by multipath.
Of course, the delayed energy arrives later,
spilling into the next bit or binary symbol
position, increasing the probability that that
bit decision will be in error.
508
Wireless channel
Wireless channel is very different from a wired
channel because wireless channel
is not a closed point-to-point link
has time-varying capacity, errors, delays
capacity is shared with interferers
Characteristics of the wireless channel change

randomly with time, which makes it difficult to design
reliable systems with guaranteed performance.
Cellular system designs are interference-limited,
which means that the interference dominates the
noise floor.
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Page 30
Lecture notes
Electromagnetic radiation
Electromagnetic radiation is a phenomenon
that takes the form of self-propagating
waves in a vacuum or in matter.
It consists of electric and magnetic field
components which oscillate in phase
perpendicular to each other and perpendicular
to the direction of energy propagation.
Electromagnetic radiation is classified into
several types: radio waves, microwaves,
infrared radiation, visible light, ultraviolet
radiation, X-rays and gamma rays.
510
Electromagnetic spectrum
511
Page 31
Lecture notes
Electromagnetic spectrum
512
Wavelength and frequency ranges of

electromagnetic radiation
Fractions and multiples: femto (f) =10-15, atto (a)= 10-18, Peta (P)= 1015, Exa (E)=
5131018
Note: ngstrom ()=10-10 m
Page 32
Lecture notes
Frequency Wavelength - Energy
514
Frequencies for communication
VLF = Very Low Frequency

LF = Low Frequency
MF = Medium Frequency
HF = High Frequency
VHF = Very High Frequency
UHF = Ultra High Frequency

SHF = Super High Frequency
EHF = Extra High Frequency
UV = Ultraviolet Light
Frequency and wave length
= c/f
wave length , speed of light c 3x108m/s, frequency f
twisted
pair
1 Mm
300 Hz
VLF
coax cable
10 km
30 kHz
LF
optical transmission
100 m
3 MHz
MF
HF
1 m
300 MHz
VHF
UHF
10 mm
30 GHz
SHF
EHF
100 m
3 THz
infrared
1 m
300 THz
visible
light
UV
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Lecture notes
RF bands
Abbr
ITU
band
Frequency
Wavelength
Extremely low
frequency
ELF
330 Hz
100,000 km
10,000 km
Super low frequency
SLF
30300 Hz
10,000 km 1000
km
Ultra low frequency
ULF
3003000 Hz
1000 km 100 km
VLF
330 kHz
100 km 10 km
Submarine
communications,
wireless heart rate
monitors
Low frequency
LF
30300 kHz
10 km 1 km
Navigation, time
signals (UTC), AM long
wave broadcasting
Medium frequency
MF
3003000 kHz
1 km 100 m
AM (medium wave)
broadcasts
Band name
Very low frequency
Example uses
Communications with
submarines
516
RF bands
HF
330 MHz
100 m 10 m
Shortwave broadcasts and

amateur radio
Very high frequency
VHF
30300 MHz
10 m 1 m
FM and television broadcasts
Ultra high frequency
UHF
3003000 MHz
1 m 100 mm
Television broadcasts, mobile

phones, wireless LAN
Super high frequency
SHF
10
330 GHz
100 mm 10
mm
Microwave devices, mobile

phones (WCDMA), WLAN,
radars
Extremely high
frequency
EHF
11
30300 GHz
10 mm 1 mm
Radio astronomy, high-speed

microwave radio relay
High frequency
Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) is a time standard based on International Atomic Time
(TAI). In 1956, the U.S. National Bureau of Standards started to use atomic frequency
standards in generating time signals, which were broadcast using the low frequency radio
517
waves.
Page 34
Lecture notes
ISM bands
Industrial, Scientific and Medical
Defined by the ITU-R in the Radio Regulations
License free communications applications such as
WLAN and Bluetooth
900 MHz band
2.4 GHz band
5.8 GHz band
518
IEEE bands
Band
Frequency
range
Origin of name
P band
0.25 to 0.5
GHz
Previous, early British Radar used this band
L band
0.5 to 1.5 GHz
Long wave
S band
2 to 4 GHz
Short wave
C band
4 to 8 GHz
Compromise between S and X
X band
8 to 12 GHz
Used in WW II for fire control, X for

cross
Ku band
12 to 18 GHz
Kurz under
K band
18 to 26 GHz
Kurz (German for short)
Ka band
26 to 40 GHz
Kurz above
V band
40 to 75 GHz
Very high frequency
W band
75 to 111 GHz
W follows V in the alphabet
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Page 35
Lecture notes
EU, NATO bands

Band
Frequency range
G band
4 to 6 GHz
A
band
Up to 0.25 GHz
H band
6 to 8 GHz
B
band
0.25 to 0.5 GHz
I band
8 to 10 GHz
C
band
0.5 to 1.0 GHz
J band
10 to 20 GHz
D
band
1 to 2 GHz
K band
20 to 40 GHz
E
band
2 to 3 GHz
L band
40 to 60 GHz
F
band
3 to 4 GHz
M band
60 to 100 GHz
520
Frequencies and regulations

ITU-R holds auctions for new frequencies, manages frequency bands
worldwide (WRC, World Radio Conferences)
Examples
Europe
USA
Cellular
phones
GSM 880-915, 925960, 1710-1785,

1805-1880
UMTS 1920-1980,
2110-2170
AMPS, TDMA,
CDMA, GSM 824849, 869-894
TDMA, CDMA,
GSM, UMTS 18501910, 1930-1990
Cordless
phones
CT1+ 885-887, 930932

CT2 864-868
DECT 1880-1900
1850-1910
1930-1990
1910-1930
802.11b/g 2412802.11b/g 24122472

2462
DECT - Digital Enhanced Cordless Technology - uses the 20MHz of spectrum between
1880MHz and 1900MHz, DECT provides 120 duplex channels to provide wireless speech
521 to
bearers. Enhancements to this standard now allow data services up to a data rate of 1Mbps
be supported.
Wireless LANs
Page 36
Lecture notes
Frequency allocation
Use of radio frequency bands is regulated by
governments.
ITU works on standards for frequency allocation.
522
Scarce wireless spectrum
Expensive in some
countries!
523
Page 37
Lecture notes

Wave Propagation
Propagation environment
524
Electromagnetic spectrum and

atmospheric opacity
525
Page 38
Lecture notes
Wave propagation
a wave
can
be absorbed
penetrate
reflect
bend
526
Atmospheric refraction
Atmospheric refraction is the deviation of
electromagnetic wave course from a straight
line as it passes through the atmosphere due
to the variation of refractive index (caused
by variation in air density as a function of
altitude)
527
Page 39
Lecture notes
Refraction
Refraction occurs when electromagnetic waves travel from a medium

with a given refractive index to a medium with another refractive
index.
At the boundary between the media, the wave's phase velocity is
altered, usually causing a change in direction.
Its wavelength increases or decreases but its frequency remains
constant.
Refraction is described by Snell's law, which states that the angle of
incidence 1 is related to the angle of refraction 2 by
where v1 and v2 are the wave velocities in the respective media, and n1
and n2 the refractive indices.
In general, when radio wave is travelling from one medium to another,
having different electric characteristics the incident wave is partially
refracted and partially reflected
528
Example
Refraction of radio ray at the interface between two media of
different refractive indices, with n2 > n1.
Since the phase velocity is lower in the second medium (v2 < v1),
the angle of refraction 2 is less than the angle of incidence 1;
that is, the ray in the higher-index medium is closer to the
normal.
529
Page 40
Lecture notes
Refraction
530
Radio horizon
The distance to the radio horizon varies with
the index of refraction of the intervening
space.
Under normal atmospheric conditions (k=4/3),
the radio horizon is about 15 percent beyond
the optical horizon because the microwave ray
beam being bent toward the earth.
However, this generalization may be overly
optimistic under certain circumstances.
531
Page 41
Lecture notes
Radio and optical horizon (smooth earth)
532
Atmosphere
Even though the temperature in the upper atmosphere is high, one would not feel warm there,
533
because it is so near vacuum that there is not enough contact with the few atoms of gas
to
transfer much heat.
Page 42
Lecture notes
Ionosphere
The ionosphere is a collection of layers of partially or totally
ionized gases high above the majority of the Earth's
atmosphere; these gases are ionized by solar radiation (cosmic
rays originating on the sun).
When radio waves travel into this zone, which commences about
50 kilometers above the earth, they experience diffraction-like
phenomenon.
In this case some of the electromagnetic energy is bent in a
large arc, such that it can return to the Earth's surface at a
very distant point (on the order of hundreds of kilometers or
more from the source.
Some of this radio wave energy bounces off the Earth's surface
and reaches the ionosphere for a second time, at a distance
farther away than the first time.
Consequently a transmitter can globally broadcast by using
multiple "skips" off of the ionosphere.
534
Ionosphere
The ionosphere is the part of the atmosphere that is ionized
by solar radiation
It influences especially HF (330 MHz) radio propagation
The ionization depends on the Sun and its activity
535
Page 43
Lecture notes
Ionosphere and its layers
536
Presentation of ionospheric
layers around the Earth
537
Page 44
Lecture notes
D layer
D layer is 50 km to 90 km above the earth surface
Ionization is due to radiation at a wavelength of 121.5 nm,
ionizing nitric oxide
The ionization effect is low and the HF radio waves are not
reflected by this layer
This layer is mainly responsible for absorption of HF radio
waves, particularly at 10 MHz and below
538
E layer
E layer is 90 km to 120
km above the earth
surface
Ionization is due to
soft X ray and far
ultraviolet solar
radiation, ionizing
oxygen
This layer reflects
frequencies less than
10 MHz
539
Page 45
Lecture notes
Apparent reflection from the

ionosphere
540
F layer
F layer is 120 km to 400 km above the earth surface

Extreme ultraviolet solar radiation ionizes oxygen
The F layers combine into one layer at night
During daytime, it divides into two layers, F1 and F2
The F layers are responsible for long range sky wave
propagation
541
Page 46
Lecture notes
Sky wave propagation

For HF bands, the ionosphere is utilized to reflect the radio
signal
Radio waves hop between earth and ionosphere
The critical frequency is the limiting frequency below which a
radio wave is reflected by an ionospheric layer at vertical
incidence
where, N = electron density per cc and fcritical is in MHz
542

The Maximum Usable Frequency (MUF) is the upper frequency
limit that can be used for transmission between two points
Where, I = angle of attack, the angle of the wave relative to

the horizon
The cutoff frequency of the layer is the frequency below
which a radio wave fails to penetrate a layer
543
Page 47
Lecture notes
Absorption
LF radio waves travel easily through brick and
stone
As the frequency rises, absorption effects become
more significant
Heavy rain and snow also present major challenges
to microwave reception
544
Absorption
Absorption is the result of conversion from radio frequency energy
to thermal energy within an attenuating particle, such as a molecule
of gas or a raindrop.
545
Page 48
Lecture notes
Atmospheric attenuation
Attenuation of
the signal in %
Example: satellite systems at 4-6 GHz
50
40
rain
absorption
30
fog absorption
e
20
10
atmospheric
absorption
5 10
20
30
40
elevation of the satellite
50
546
Gas absorption
Primarily due to the water vapor and oxygen
in the atmosphere.
The absorption peaks are located around 23
GHz for water molecules and 50 to 70 GHz
for oxygen molecules.
The specific attenuation (dB/km) is strongly
dependent on frequency, temperature and the
absolute or relative humidity of the
atmosphere.
547
Page 49
Lecture notes
Gas attenuation vs. frequency

Total specific
gas attenuation 23GHz
1.0 (dB/Km)
T=40oC
RH=80%
0.4
T=30o
RH=50%
Frequency (GHz)
25
50
548
Gas absorption
549
Page 50
Lecture notes
Atmospheric attenuation
550
Transmission path types

Line-of-Sight (LOS)
The received signal is directly received at the receiver
(direct mode)
Non-Line-of-Sight (NLOS)
Obstructed by buildings, mountains and foliage
551
Page 51
Lecture notes
NLOS propagation
Near-Line-of-Sight or Non-Line-of-Sight
Radio transmission across a partially obstructed path
Some of obstructions reflect certain signals, while some
absorb the signals
Effective NLOS networking
is a major concern in mobile communication
One method for dealing with NLOS conditions
is to place relays at additional locations
More advanced NLOS transmission
schemes utilize multipath signals
552
Obstacle loss
553
Page 52
Lecture notes
Complex environment of radiowaves

hills
towers
hallways
rain
windows
trees
walls
vehicles
554

Wave Propagation
Propagation modes
555
Page 53
Lecture notes
RF propagation modes in different

bands
Radio Band
Frequency
Propagation Via
Guided between earth and
ionosphere
VLF
Very Low Frequency
3 - 30 kHz
LF
Low Frequency
30 - 300
kHz
MF
Medium Frequency
300 - 3000
kHz
HF
High Frequency (Short

Wave)
3 - 30 MHz
E layer ionospheric reflection

F layer ionospheric reflection
VHF
Very High Frequency
30 - 300
MHz
Line of Sight
E layer ionospheric reflection
300 - 3000
MHz
Line of Sight
UHF Ultra High Frequency
Guided between earth and

ionosphere
Ground Waves
Ground wave during the day
E layer ionospheric reflection at
night (far stations revive in MF)
556
RF propagation modes
557
Page 54
Lecture notes
Propagation modes
Ground-wave propagation
Sky-wave propagation
Line-of-sight propagation
Non-line-of-sight propagation
558
Radio wave propagation modes
559
Page 55
Lecture notes
Ground wave propagation
Follows contour of the earth

Can propagate considerable distances
Frequencies up to 2 MHz
Example
AM radio
560
561
Page 56
Lecture notes

Signal reflected from ionized layer of atmosphere
back down to earth
Signal can travel a number of hops, back and
forth between ionosphere and earths surface
Reflection effect caused by refraction
Examples
Amateur radio
CB radio
562
563
Page 57
Lecture notes
Line-of-Sight propagation
Transmitting and receiving antennas must be within
line of sight (LOS)
Satellite communication signal above 30 MHz not reflected by
ionosphere
Terrestrial microwave link antennas above radio horizon taking
refraction into consideration
Refraction bending of waves by the atmosphere

Velocity of electromagnetic wave is a function of the density of the
medium
564
Line-of-Sight propagation
565
Page 58
Lecture notes
Basic NLOS mechanisms

Three basic NLOS mechanisms affecting radio signal
propagation
Reflection: Signal waves impinging upon earth surface,
buildings, and walls (objects quite big in size as
compared to wavelength ) get reflected
Diffraction: Signal waves get diffracted/bent around
the objects, having sharp irregularities (edges), and
obstructing its path between Tx and Rx
Signal waves reach Rx behind the obstacle (a hill, a tall
building, or some other structures) under its shadow
Depends on geometry of the object, amplitude, phase and
polarization of the signal wave at the point of diffraction.
Scattering: is caused by very small obstacles (as

compared to signal wavelength ) such as rough surface,
foliage, lamp posts, street signs, etc.
566
Over horizon propagation
Ground wave
Diffraction
Ionospheric refraction
Tropospheric and ionospheric scatter
567
Page 59
Lecture notes

Ground wave
propagates along curvature of the earth

gets attenuated as it follow the earths surface
At low frequencies, ground losses are low
The VLF and LF frequencies are used by some military
communications
568
Diffraction
Radio signal can propagate around the curved surface
of the earth, beyond the horizon and behind
obstructions.
Although the received field strength decreases
rapidly as a receiver moves deeper into the
obstructed (shadowed) region, the diffraction field
still exists and often has sufficient strength to
produce a useful signal.
The field strength of a diffracted wave in the
shadowed region is the vector sum of the electric
field components of all the secondary wavelets in
the space around the obstacles.
569
Page 60
Lecture notes
Tropospheric and ionospheric scattering

At VHF and higher, the lower atmosphere
(troposphere) and upper atmosphere (ionosphere)
scatters some of the signals back toward the
ground
This makes over the horizon communications
possible with these high frequencies
570
Scattering
Scattering results from redirection of the radiowaves into various
directions, so that only a fraction of the incident energy is transmitted
onwards in the direction of the receiver.
The scattering process is strongly frequency-dependent, since
wavelengths which are long compared to the particle size will be only
weakly scattered.
The main scattering particles of interest in lower atmosphere are
hydrometeors, including raindrops, fog and clouds.
In these cases, the scattering component of attenuation is only
significant to systems operating above around 10 GHz.
571
Page 61
Lecture notes

Wave Propagation
Main propagation mechanisms and
effects
572
Radio wave propagation mechanisms
The mechanisms are usually described in terms of variations in the

signal characteristics of the wave, as compared to the natural or free
space values found in the absence of the mechanism.
Absorption
Scattering
A change in the direction of propagation of a radio wave resulting from the spatial
variation of refractive index of the medium.
Diffraction
A process in which the energy of a radio wave is dispersed in direction due to

interaction with inhomogeneities in the propagation medium.
Refraction
A reduction in the amplitude (field strength) of a radio wave caused by an irreversible

conversion of energy from the radio wave to matter in the propagation path.
A change in the direction of propagation of a radio wave resulting from the

presence of an obstacle, a restricted aperture (narrow gap), or other object in the
medium.
Multipath
The propagation condition that results in a transmitted radio wave reaching the
receiving antenna by two or more propagation paths.
Multipath can result from refractive index irregularities in the troposphere or
ionosphere; or from structural and terrain scattering on the earths surface.
573
Page 62
Lecture notes
Scintillation
Rapid fluctuations of the amplitude and phase of a radio wave caused by
small scale irregularities in the transmission path (or paths) with time.
Fading
The variation of the amplitude (field strength) of a radio wave caused
by changes in the transmission path (or paths) with time.
The terms fading and scintillation are often used interchangeably; however,
fading is usually used to describe slower time variations, in the order of
seconds or minutes, whereas scintillation always refers to rapid variations,
in the order of fractions of a second in duration.
Frequency dispersion
A change in the frequency and phase components across the bandwidth
of a radio wave, caused by a dispersive medium.
A dispersive medium is one whose fundamental electrical characteristics
(permittivity, permeability and conductivity) depend on frequency (temporal
dispersion) or wave direction (spatial dispersion).
574
Mechanisms and affected

parameters
Many of the mechanisms can be present on the transmission
path at the same time and it is usually extremely difficult to
identify the mechanism or mechanisms that produce a change in
the characteristics of the transmitted signal.
The parameters that can be observed or measured on a typical
link are amplitude, phase, polarization, frequency, bandwidth,
and angle of arrival.
Each of the propagation mechanisms, if present in the path,
will affect one or more of the signal parameters.
Since all of the signal parameters, except for frequency, can be
affected by several mechanisms, it is usually not possible to
determine the propagation conditions from an observation of the
parameters alone.
For example, if a reduction in signal amplitude is observed, it
could be caused by absorption, scattering, refraction,
diffraction, multipath, scintillation, fading, or a combination of
the above.
575
Page 63
Lecture notes
Mechanisms and affected parameters
Propagation mechanisms and the measurable

parameters of a signal on a communications link.
576
The physical mechanisms that govern radio
propagation are complex and diverse:
Direct mode
Reflection
Diffraction
Scattering.
They have a major impact on the wave propagation in

a wireless communication system
The most important parameter, received power is
predicted by models based on the previous
577
mechanisms.
Page 64
Lecture notes
Wireless communication system types
578
Radio propagation mechanisms

Propagation in free space is straightforward
Received power proportional to 1/d in free space
(d = distance
Receiving power additionally influenced by
between sender
and receiver)
fading (frequency dependent)
shadowing
reflection at large obstacles
refraction depending on the density of a medium
scattering at small obstacles
diffraction at edges
fading
shadowing
reflection
refraction scattering
579
diffraction
Page 65
Lecture notes
Reflection, diffraction and

scattering
In mobile communications radio signals generally propagate
according to these non-direct mechanisms;
Reflection,
Diffraction, and
Scattering.
Reflections arise when the plane waves are incident upon a

surface with dimensions that are very large compared to the
wavelength.
Diffraction occurs according to Huygens principle when there is
an obstruction between the transmitter and receiver antennas,
and secondary waves are generated behind the obstructing
body.
Scattering occurs when the plane waves are incident upon an
object whose dimensions are on the order of a wavelength or
less, and causes the energy to be redirected in many
directions.
580
Diffraction
581
Page 66
Lecture notes
Diffraction
Diffraction refers to various phenomena which occur when a wave

encounters an obstacle.
It is described as the apparent bending of waves around small
obstacles and the spreading out of waves past small openings.
Similar effects are observed when waves travel through a medium with
a varying refractive index or a varying wave impedance.
Diffraction occurs with all waves, including electromagnetic waves such
as visible light, x-rays and radio waves.
While diffraction occurs whenever propagating waves encounter such
changes, its effects are generally most pronounced for waves where
the wavelength is on the order of the size of the diffracting objects.
If the obstructing object provides multiple, closely-spaced openings
(grid), a complex pattern of varying intensity can result.
This is due to the superposition, or interference, of different parts of
a wave that traveled to the observer by different paths.
582
Diffraction
Diffraction arises because of the way in which waves propagate;
this is described by the HuygensFresnel principle.
The propagation of a wave can be visualized by considering every
point on a wavefront as a point source for a secondary radial
wave.
The subsequent propagation and addition of all these radial
waves form the new wavefront.
When waves are added together, their sum is determined by the
relative phases as well as the amplitudes of the individual waves,
an effect which is often known as wave interference.
The summed amplitude of the waves can have any value between
zero and the sum of the individual amplitudes.
Hence, diffraction patterns have a series of maxima and minima.
583
Page 67
Lecture notes
Diffraction
Diffraction is the bending and spreading of waves when they
meet an obstruction.
Signals for urban cellular telephony are dominated by ground
plane effects as they travel over the rooftops
They diffract over roof
edges into the street,
where multipath propagation,
absorption and diffraction
phenomena dominate
584
Scattering
Scattering is a general physical process where some forms of
radiation, such as electromagnetic wave, or moving particles, are
forced to deviate from a straight trajectory (path) by one or
more localized non-uniformities in the medium through which
they pass.
This also includes deviation of reflected radiation from the
angle predicted by the law of reflection.
Reflections that undergo scattering are often called diffuse
reflections and unscattered reflections are called specular
(mirror-like) reflections.
The types of non-uniformities which can cause scattering
(scatterers or scattering centers), are numerous e.g. particles,
droplets, density fluctuations, surface roughness etc.
585
Page 68
Lecture notes
Rayleigh scattering
Rayleigh scattering is a process in which electromagnetic
radiation is scattered by a small spherical volume of variant
refractive index, such as a particle, bubble, droplet, or a density
fluctuation.
In order for Rayleigh's model to apply, the sphere must be much
smaller in diameter (
/10) than the wavelength of the
scattered wave.
The inherent scattering that radiation undergoes passing
through a pure gas is due to microscopic density fluctuations as
the gas molecules move around, which are normally small enough
in scale for Rayleigh's model to apply.
Along with absorption, such scattering is a major cause of the
attenuation of radiation by the atmosphere.
Electromagnetic radiation scattered by moving scattering
centers does undergo a Doppler shift.
586
Path loss and shadowing

The wireless radio channel poses a severe challenge as a medium
for reliable high-speed communication.
It is not only susceptible to noise, interference, and other
channel impediments, but these impediments change over time
in unpredictable ways due to user movement.
Path loss is caused by dissipation of the power radiated by the
transmitter as well as effects of the propagation channel.
Simple path loss models generally excludes shadowing effects
then path loss is the same at a given transmit-receive distance.
Shadowing is caused by obstacles between the transmitter and
receiver that attenuate signal power through absorption,
reflection, scattering, and diffraction.
When the attenuation is very strong, the signal is blocked.
587
Page 69
Lecture notes
Propagation characteristics
Path loss (includes average shadowing)
Shadowing (due to obstructions)
Multipath fading
Slow
Pt
Pr
Pr/Pt
Fast
Very slow
d=vt
d=vt
588
Path loss: power falloff relative to distance
Shadowing: random fluctuations due to
obstructions
Flat and frequency selective fading: caused by
multipath
589
Page 70
Lecture notes
Large-scale and small-scale

propagation effects
Variation due to path loss occurs over large distances (100-1000
meters), whereas variation due to shadowing occurs over
distances proportional to the length of the obstructing object
(10-100 meters in outdoor environments and less in indoor
environments).
Since variations due to path loss and shadowing occur over
relatively large distances, this variation is sometimes referred
to as large-scale propagation effects.
Variation due to the constructive and destructive addition of
multipath signal components occurs over very short distances,
on the order of the signal wavelength, so these variations are
sometimes referred to as small-scale propagation effects.
590
Path loss, shadowing and

multipath vs. distance
The ratio of the received-to-transmit power in

dB versus log-distance for the combined effects
of path loss, shadowing, and multipath.
591
Page 71
Lecture notes

Wave Propagation
Free space propagation
592
Free space propagation

Oscillating current at transmitting antenna produces
three field components:
The electrostatic and inductive fields that decay as 1/d2 or
1/d3
The EM radiation field that decays as 1/d (power decays as
1/d2)
593
Page 72
Lecture notes
Line-of-Sight (LOS, Direct path )

Line-of-sight is the direct propagation of radio waves
between antennas that are visible to each other
The effects such as reflection, diffraction and
scattering do not affect the signal reception much.
This is the common radio propagation mode at VHF
and higher frequencies.
Examples would include propagation between
microwave links, a satellite communication or
reception of television signals from a local TV
transmitter.
594
Line-of-Sight (LOS) propagation

Radio signals travel in straight lines through
medium of constant refraction coefficient (free
space)
The ability to visually sight a transmitting antenna
corresponds with the ability to receive a signal
from it
Hence, the propagation characteristic is called
line of sight
The propagation characteristics depend on
frequency
595
Page 73
Lecture notes
Line-of-Sight distance
Optical line of sight
d = 3.57 h
Effective, or radio, line of sight
d = 3.57 h
d = distance between antenna and horizon (km)
h = antenna height (m)
K = adjustment factor to account for refraction,
rule of thumb K = 4/3
596
Line-of-Sight distance
Maximum distance (km) between two
antennas for LOS propagation:
3.57 h1 + h2
h1 = height (m) of antenna one

h2 = height (m) of antenna two
LOS distance between transmitting and receiving antenna (K=4/3)
d=dT+dR4.13*(hT+hR)
,d=[km], hT, hR=[m].

597
Page 74
Lecture notes
Impairments to LOS propagation

Obstruction between the transmitting and receiving and
antenna may block the signal
RF signal can be partially or totally blocked by trees, heavy
rain, snow or other obstructions
The presence of objects not even in the direct visual line
of sight can interfere with radio transmission
A volume known as the first Fresnel zone should be kept free
of obstructions in free space propagation
Reflected radiation from the ground plane also acts to
cancel out the direct signal
598
LOS impairments
Attenuation
Free space loss spreading attenuation
Absorption obstacles absorb RF energy

Atmospheric absorption water vapor and
oxygen contribute to attenuation
Multipath obstacles reflect signals so
that multiple copies with varying delays
are received
Refraction bending of radio waves as
they propagate through the atmosphere
599
Page 75
Lecture notes
Free space loss

Free space loss, ideal isotropic antenna
Pt (4d )
(4fd )
=
=
2
Pr
c2
2
Pt = signal power at transmitting antenna

Pr = signal power at receiving antenna
= carrier wavelength
f = frequency
d = propagation distance between antennas
c = speed of light (~3*108 m/s)
600
Free space loss

Free space loss equation can be
reformulate:
LdB = 10 log
Pt
4d
= 20 log
Pr

= 20 log( ) + 20 log(d ) + 21.98 dB

4fd
= 20 log
= 20 log( f ) + 20 log(d ) 147.56 dB
c
601
Page 76
Lecture notes
Free space loss

Free space loss accounting for directive antennas
Pt (4 ) (d )
(d ) = (cd )
=
=
2
Pr
Gr Gt
Ar At
f 2 Ar At
2
Gt = gain of transmitting antenna

Gr = gain of receiving antenna
At = effective area of transmitting antenna
Ar = effective area of receiving antenna
Note: Effective area and antenna gain

602
Free space loss

Free space loss accounting for gain of
other antennas is
LdB = 20 log( ) + 20 log(d ) 10 log( At Ar )
= 20 log( f ) + 20 log(d ) 10 log( At Ar ) + 169.54dB
603
Page 77
Lecture notes

Wave Propagation
Free space propagation model
604

Used only when there exists a Line-Of-Sight (LOS)
between Tx and Rx
Finds application in satellite and LOS microwave radio
link designing
The free space propagation model is used to predict
Received signal strength when the transmitter and
receiver have a clear, unobstructed LOS between
them.
Satellite communication systems and microwave lineof-sight radio links typically undergo free space
propagation.
605
Page 78
Lecture notes
Path loss
As with most large-scale radio wave
propagation models, the free space model
predicts path loss
Signal attenuation as a positive quantity measured
in dB and defined as the difference (in dB)
between the effective transmitter power and
received power.
Friis equation is an application of the

standard Free space propagation model
It gives the median path loss.
606
Free space loss (FSL)

Proportional to the square of the distance between the
transmitter and receiver
Proportional to the square of the frequency of the signal
FSL (dB) = 20log(d) + 20log(f) + K
d is the distance, f is the frequency
K is a constant that depends on the units used and
details of the radio link
If d is measured in meters, f in Hz, and the link uses
isotropic antennas, K = 147.5
607
Page 79
Lecture notes
Elements of a wireless
communication system
608
Friis free space equation

The free space power received by a receiver
antenna which is separated from a radiating
transmitter antenna by a distance d, is given
by the Friis free space equation,
609
Page 80
Lecture notes
Symbols in Friis free space equation

Pr(d) =
Pt=
Gt=
Gr=
d=
L=
Power received by a receiver antenna separated by a

radiating transmitter antenna by a distance d
(function of the T-R separation )
Transmitted power
Transmitter antenna gain (dimensionless)
receiver antenna gain (dimensionless )
T-R separation distance in meters,
System loss.
The miscellaneous losses usually due to transmission line
attenuation, filter losses, and antenna losses in the
communication system.
(L greater than or equal to 1)
A value of L = 1 indicates no loss in the system hardware.
610
Friis free space equation

Conclusion of Friis free space equation
The received power falls off as the square of the T-R

separation distance.
The Friis free space model is only a valid predictor
for Pr for values of d which are in the far-field of the
transmitting antenna
611
Page 81
Lecture notes
Modified free space equation
In practice, power can be measured at d0 and predicted at d using the

relation called modified free space equation
Pr(d) = Pr(d0)(d0/d)2
Modified free space equation in dB form

Pr(d) = 10 log[Pr(d0)/0.001W] + 20 log(d0/d)
[dBm]
where
d d0 df
df is Fraunhofer distance df =2D2/, D is the largest physical dimension
of the antenna
In practice, reference distance is chosen to be 1m (indoor) and 100m

or 1km(outdoor) for low-gain antenna system in 1-2 GHz region.
612
Note
The additional loss effects due to
impedance mismatch
misalignment of the antenna pointing and
polarization and
absorption
can be included into model.
613
Page 82
Lecture notes
Comment on free space propagation

model
The ideal conditions assumed for this model
are almost never achieved in ordinary
terrestrial communications, due to
obstructions, reflections from buildings, and
most importantly reflections from the
ground.
One situation where the equation is
reasonably accurate is in satellite
communications when there is negligible
atmospheric absorption.
614
Free space (LOS) model

Received power:
d
Path loss for unobstructed LOS path
Power falls off :
Gl=GtGr
Proportional to d2
Proportional to 2 (inversely proportional to f2)
Power falls off proportional to the ratio of

wavelength over distance squared (/d)2.
The inverse frequency dependence is due to the
effective aperture of the receiver.
Power falls off proportional to net antenna gain
G=GtGr.
Model is not accurate for general environments.
615
Page 83
Lecture notes

Wave Propagation
Non-Line-ofSight propagation
mechanisms
616
Non-Line-of-Sight (NLOS)
When the direct LOS between transmitter
and receiver is lost the NLOS effects
become important.
In the absence of direct path reflection,
diffraction and scattering become the main
contributors to the received signal at the
receiver.
617
Page 84
Lecture notes
Reflection
Reflection occurs when RF energy is incident upon a
boundary between two materials (e.g air/ground)
with different electrical characteristics
Permittivity
Permeability
Conductivity
Reflecting surface must be smooth
618
Reflection from smooth surface
619
Page 85
Lecture notes
Material parameters
620
Reflection
Reflection from a perfect dielectric
If the plane wave is incident on a perfect
dielectric, part of the energy is transmitted into
the second medium and part of the energy is
reflected back into the first medium, and there is
no loss of energy in absorption.
Reflection from a perfect conductor

If the second medium is a perfect conductor, then
all incident energy is reflected back into the
first medium without loss of energy.
621
Page 86
Lecture notes
Reflection
Perfect conductor reflect without attenuation
Dielectrics reflect a fraction of incident energy
r
t
622
Reflection
Reflection occurs when waves touches an
obstruction that is much larger in size
compared to the wavelength of the signal
Example: reflections from earth and buildings
Waves bouncing off of objects of large dimensions
Large buildings, earth surface etc.
These reflections may interfere with the

original signal constructively or destructively
623
Page 87
Lecture notes
Constructive and destructive

summing
624
Diffraction
A mechanism that gets wave to propagate
around the curved surface of the Earth
beyond the line-of-sight horizon
behind obstructions (shadow zones)
although EM field strength decays rapidly as Rx
moves deeper into shadowed or obstructed (OBS)
region
The field strength of a diffracted wave in the
shadowed region is the vector sum of the electric
field components of all the secondary wavelets in
the space around the obstacles.
The diffraction field can be sufficient strength to
produce a useful signal
625
Page 88
Lecture notes
Diffraction
Diffraction occurs when the radio path
between sender and receiver is obstructed by
an impenetrable body and by a surface with
sharp irregularities (edges)
Waves bending around sharp edges of
objects
Diffraction explains how radio signals can
travel urban and rural environments without a
line-of-sight path
626
Diffraction
Diffraction occurs when waves hit the edge of an
obstacle
Secondary waves propagated into the shadowed
region (also called the diffraction zone).
Excess path length results in a phase shift
Fresnel zones relate phase shifts to the positions
of obstacles
T
1st Fresnel zone
Obstruction
627
Page 89
Lecture notes
Huygens principle
Diffraction is based on Huygens principle of wave
propagation: Points on a wave front can be
considered sources for additional wavelets.
Huygens principle states
all the points (obstructions) on a wave-front become point
sources for production of secondary wavelets which
combine (vector sum) to form a new wave-front (in the
direction of propagation), and this new wave-front is
called diffracted wave-front
628
Huygens principle for a spherical

source
629
Page 90
Lecture notes
Knife-edge diffraction model

It is essential to estimate the signal attenuation
caused by diffraction of radio waves over hills and
buildings in predicting the field strength in the given
service area.
In practice, prediction for diffraction loss is a
process of theoretical approximation modified by
necessary empirical corrections.
The simplest case: shadowing is caused by a single
object such as a hill or mountain.
630
Knife-edge diffraction geometry
631
Page 91
Lecture notes
Knife-edge diffraction gain

Fresnel-Kirchhoff diffraction parameter
The electric field strength Ed,
where E0 is the free space field strength

The diffraction gain:
G(dB)=20log(F)
632
Knife-edge diffraction gain as a function

of Fresnel diffraction parameter v
G(dB)=20log(F)
633
Page 92
Lecture notes
Lees approximate
Approximations for knife-edge diffraction path loss
(in dB) relative to LOS path loss are given by Lee as
634
Multiple knife-edge diffraction

In the practical situations, especially in hilly terrain,
the propagation path may consist of more than on
obstruction.
Optimistic solution (by Bullington): The series of
obstacles are replaced by a single equivalent
obstacle so that the path loss can be obtained using
single knife-edge diffraction models.
635
Page 93
Lecture notes
Single equivalent knife-edge

construction
636
Effective characteristics
Diffraction depends on the object
geometry of the object
and the incident wave

wavelength and polarization
637
Page 94
Lecture notes
Scattering
Scattering
Waves traveling through a medium with small
objects in it
foliage, street signs, towers, lamp posts, etc.
or reflecting off rough surfaces

Obstacles with size in the order of the
wavelength of the signal or less
The EM wave incident upon a rough or complex
surface is scattered in many directions
Note:
flat surface EM reflection (one direction)
rough surface EM scattering (many directions)
638
Scattering
Generally difficult to model because the
environmental conditions that cause it are
complex
Modeling position of every street sign is not
feasible.
Nearby metal objects (street signs, etc.)

Usually modeled statistically
Large distant objects

Analytical model:
Radar Cross Section (RCS)
639
Page 95
Lecture notes
Radio propagation mechanisms
Reflection/Refraction: large objects (>>

)
Diffraction/Shadowing:
bending around sharp
edges,
Scattering: small objects, rough
surfaces (<
): foliage, towers,
street signs
s
s
l
640

Wave Propagation
Fading and multipath
641
Page 96
Lecture notes
Fading channel and some fading

terms
In wireless communications,
fading is the variation of the
attenuation that a carriermodulated telecommunication
signal experiences.
The fading may vary with time,
position and/or frequency, and is
modelled as a random process.
A fading channel is a
communication channel that
experiences fading.
In wireless systems, fading may
either be due to multipath
propagation, referred to as
multipath induced fading, or due
to shadowing from obstacles
affecting the wave propagation,
sometimes referred to as
shadow fading.
Fast fading
Slow fading
Flat fading
Selective fading
Rayleigh fading
Rician fading
Rain fading
642
Multipath propagation
RF signals may take two or more paths to reach
the receiving antenna
This results into constructive and destructive
interference, and phase shifting of the signal
Constructive/destructive combination of the
electromagnetic waves at the receive antenna cause
multipath fading
643
Page 97
Lecture notes
Fading
Multiple copies of a signal may arrive at different
phases
Received signals may add constructively or
destructively
644
Illustration of fading
645
Page 98
Lecture notes
What is fading?
The communication between the base station and
mobile station in mobile systems is mostly non-LOS.
The LOS path between the transmitter and the
receiver is affected by terrain and obstructed by
buildings and other objects.
The RF signal from the transmitter is scattered by
reflection and diffraction and reaches the receiver
through many non-LOS paths.
This non-LOS path causes long-term and short-term
fluctuations in the form of log-normal fading and
Rayleigh and Rician fading, which degrades the
performance of the RF channel.
646
Signal Power (dBm)
What is fading ?
Large scale fading component
Small scale fading

component
647
Page 99
Lecture notes
Fading and diversity

The attenuation that a signal experiences temporarily is
due to destructive interference
To combat fading, multiple versions of the same signal is
transmitted, received, and coherently combined
This is called diversity, and sometimes acquired through
multiple antennas
648
Fading processes
The impairment in the wireless channel can be
conveniently categorized into three types
fading: path loss, shadowing (slow fading) and
fast fading (or multipath fading).
649
Page 100
Lecture notes
Three scales of signal variation

An example: the signal received by a mobile
receiver.
due to the distance,
Friis equation
Pr ~ 1/r2
due to obstructions
due to multipath
interference
650
Fading and small-scale fading

In telecommunications, fading is a change in
the attenuation of a communications channel.
Propagation models that characterize the
rapid fluctuations of the received signal
strength over
very short travel distances (a few wavelengths) or
short time durations (on the order of seconds)
are called small-scale fading models.

651
Page 101
Lecture notes
Small-scale fading
As the mobile moves over small distances, the instantaneous

received signal will fluctuate rapidly giving rise to small-scale
fading
The reason is that the signal is the sum of many contributors

coming from different directions and since the phases of these
signals are random the sum of the contributions varies widely, and
the sum behave like a noise (Rayleigh fading).
In small scale fading, the received signal power may change as much
as 3 or 4 orders of magnitude (30dB or 40dB), when the receiver is
only moved a fraction of the wavelength.
Even when mobile is stationary, the received signals may fade

due to movement of surrounding objects!
652
Rayleigh fading
This phenomenon is due to multipath propagation of the signal.
The Rayleigh fading is applicable to obstructed propagation
paths.
All the signals are NLOS signals and there is no dominant direct
path.
Signals from all paths have comparable signal strengths.
The instantaneous received power seen by a moving antenna
becomes a random variable depending on the location of the
antenna.
653
Page 102
Lecture notes
Rician fading
This phenomenon is due to multipath propagation of the signal.

In this case there is a partially scattered field.
One dominant signal.
Others are weaker.
654
Rayleigh fading
The effects of multi-path are constructive and destructive
interference, and phase shifting
This causes Rayleigh fading
Rayleigh fading with a strong LOS content is said to have a
Rician fading
Note: Rician used when there is a dominant LOS path. K parameter: K is the ratio of the
power in the LOS component to the power in the other (non-LOS) multipath components.
For K=0 we have Rayleigh fading and for K= we have no fading, i.e. a channel with no
multipath and only a LOS component. The fading parameter K is therefore a measure655
of the
severity of the fading: a small K implies severe fading, a large K implies more mild fading.
Page 103
Lecture notes
Rayleigh distribution
For any two Gaussian random variables X and Y, both with mean zero
and equal variance 2 it can be shown that Z= (X2+Y2) is Rayleighdistributed and Z2 is exponentially distributed.
If we assume a variance of 2 for both in-phase and quadrature
components of the received signal
where rI and rQ are both zero-mean Gaussian random variables, then

the signal envelope
is Rayleigh-distributed with distribution
where Pr=22.
656
Rayleigh channels
The power distribution is obtained by changing random variable
in the previous R-distributed pdf, then
where Pr=E(Z2)=22 is the average received power.

Thus, the received signal power is exponentially distributed with
mean 22
The Rayleigh distribution is an approximation to measured
fading amplitude statistics for mobile fading channels in NLOS
situations.
Such channels are Rayleigh-fading channels or simply Rayleigh
channels.
657
Page 104
Lecture notes
Theoretical and experimental Rayleigh

distributions (=1)
658
Low-pass equivalent
The complex low-pass equivalent signal for r(t) is
given by rLP(t) = rI(t) + jrQ(t) which has phase
=arctan(rQ(t)/rI(t)).
For rI(t) and rQ(t) uncorrelated Gaussian random
variables we can show that is uniformly distributed
and independent of |rLP(t)|
Thus, r(t) has a Rayleigh-distributed amplitude and
uniform phase, and the two are mutually independent.
Note. A normal (Gaussian) random variable x with mean and standard

deviation , the probability density function of x is given by
659
Page 105
Lecture notes
Example
Consider a channel with Rayleigh fading and average received
power Pr = 20 dBm.
Let us find the probability that the received power is below 10
dBm.
We have Pr = 20 dBm =100 mW
We want to find the probability that Z2 < 10 dBm =10 mW.
Thus
Note significant (~1%) probability of very deep fades (20dB)
660
Normal vector R.V. and Rayleigh, pdfs
X = [X1, X2] is Normal random vector

|X| ~ Rayleigh { magnitude of a complex gaussian channel X1 + jX2 }
|X|2 ~ exponential { power in complex gaussian channel: sum of squares}
Arg{X} ~ uniform {uniformly distributed phase between 0 and 2}
661
Page 106
Lecture notes
Rayleigh fading
Rayleigh fading envelope at 900 MHz
662
Small-scale fading and multipath

Small-scale fading models are used to
measure and model multipath in the mobile
radio environment
Multipath effects
Rapid changes in signal strength over a small
terrain area or time interval
Random frequency modulation due to varying
Doppler shifts on different multipath signals
Time dispersion (echoes) caused by multipath propagation
delays
663
Page 107
Lecture notes
Shadow fading
In addition to the small scale fading, the signal can
also undergo shadow fading, or shadowing
This is due to the presence of obstacles between
the transmitter and the receiver
664
Long term fading or shadowing

Terrain configuration and man made environment causes longterm fading.
Due to various shadowing and terrain effects the signal level
measured on a circle around base station shows some random
fluctuations around the mean value of received signal strength.
The long-term fades in signal strength caused by the terrain
configuration and man made environments form a log-normal
distribution, i.e the mean received signal strength, varies
normally in dB if the signal strength is measured over a distance
of at least 40.
Experimentally it has been determined that the standard
deviation () of the mean received signal strength, lies between
8 to 12 dB with the higher generally found in large urban
areas.
665
Page 108
Lecture notes
Shadowing
Shadowing: It is the term given to the slow variations in received signal

power as the user moves through the environment, especially behind large
buildings or near by hills.
These variations occur not more than a few times per second, thats why
slow fading caused by
Shadowing
Reflected,
Scattered and
diffracted path
Behind mountains
Large buildings
Shadows: signals blocked by obstructing structures
666
Large-scale path loss

As the mobile moves away from the transmitter over
larger distances, the local average received signal will
gradually decrease.
This is called large-scale path loss.
Typically the local average received power is computed by
averaging signal measurements over a measurement
track.
The models that predict the mean signal strength for an
arbitrary-receiver transmitter (T-R) separation distance
are called large-scale propagation models
Useful for estimating the coverage area of transmitters
667
Page 109
Lecture notes
Large-scale path loss model

Characterize signal strength over large T-R separation
distances (several hundreds or thousands of meters).
In free space, received power attenuates like 1/r2.

With reflections and obstructions, signal can
attenuate even more rapidly with distance.
Large-scale path loss models are important for cell
site planning
668
Path loss
Represents signal attenuation as a positive
quantity measured in dB,
Defined as the difference (in dB) between the
Effective transmitted power and the
Received power, and may or may not include
the effect of the antenna gains
Path loss serves as the dominant factor for

characterization of propagation for the link
669
Page 110
Lecture notes
Small-, medium- and large-scale fading
670
Fading distributions
In addition to the Rice and Rayleigh distributions
discussed here, many other distributions can be used
to model fading for particular applications.
These include the Gaussian, Nakagami-m, gamma,
exponential and Pearson distributions.
It is also possible to create mixed distributions, such
as one which combines lognormal and Rayleigh
statistics so that the overall statistics of shadowing
and fast fading can be considered in a single
distribution.
671
Page 111
Lecture notes
Higher order fast fading statistics

The fading statistics considered so far give the
probability that the signal is above or below a
certain level.
This says nothing, however, about how rapidly the
signal level changes between different levels.
This is important, since the rates of change of the
signal will determine, for example, the ability to
correct for transmission errors, or the impact of
fast fading on signal quality.
These dynamic effects are specified by the secondorder fading statistics.
672
Effect of second order statistics

The effect of the secondorder statistics is illustrated
in next time series.
The upper fading record
show uncorrelated Rayleigh
fading, where each sample is
independent of the value of
the previous one.
The lower statistics is
typical in the mobile radio
channel.
This data clearly has a
degree of smoothness and
structure which is not
present in the upper case.
673
Page 112
Lecture notes
Rate of change
Second-order statistics are concerned with
the distribution of the signals rate of
change, rather than with the signal itself.
This rate of change distribution is most
commonly specified by the spectrum of the
signal.
The uncorrelated fading displayed in the
previous figure has a flat spectrum, whereas
the correlated fading has a very specific
spectral shape.
674
Delay spread, coherence bandwidth

vs. fading
Delay spread
Coherence bandwidth
flat fading
frequency selective fading
675
Page 113
Lecture notes
Types of channels
For an electromagnetic wave, the coherence time Tc is the time over which a propagating wave
may be considered coherent. In other words, it is the time interval within which its phase is,
on average, predictable. In other words, the channel coherence time Tc is the range of values
over which an autocorrelation function of the channel impulse response is essentially nonzero.
Thus, the time-varying channel decorrelates after Tc seconds.
In wireless transmission systems, the coherence time may be reduced by propagation factors
676
such as dispersion, scattering, and diffraction
Meaning of coherence time

What does the coherence time tell us?
It shows us over how long time we can assume that
the channel is fairly constant.
E.g. radio systems transmitting data in frames
much shorter than Tc will not experience any
fading within a single frame.
677
Page 114
Lecture notes
Coherence bandwidth
Coherence bandwidth is a statistical measurement of the range
of frequencies over which the channel can be considered "flat",
meaning that the approximate maximum bandwidth or frequency
interval over which two frequencies of a signal are likely to
experience correlated (comparable) fading.
If the multipath time delay spread equals Td seconds, then the
coherence bandwidth Wc in Hz is given approximately by the
equation:
Wc =
1
Td
The coherence bandwidth varies over cellular communications

paths because the multipath spread Td varies from path to path.
E.g. if the delay spread Td over a particular cellular
communication path in an urban environment is 3 s, then using
equation above, the coherence bandwidth is about 333 kHz
678
Small-scale fading summary
679
Example: Broadband cellular + vehicular => Fast + frequency-selective fading
Page 115
Lecture notes

Wave Propagation
Other consequences of multipath
680
Multipath
Multiple waves create multipath
Due to propagation mechanisms, multiple waves arrive at the
receiver
Sometimes this includes a direct Line-of-Sight (LOS) signal
681
Page 116
Lecture notes
Reflection
Occurs when a wave collide with a smooth surface.
Dimensions of the surface are large relative to .
Reflections occur from the surface of the earth and from buildings and
walls.
Diffraction (Shadowing)
Occurs when the path is blocked by an object with large dimensions
relative to and sharp irregularities (edges).
Secondary wavelets propagate into the shadowed region.
Diffraction gives rise to bending of waves around the obstacle.
Scattering
Occurs when a wave collides with an object with dimensions on the
order of or less, causing the reflected energy to spread out or
scatter in many directions.
Small objects such as street lights, signs, foliage, lamp posts, street
signs, walking pedestrian etc. cause scattering
682
Multipath effects
Multipath propagation causes large and rapid
fluctuations in a signal (rapid changes in signal
strength) over a short distance or time.
These fluctuations are not the same as the
propagation path loss.
Random frequency modulation due to Doppler shifts
on different multipath signals.
Time dispersion (echoes) caused by multipath delays
Multipath propagation results in small-scale fading.
Doppler shift is the shift in frequency due to the motion of mobile

683
from the actual carrier frequency.
Page 117
Lecture notes
Movement =>Doppler shift

Consider a mobile moving at constant velocity v, along

a path segment having length d between points X and Y,
While it receives a signal from remote source S.
684
Doppler frequency
The Doppler shift results from

the fact that transmitter or
receiver movement over a short
time interval t causes a slight
change in distance d = vtcos
that the transmitted signal
needs to travel to the receiver.
The phase change due to this
path length difference is .
If the receiver is moving
towards the transmitter. i.e.
/2 /2, then the Doppler
frequency is positive, otherwise
it is negative.
For typical vehicle speeds and
frequencies (around 1 GHz), it is
on the order of 100 Hz.
Doppler effects are included on
statistical fading models.
=
=
t
t
v cos
= 2
D =
vt cos
fD =
D v cos
=
2
Change in
frequency
Doppler shift relates to the

mobile velocity and spatial angle
between the direction of motion
of the mobile and arrival of wave.
685
Page 118
Lecture notes
Doppler spread and bandwidth
The maximum Doppler shift is

Dmax=v/=cv/c
which occurs for = 0.

Thus the Doppler shift associated with an incoming wave can have any apparent
frequency in the range (c-Dmax) (c+Dmax) .
When multipath propagation occurs, waves arrive with several directions, each of
which then has its own associated Doppler frequency.
The bandwidth of the received signal is therefore spread relative to its
transmitted bandwidth.
This is the phenomenon of Doppler spread.
The exact shape of the resulting spectrum depends on the relative amplitudes
and directions of each of the incoming waves, but the overall spectral width is
called the Doppler bandwidth.
The shape and extent of the Doppler spectrum has a significant effect on the
second-order fading statistics of the mobile signal.
686
In TV transmission, multipath causes ghosting
In digital radio communications such as GSM, multipath can cause errors
The errors are due to Inter Symbol Interference
(ISI)
An equalizer is a device (filter or algorithm) that
attempts to recover a signal transmitted through
an ISI channel
Alternatively, orthogonal frequency division
multiplexing and Rake receivers may be used to
recover signal
687
Page 119
Lecture notes
Rake receiver
A rake receiver is a radio receiver designed to counteract the
effects of multipath fading.
A rake receiver exploits multipath delay components to
improve the performance of the system.
A rake receiver combines the information from several subreceivers (correlators), each one tuned to a different path
delay to collect symbol energy from a different multipath
component.
So each sub-receiver independently decodes a single multipath
component.
At the next stage the contribution of all sub-receivers are
combined in order to utilize maximally the different
transmission characteristics of each transmission path
producing a stronger version of the signal than a simple receiver
with a single correlator tuned to the path delay of the strongest
signal.
This can result in higher signal-to-noise ratio (Eb/N0) in a
multipath environment than in a "clean" environment.
688
Rake receiver
The multipath channel through which a radio wave transmits can
be viewed as transmitting the original (line-of-sight) wave plus a
number of multipath components.
Multipath components are delayed copies of the original
transmitted wave traveling through a different echo path, each
with a different magnitude and time-of-arrival (phase) at the
receiver.
Thus each component contains the original information.
When the magnitude and time-of-arrival (phase) of each
component can be computed at the receiver through a process
called channel estimation, then all the components can be added
coherently to improve SNR and thus also the information
reliability.
Rake receivers are common in a wide variety of CDMA and WCDMA radio devices such as mobile phones and wireless LAN
equipment.
689
Page 120
Lecture notes
M-branch rake receiver implementation
Each correlator detects a time shifted version of the original CDMA

transmission, and each branch of the RAKE correlates to a portion of the
signal which is delayed by at least one chip in time from the other
branches.
The chips are the bit sequence out of the code generator. The chip rate is larger than the
symbol rate, meaning that one symbol is represented by multiple chips. The ratio is known
690 as
the spreading factor (SF) or processing gain.
Rake equalization analogy: Bandpass vs. matched

filtering
Simple bandpass (low bandwidth) filter: excludes noise, but misses
some signal power in other multipath taps
Matched filter: includes more signal power, because it includes

signal components weighted according to their size
=> maximal noise rejection & signal power aggregation
691
Page 121
Lecture notes
Signal can take many different paths between sender and
receiver due to reflection, scattering, diffraction
multipath
LOS pulses pulses
signal at sender
signal at receiver
Time dispersion: signal is dispersed over time

interference with neighbor symbols, Inter Symbol Interference
(ISI)
The signal reaches a receiver directly and phase shifted

Distortion of signal depends on the phases of the different
parts
692
Multipath can cause ISI

Dispersed signal can cause interference
between neighbor symbols, Inter Symbol
Interference (ISI)
Assume 300 meters delay spread, the
arrival time difference is
300/3x108 = 1 s
if symbol rate > 1 Ms/sec, we will have
serious ISI
signal at sender
LOS pulse
multipath
pulses
In practice, fractional ISI can already

substantially increase error rate
signal at receiver
LOS: Line-Of-Sight 693
Page 122
Lecture notes
The effects of multipath propagation

Multiple copies of a signal may arrive at different
phases
If phases add destructively, the signal level relative to
noise declines, making detection more difficult errors
Intersymbol interference (ISI)

Different paths have different propagation delays =>
received signal pulse is wider than transmitted pulse
(time dispersion) errors
One or more delayed copies of a pulse may arrive at the
same time as the primary pulse for a subsequent bit
errors
694
Multipath can spread delay
signal at sender
Time dispersion: signal is

dispersed over time
LOS pulse
multipath
pulses
signal at receiver
LOS: Line-of-Sight
695
Page 123
Lecture notes
Delay spread
RMS: root-mean-square
696
Delay spread => ISI

Symbol
Time
Power
Symbol Time
Higher bandwidth => higher symbol rate, and smaller time per symbol
Lower symbol rate, more time and energy per symbol
If the delay spread is longer than the symbol duration, symbols will smear onto
adjacent symbols and cause symbol errors
path-1
path-2
path-3
Path Delay
Delay spread
~ 1 s
Symbol error!
If symbol rate
~ Mbps
No symbol error! (~kbps)

(energy is collected
over the full symbol period
for detection)
697
Page 124
Lecture notes
Angular spread
Mean/RMS angular spreads (similar to
multipath delay spread)
A(): received signal power as a function of
angle-of-arrival (AoA) .
698
Angular spread and coherence distance

RMS: RMS angular spread of a channel
Refers to the statistical distribution of the angle of the arriving energy.
Large RMS => channel energy is coming in from many directions,
Lot of local scattering, and this results in more statistical diversity (variety)
in the channel based upon AoA
Small RMS => received channel energy is more focused.

More focused energy arrival results in less statistical diversity.
The dual of angular spread is coherence distance Dc.
As the angular spread increases, the coherence distance decreases, and vice
versa.
Dc 1/ RMS
A coherence distance of d means that any physical positions separated by d
have an essentially uncorrelated received signal amplitude and phase.
699
Page 125
Lecture notes
Some parameters of wireless

channel
700
Interference fade margin

To predict the performance of a digital radio path, the effect
of interference must be considered.
Interference in communication systems is caused by the
presence of an undesired signal in a receiver.
When this undesired signal exceeds certain limiting values, the
quality of the desired received signal is affected.
To maintain reliable service, the ratio of the desired received
signal to the (undesired) interfering signal should always be
larger than the threshold value.
In normal conditions the digital signal can tolerate high levels
of interference but in deep fades it is critical to control
interference.
Interference fade margin (IFM) is the depth of fade to the
point at which RF interference degrades the BER to 10-3 .
701
Page 126
Lecture notes
BER vs. SNR

Frequency-selective channel
(equalization or Rake receiver)
BER
( = Pe )
Frequency-selective channel (no

equalization)
BER floor
AWGN
channel (no
fading)
Flat fading channel
SNR
AWGN - Additive White Gaussian Noise is a channel model in which the only impairment to
communication is a linear addition of wideband or white noise with a constant spectral density
(expressed as watts per hertz of bandwidth) and a Gaussian distribution of amplitude. The
model does not account for fading, frequency selectivity, other type of interference, or
dispersion. However, AWGN model is simple and mathematically tractable channel model which
702
are useful for gaining insight into the underlying behavior of a system before these other
phenomena are considered.
Effect of small-scale fading
small-scale
fading
no small-scale
fading
static channel
703
703
Page 127
Lecture notes
BER in flat fading (Rayleigh) channel vs AWGN

channel
To get an error probability pe=10-3 one would require SNR27dB (500). Impressive
amounts of power would be required for more reliable communication. Why do704
we
have this huge degradation in performance/reliability compared to AWGN case?
Effect of Rayleigh faded and AWGN channel on

BER
Flat fading causes a loss of at least 20-30 dB at reasonable BER
values.
705
Page 128
Lecture notes
Why huge degradation?

Why do we have this huge degradation in
performance/reliability compared to AWGN
case?
Typical error event is due to channel being in
deep fade rather than (additive) noise being
large
706
Mitigation of fading problems

Performance
affected
Shadow
fading
(large-scale
fading)
Fast fading
(small-scale,
flat fading)
Delay spread
(small-scale
fading)
received
signal
strength
bit/packet error
rate at deep fade
ISI
Mitigation
techniques
use fade margin
increase power or
reduce distance
diversity
equalization; spreadspectrum; OFDM;
directional antenna
707
Page 129
Lecture notes
Summary: Wireless channels

Channel characteristics change over location, time,
and frequency
Received
Signal
Power
(dB)
power
path loss
log (distance)
Large-scale
fading
small-scale fading
time
708

Wave Propagation
Fading in terrestrial fixed radio links
709
Page 130
Lecture notes
Terrestrial fixed microwave links

It is frequently useful to provide wireless connectivity between
two fixed stations separated by a large distance on the Earth.
This wireless link may act as the main connectivity between
these stations or can act as a backup link for a wired system.
These links are radio systems involving a pair of stations
mounted on masts and typically separated by tens of kilometres.
They are commonly used for high data rate transmission
systems, and are planned to have very high reliability.
The stations are typically mounted on masts of many tens of
metres above the Earths surface, usually located in positions
free from any local clutter, including trees and buildings.
Highly directional antennas, usually parabolic dishes are typically
applied in order to permit a large fade margin.
710
Climate and terrain conditions

Fading varies with path length, frequency, climate, and
terrain/obstacles.
The rougher the terrain, the more reflections are broken up.
Flat terrain, and especially paths over water, tends to increase
the incidence of fading.
For example, in dry, windy, mountainous areas the multipath
fading phenomenon may be nonexistent.
In hot, humid coastal regions very strong fading may be
expected.
711
Page 131
Lecture notes
Fading types
Fading is defined as the variation of the strength
of a received radio carrier signal due to
atmospheric changes and/or ground, obstacles and
water reflections or other multipath effects in the
propagation path.
It should be realized that fading varies with path
length, frequency, climate, and terrain or obstacles.
Different fading types are considered while
planning links.
They are all dependent on path and are estimated
as the probability of exceeding a given (calculated)
fade margin
712
Fading margin
713
Page 132
Lecture notes
Fading margin
Safety margin.
Should be large enough
to guarantee that
quality and availability
objectives are met
during fading conditions.
Typically ~40 dB
714
Fading tree
715
Page 133
Lecture notes
Fading types
Multipath fading
Flat fading
Frequency-selective fading
Rain fading
Refraction-diffraction fading
716
Flat and frequency selective

fading
Flat fading
A fade where all frequencies in the channel bandwidth are
equally affected.
If necessary, flat fade margin of a link can be improved by
using larger antennas, a higher-power microwave
transmitter, lowerloss feed line and splitting a longer
path into two shorter hops
On water paths at frequencies above 3 GHz, it is
advantageous to choose vertical polarization
Frequency-selective fading
There are amplitude and delay distortions across the
channel bandwidth
It affects high capacity radio links
717
Page 134
Lecture notes
Multipath fading
718
Multipath fading
Multipath fading is the dominant fading mechanism for
frequencies lower than 10 GHz.
A reflected wave causes a multipath.
If the direct wave and the reflected wave reach the
receiver out of phase the overall signal is weakened.
As a thumb rule, multipath fading, for radio links having
bandwidths less than 40MHz and path lengths less than
30km is described as flat fading instead of frequency
selective fading
719
Page 135
Lecture notes
Rain fading
Rain attenuates the high frequency signal due to
scattering and absorption of radio waves by rain
drops
It is significant for long paths (>10km)
It starts increasing at about 10GHz and for
frequencies above 15 GHz, rain fading is the
dominant fading mechanism
Rain outage increases dramatically with frequency and
path length
Microwave path lengths must be reduced in areas
where rain outages are severe
720
Reducing the effects of rain

Multipath fading is at its minimum during periods of
heavy rainfall, so entire path fade margin is available
to combat the rain attenuation
Route diversity with paths separated by more than a
few km can be used successfully
Vertical polarization is clearly less susceptible to
rainfall attenuation than horizontal polarization.
721
Page 136
Lecture notes
Link fading margin

Fading margin > rain fading + multipath fading
Rain fading
Dominant for f>10 GHz
Multipath fading
Dominant for f<10 GHz
Common fading margin: 25 - 40 dB
722
Line-of-Sight (LOS) considerations

Obstructions between a transmitter and receiver reduce the
communication range
In order to maximize communication range, true RF LOS
conditions must exist
RF LOS is different from visual LOS
RF LOS requires not only a sight line but an ellipsoid shaped
volume between the two antennas to be free of obstructions
This ellipsoid shaped area is called the Fresnel zone
723
Page 137
Lecture notes
Space distribution of power in LOS

propagation
724
Fresnel zone
The Fresnel zone is larger in diameter at the
center and smaller at either end
Greater the distance between the antennas, the
larger the diameter of the Fresnel zone in the
center
725
Page 138
Lecture notes
Example
The link length is 40 km.
Calculate the maximum
value of the first
Fresnel radius, when
a) f=250 MHz
b) f=4 GHz
Note.
a+b+/2
rF
a
726
Radius of the first Fresnel zone

The cross section of the first Fresnel zone is circular
The radius of the first Fresnel zone is given by
a+b+/2
r
a
Radius of the 1.Fresnel zone

rF=[*a*b/(a+b)]
Fresnel zones are specified employing ordinal numbers that

correspond to the number of half wavelength multiples that
represent the difference in radio wave propagation path from
the direct path
Ideally, the first Fresnel zone must be clear of all
obstructions.
727
Page 139
Lecture notes
Effect of Fresnel zone

Radius equation implies two things:
For a given Tx antenna height, higher the

transmission frequency, more the distance a
radio signal will cover before the first fresnel
zone touches the ground
For a given Tx frequency, higher the Tx
antenna, more the distance a radio signal will
cover before the first fresnel zone touches
the ground
a) Effect of frequency on Fresnel zones
b) Effect of Tx antenna height

728
The first Fresnel zone

The radiated power is distributed in a zone
surrounding the direct line-of-sight.
729
Page 140
Lecture notes
Fresnel zone
900 MHz
2.4 GHz
Distance
between
antennas
Fresnel zone
diameter
Free space
loss (dB)
Fresnel zone
diameter
Free space
loss (dB)
300 m
7 m
81
5.4 m
90
1.6 km
12 m
96
8.4 m
104
8 km
23 m
110
15.2 m
118
16 km
31 m
116
20 m
124
32 km
42 m
122
27 m
130
64 km
59 m
128
36 m
136
730
Propagation losses
Obstacle loss also called diffraction loss or diffraction attenuation.
One method of calculation is based on knife edge approximation.
Having an obstacle free 60% of the Fresnel zone gives 0 dB loss
First Fresnel Zone
0 dB
0 dB
6dB
16dB
20dB
731
Page 141
Lecture notes
Path profile
A path profile is a section
through the Earth along the
great circle path between
antennas, showing the terrain
heights and the terminal
heights.
A baseline is plotted in the
Earth bulge, which shows the
height of the Earth at mean sea
level, given by
, r1,r2<<R
This Earth bulge has been used

to uplift the height of the
terrain in Figure to correctly
represent the obstructing
effect of the Earths curvature.
732
Note
When the terrain variations are slight, the Earth bulge b represents
the basic obstruction to long-range terrestrial systems. Usually, the
terminals are placed on elevated terrain to greatly extend the
effective antenna height and thereby to increase the horizon
distance.
The horizon distances dr1 and dr2 are the greatest distances on the
Earths surface that are visible from antennas of height h1 and h2,
respectively.
733
Page 142
Lecture notes
Atmospheric refractivity
The refractive index n of the Earths atmosphere is slightly greater

than the free space value of 1
A typical value of n at the Earths surface is around 1.0003.
Since the value is so close to 1, it is common to express the refractive
index in N units, which is the difference between the actual value of
the refractive index and unity in parts per million:
This equation defines the atmospheric refractivity N.
Thus, the surface value of N = NS=300 N units.
N varies with pressure, temperature and the water vapour pressure of
the atmosphere.
Although all of these quantities vary with both location and height, the
dominant variation is vertical with height above the Earths surface,
with N value reducing towards zero (i.e. n value coming close to 1) as the
height is increased.
This refractive index variation with height causes the phase velocity of
radio waves to be slightly slower closer to the Earths surface, such
that the ray paths are not straight, but tend to curve slightly towards
the ground.
The resulting ray curvature is not in standard atmosphere as great as
that of the Earths surface, but is nevertheless sufficient to cause the
734
ray to bend around the geometrical horizon.
Effective Earth radius factor
Near the ground and when the elevation angle of the ray is close to
zero, the curvature of the ray is constant, so the ray path is an arc
of a circle.
A common way to represent this is to increase the radius of the Earth
(R) to a new effective value (Reff), so that the ray now appears to
follow a straight path.
The Earth bulge and the horizontal distances are recalculated with R
replaced by a new value Reff
where ke is the effective Earth radius factor, given by
The median value for ke is taken to be 4/3, so the effective radius for
50% of the time is (4 x 6375)/3 = 8500km.
Next Figure shows the previous path profile redrawn using Reff.
The Earth bulge and terrain profile is reduced and the ray path can 735
now be drawn as straight line, without changing the obstruction of the
Fresnel ellipsoid by the terrain.
Page 143
Lecture notes
Straightened ray path

Here the path profile is drawn with an effective Earth
radius. Now ray path is a straight line.
736
Comment
In previous Figure, the first Fresnel zone ellipsoid contains
three terrain peaks, which will create some obstruction loss in
excess of the free space loss.
In many practical fixed links, particularly those operated at high
microwave frequencies (tens of gigahertz), the available link
margin is too small to allow any obstruction loss and the link
must be planned to ensure that the path is completely
unobstructed.
For links operated at lower frequencies, however, the Fresnel
zone radius may be too large to completely avoid obstruction.
The designer must then be able to predict the obstruction loss
e.g. using knife edge diffraction model in order to determine
sufficient link margin.
737
Page 144
Lecture notes
Knife-edge diffraction gain as a function

of Fresnel diffraction parameter v
The parameter v can be expressed in terms of the
geometrical parameters defined in Figure below,
where h is the excess height of the edge above the
straight line from the transmitting point to the
receiving point. For many practical cases, d1, d2>>h,
so the diffraction parameter v can be approximated
in terms of the distances measured along the
ground rather than along the direct wave, so
G(dB)=20log(F)
Fresnel zones:
738
Time variability of refractive index

The standard atmosphere, which yields the value ke =
4/3, is the median value only, exceeded for 50% of
the time in a typical year.
In practice, meteorological conditions may cause large
deviations.
The most severe deviations occur when the
refractive index decreases with height much more
rapidly than normal, reducing ke and hence
reducing the distance to the horizon.
Such conditions are called superrefractive.
In order to minimize the obstruction loss associated
with these conditions, the antenna heights should be
planned to provide clearance of the first Fresnel
zone.
739
Page 145
Lecture notes
Refraction diffraction fading

Also known as k-type fading
For low k values, the fictive Earths surface
becomes curved and terrain irregularities,
man-made structures and other objects may
intercept the Fresnel zone.
For high k values, the fictive Earths surface
gets close to a plane surface and better
LOS ( or LOS with lower antenna height) is
obtained.
740
Fresnel zone
As the antennas get further apart and the
diameter of the Fresnel zone increases, the ground
begins to obstruct the Fresnel zone
In order to keep the entire Fresnel zone free of
obstructions it is necessary to raise the antennas
The diameter of the Fresnel zone is a function of
the frequency and the distance between the
antennas
741
Page 146
Lecture notes
Earth bulge calculation
742
True and equivalent earth radius
743
Page 147
Lecture notes
Free the first Fresnel zone
The 1st Fresnel shall be free from obstacles when

k=4/3.
On paths over water surfaces or desert areas, it is
recommended to have the 1st Fresnel zone free from
obstacles when k=1.
744
Knife edge and earth surface

losses
745
Page 148
Lecture notes
Summary
The prediction of propagation over fixed links is rather science
than art, and reasonably accurate predictions may be made in
most cases.
Here are the main steps in predicting the propagation loss:
1. Locate the positions and heights of the antennas, and construct the great
circle path between the antennas.
2. Derive the terrain path profile; this step can be done by using digital
terrain maps.
3. Uplift the terrain profile by heights for any buildings along the path.
4. Select a value for the effective Earth radius factor; modify the path
profile by this value.
5. Calculate the free space loss for the path.
6. If any obstructions exist within the first Fresnel zone, calculate
diffraction over these obstructions, and add the resulting excess loss to the
link budget.
7. Compute the path length which passes through trees and add the
corresponding extra loss.
For systems which require very high availability, the time

variability of the signal due to multipath propagation must also
be accounted for.
746

Wave Propagation
Radio propagation models
747
Page 149
Lecture notes
Modeling a radio channel
The design of spectrally efficient wireless communication systems

requires a detailed understanding of the radio propagation
environment.
The characteristics of the radio channel vary greatly with the
operating frequency, and the mode of propagation, e.g., line-ofsight (LOS), reflection/refraction and diffraction/scatter
Channel modeling is a difficult part in radio system design
Channel is highly unpredictable as compared to fixed wire-line media
Transmission path and its parameters keeps changing instantaneously
Changes in path profile
Obstructions
Environmental changes
Essential part of modeling is field measurements

Physical survey gives some real picture of the environment and data
can be incorporated to new system design and predict its performance
Computer simulation using empirical models and updated

environmental and terrain data can be used to predict the
performance of the new system design.
748
Radio wave propagation

Electromagnetic waves propagate through
environments where they are reflected, scattered,
diffracted and absorbed by walls, terrain, buildings,
and other objects.
The ultimate details of this propagation can be
obtained by solving Maxwells equations with boundary
conditions that express the physical characteristics
of these obstructing objects.
This requires the calculation of the Radar Cross
Section (RCS) of large and complex structures.
Since in mobile environment these calculations are
insuperably difficult, and the necessary parameters
are not available, approximations have been
developed to characterize signal propagation
without resorting to Maxwells equations.
749
Page 150
Lecture notes
Propagation model categories

The simplest model for signal propagation is free space path
loss.
A signal propagating between two points with no absorption or
reflection follows the free space propagation law.
Ray tracing propagation models are used to approximate wave
propagation, and are accurate models when the number of
multipath components is small and the physical environment is
known.
Ray tracing models depend heavily on the geometry and
dielectric properties of the region through which the signal
propagates.
Parameters of the empirical models are based on measurements
for both indoor and outdoor channels.
When the number of multipath components is large, or the
geometry and dielectric properties of the propagation
environment are unknown, statistical models must be used.
750
Models
Propagation models are tools used for
Prediction of received signal strength at a certain distance
from Tx
Estimation of rapid fluctuations in Rx signal strength in a
close spatial proximity to a particular location
Large-scale propagation models

Estimation/prediction of Rx signal strength over large
distances from Tx [100-99,000 m]
Local average computed by averaging signal measurements
taken at intervals of 5 to 40 [1-10 m]
Used for coverage area estimation
Small-scale propagation models

Prediction/estimation of rapid fluctuations of Rx signal
strength over a short distance [<few wavelengths] and short
time interval [<few seconds]
Rx signal strength may vary very rapidly (over a change of
a fraction of wavelength) by as large as 30-40 dB (3 to 4
orders of magnitude)
Also called fading models
751
Page 151
Lecture notes
Focus of the propagation models

Propagation models focus on:
predicting the average received signal strength
at a given distance from the transmitter
formalizing the way, which radio waves are
propagated from one place to another
the variability of the signal strength in close
spatial proximity to a particular location
predicting path loss along a link or the effective
coverage area of a transmitter.
impacts of the speed of mobile station
how rapidly the signal level fades as a mobile terminal
moves in space.
752
Path loss models

Free-space model
Power falloff with distance proportional to d-2
Ray tracing models

Two ray model
Power falloff with distance proportional to d-4
General ray tracing models

Used for site-specific models
Empirical models
Simplified model: Pr=PtK[d0/d], 28.
Captures main characteristics of path loss
753
Page 152
Lecture notes
Friis formula
Pr = Pt GtGr2/(4d)2
Propagation loss
Lp = 10log [4d/]2
Propagation loss in dB
L p = 32.44 + 20log(d) +20log(f)
f = MHz
d = km
Pt
Lp
Pr
d
Gt
Gr
754
Ray-tracing
Several approximations use ray-tracing techniques.
These techniques approximate the propagation of
electromagnetic waves by representing the
wavefronts as simple rays.
The simplest ray-tracing model is the two-ray model,
which describes signal propagation when there is one
direct path between the transmitter and receiver
and one reflected path.
The reflected path typically bounces off the ground,
and the two-ray model is a good approximation for
propagation along highways, rural roads, and over
water.
755
Page 153
Lecture notes
General Ray Tracing (GRT)
General Ray Tracing (GRT) can be used to predict field strength and
delay spread for any building configuration and antenna placement.
For this model, the building database (height, location and dielectric
properties) and the transmitter and receiver locations relative to the
buildings must be specified exactly.
Since this information is site-specific, the GRT model is not used to
obtain general theories about system performance and layout: rather, it
explains the basic mechanism of urban propagation, and can be used
to obtain delay and signal strength information for a particular
transmitter and receiver configuration in a given environment.
The GRT method uses geometrical optics to trace the propagation of
the LOS and reflected signal components, as well as signal components
from building diffraction and diffuse scattering.
There is no limit to the number of multipath components at a given
receiver location: the strength of each component is derived explicitly
based on the building locations and dielectric properties.
In general, the LOS and reflected paths provide the dominant
components of the received signal, since diffraction and scattering
losses are high.
However, in regions close to scattering or diffracting surfaces, which
may be blocked from the LOS and reflecting rays, these other
756
multipath components may dominate.
Ground Reflection Model (GRM)

In a mobile radio channel, a single direct path
between the base station and mobile is rarely the
only physical path for propagation
Hence the free space propagation model in most
cases is inaccurate when used alone
The Ground Reflection Model (GRM, 2-ray model) is
based on geometric optics
It considers both direct path and ground reflected
propagation path between transmitter and receiver
757
Page 154
Lecture notes
2-ray ground reflection model
Gl=GtGr
758
2-ray path loss model
Path loss for one LOS path and one reflected (ground) path
Ground ray approximately cancels LOS path above critical distance
dc
At small distances, power falls off proportional to d-2 (free

space loss on both paths).
Above some critical distance dc, received power given by
or
Power falls off

Proportional to d-2 (small d, free space loss on both paths)
Proportional to d-4 (d>dc) and is independent of (or f)
Note that above dc, power falls off proportional to d-4 and is
independent of signal wavelength (frequency)
2-ray path loss model was found reasonably accurate for
predicting large scale signal strength over distances of
several kilometers for mobile radio systems using tall towers
( heights 50 m )
759
Model is generally inaccurate for cities or indoors.
Page 155
Lecture notes
10-ray model for urban microcells

(Dielectric canyon)
This model assumes rectilinear streets with buildings along both sides
of the street and transmitter and receiver antenna heights that are
close to street level.
The building-lined streets act as a dielectric canyon to the
propagating signal.
Theoretically, an infinite number of rays can be reflected off the
building fronts to arrive at the receiver; in addition, rays may also be
back-reflected from buildings behind the transmitter or receiver.
However, since some of the signal energy is dissipated with each
reflection, signal paths corresponding to more than three reflections
can generally be ignored.
When the street layout is relatively straight, back-reflections are
usually negligible also.
Experimental data show that this model often closely approximates
signal propagation through the dielectric canyon.
Ground and 1-3

wall reflections
760
Example
Street canyon model of line-of-sight microcellular propagation
Many more than six ray paths are
possible, but they tend to include
reflections from more than two
surfaces.
These multiple reflections are
typically attenuated to a much
greater extent, so the main signal
contributions are accounted for by
those illustrated.
761
Page 156
Lecture notes
Statistical models
Often the complexity and variability of the radio channel makes
it difficult to obtain an accurate deterministic channel model.
For these cases statistical models are often used.
The attenuation caused by signal path obstructions such as
buildings or other objects is typically characterized
statistically.
Statistical models are also used to characterize the
constructive and destructive interference for a large number
of multipath components.
Statistical models are most accurate in environments with fairly
regular geometries and uniform dielectric properties.
Indoor environments tend to be less regular than outdoor
environments, since the geometric and dielectric characteristics
change dramatically depending on whether the indoor
environment is a factory, office, shop, or home.
For these environments computer-aided modeling tools are
available to predict signal propagation characteristics.
762
Statistical multipath model
At each time instant there are a random number N(t)

of multipath signal components, each with
Random amplitude n
Random phase n(t)=2cn(t)-Dn
where
Dn = t2Dn(t)dt is Doppler phase shift

Dn= vcosn(t)/ is random Doppler frequency shift and n(t) its
angle of arrival (Doppler frequency shift leads to a Doppler phase
shift)
n(t)=(dn-d)/c is random path delay
Random components change with time

Leads to time-varying channel impulse response
763
Page 157
Lecture notes
Time varying impulse response

Response of channel at t to impulse at t-:
t is time when impulse response is observed

t- is time when impulse put into the channel
is how long ago impulse was put into the
channel for the current observation
path delay for multipath component currently observed
764
Received signal characteristics

Received signal consists of many multipath
components
Amplitudes change slowly
Phases change rapidly
Constructive and destructive addition of signal
components
Amplitude fading of received signal (both
wideband and narrowband signals)
765
Page 158
Lecture notes
Need for empirical models

Propagation environments with a large number of reflected,
scattered, or diffracted components are not described
accurately enough with ray tracing models.
In these cases it is common to develop more complex models
based on empirical measurements.
Empirical models include effects of path loss, shadowing and
multipath.
Multipath effects are averaged over several wavelengths: local mean
attenuation (LMA)
Empirical path loss for a given environment is the average of LMA at a
distance d over all measurements
Many models are mostly based on systematic interpretation of

measurement data in the area concerned
Aim is to predict signal strength at a particular point or in a certain locality
Models differ in their approach, complexity, and accuracy.

Classical and commonly referred models:
Okumura model
Hata model
Walfisch/Bertoni model
766
Path loss, shadowing and

multipath vs. distance
The ratio of the received-to-transmitted power in dB versus
log-distance for the combined effects of path loss, shadowing,
and multipath.
767
Page 159
Lecture notes
Empirical models
Early studies by Okumura and Hata yielded
empirical path loss models for urban,
suburban, and rural areas for distances
ranging from 1 to 20 km.
These studies concentrated on macrocellular
systems.
More recent work has considered path loss
prediction in microcells and picocells.
models for urban microcellular and indoor path
loss prediction
768
Empirical models
Okumura model
Empirically based (site/frequency specific)
Awkward (uses graphs)
Hata model
Analytical approximation to Okumura model
Cost 231 model:

Extends Hata model to higher frequency (2 GHz)
Walfish/Bertoni:
Cost 231 extension to include diffraction from rooftops
Commonly used in cellular system simulations

769
Page 160
Lecture notes
Example: Lees model
770
Okumura model
Mostly used for urban and suburban area
Applicable for frequencies 150 MHz - 2 GHz
(Can be extrapolated up to 3 GHz)
Range covered is 1 km to 100 km
Applicable antenna heights range from 30 m
to 1000 m.
A purely experimental model that does not
provide any analytical explanation
771
Page 161
Lecture notes
Okumura model
Provides a set of curves
based on extensive
measurements
Application of this
model
Calculate free space loss Lf
Add to this, A (f, d) found
from these curves
Some corrections are
applied for terrain type
(next slide)
Median attenuation relative to free space

(A(f,d)), over a quasi-smooth terrain
772
Okumura model correction curves
773
Page 162
Lecture notes
Hata model
Empirical formulation of Okumura model graphical
curves
Valid for 150 - 1500 MHz frequency range
Standard formula provides urban area propagation
loss and corrections are applied for other areas
Tx antenna height range is limited to 30 to 200 m
Rx antenna height is limited to 3 to 10 m
Hata model standard formula
Urban Area
Suburban Area
Rural Area
Mobile antenna correction factor
Small to medium size city
Large city
774
Hata model
Urban area:
L50 = 69.55 + 26.16 log fc - 13.82 log hb- a(hm) + (44.9-6.55 log hb) log R
where
fc
frequency (MHz)
L50 median path loss (dB)
hb
base station antenna height
a(hm) correction factor for mobile antenna height (dB)
R
distance from base station (km)
The range of the parameters for which Hatas model is valid is
150 fc 1500 MHz
30 hb 200 m
1 hm 10 m
1 R 20 km
775
Page 163
Lecture notes
Hata model
Urban area (cont.): Correction factor for mobile
antenna height (dB)
For a small or medium-sized city:
a(hm)=(1.1 log fc - 0.7) hm - (1.56 log fc - 0.8 ) dB
For a large city:

a(hm)=8.29(log 1.54 hm)2 - 1.1 dB,
fc 200 MHz
or
a(hm)=3.2(log 11.75 hm)2 - 4.97 dB,
fc 400 MHz
776
Extension of Hata model by EURO-COST-231

Extended version of Hata model
Valid for 1500-2000 MHz frequency range
Standard formula provides urban area
propagation loss and a correction factors are
applied for mobile antenna and for city type
Tx antenna height range is limited to 30 to 200
m
Rx antenna height is limited to 1 to 10 m
Tx-Rx separation is limited to 1-20 km
777
Page 164
Lecture notes
Walfisch/Bertoni model
Impact of rooftops and building height is studied
This model considers free space loss plus roof-top
to street diffraction and scatter loss, and multiscreen diffraction loss due to rows of the
buildings
Propagation geometry for Walfisch/Bertoni model
778
Simplified path loss model

The complexity of signal propagation makes it difficult to obtain
a single model that characterizes path loss accurately across a
range of different environments.
Complex and accurate path loss model can be developed and used
when tight system specifications must be met or the best
locations for base stations or access point layouts must be
determined.
However, for general tradeoff analysis of various system
designs it is sometimes best to use a simple model that captures
the essence of signal propagation without resorting to
complicated path loss models, which are only approximations to
the real channel anyway.
Thus, the following simplified model for path loss as a function
of distance is commonly used for system design:
779
Page 165
Lecture notes

The dB attenuation is
In this approximation, K is a unitless constant which depends on

the antenna characteristics and the average channel
attenuation, d0 is a reference distance for the antenna farfield, and is the path loss exponent.
The values for K, d0. and can be obtained to approximate either
an analytical or empirical model.
In particular, the free- space path loss model, two-ray model,
Hata model, and the COST extension to the Hata model are all
of the same form as the previous simple equation.
Due to scattering phenomena in the antenna near-field, this
simple model is generally only valid at transmission distances
d>d0, where (d0 is typically assumed to be 1-10 m indoors and 10100 m outdoors.
780
When the simplified model is used to approximate empirical

measurements, the value of K (< 1) is often set to the free space
path gain at distance d0 assuming omnidirectional antennas:
Alternatively, K can be determined by measurement at d0 or optimized

(alone or together with ) to minimize the mean square error (MSE)
between the model and the empirical measurements.
The value of depends on the propagation environment: for propagation
that approximately follows a free-space or two-ray model is set to 2
or 4, respectively.
The value of for more complex environments can be obtained via a
minimum mean square error (MMSE) fit to empirical measurements.
Alternatively can be obtained from an empirically-based model that
takes into account frequency and antenna height.
Path loss exponents at higher frequencies tend to be higher while path
loss exponents at higher antenna heights tend to be lower.
781
Page 166
Lecture notes
Example
Consider the set of empirical measurements of Pr/Pt given in the
table below for an indoor system at 900 MHz.
Find the path loss exponent that minimizes the MSE between
the simplified path loss model
and the empirical dB power measurements, assuming that d0 = 1m

and K is determined from the free space path gain formula at
this d0
, =c/
Find the received power at 150m for the simplified path loss
model with this path loss exponent and a transmit power of 1
mW (0 dBm).
782
Solution
The MMSE error equation for the dB power
measurements is
where Mmeasured(di) is the path loss

measurement in Table at distance di and
Mmodel(di) = K-10log10(di) is the path loss
based on simplified path loss model at di.
Using the free space path loss formula,
K = 20 log10(.3333/(4)) = -31.54 dB.
783
Page 167
Lecture notes
Solution
Thus
Differentiating F() relative to and setting it to zero yields
To find the received power at 150m under the simplified path

loss model with K = -31.54, =3.71, and Pt = 0 dBm.
We have
Pr = Pt + K - 10log10(d/d0) = 0 - 31.54 - 10*3.71 log10(150)
= -112.27 dBm.
Clearly the measurements deviate from the simplified path loss
model: obviously this variation is caused by shadow fading.
784
Ranges of empirical path loss exponent

values for different indoor and outdoor environments and
antenna heights at 900 MHz and 1 .9 GHz is given below.
Note that the wide range of empirical path loss exponents for
indoor propagation may be due to attenuation caused by floors,
objects, and partitions.
785
Page 168
Lecture notes
Shadowing
The models of macrocellular path loss described previously
assume that path loss is a function only of parameters such as
antenna heights, environment and distance.
Thus the environment surrounding the base station is assumed
to be fairly uniform
The predicted path loss for a system operated in this
particular environment will therefore be constant for a given
base-to-mobile distance.
In consequence, the coverage area predicted by these models
for an isolated base station will be circular.
In practice, however, the particular clutter (buildings, trees)
along a path at a given distance will be different for every
path, causing variations with respect to the nominal value given
by the path loss models, as shown in next figure.
786
Empirical model of macrocell propagation

The dots are measurements taken in a suburban area and
the line represents a best-fit empirical model
787
Page 169
Lecture notes
Variation of path profiles at a fixed range

from a base station
Some paths will suffer increased loss, whereas others
will be less obstructed and have an increased signal
strength.
This phenomenon is called shadowing or slow fading.
788
Statistics: Typical variation of shadowing

If a mobile is
driven around a
base station (BS)
at a constant
distance, then the
local mean signal
level will typically
be similar as in the
following figure,
after subtracting
the median (50%)
level in decibels.
Typical variation of shadowing with

mobile position at BS distance
789
Page 170
Lecture notes
Statistics: Typical variation of shadowing

A typical probability
density function of the
signal is in the following
figure.
The distribution of the
underlying signal power is
log-normal; that is, the
signal measured in
decibels has a normal
distribution.
The process by which this
distribution comes about
is known as shadowing or
slow fading.
Probability density function of

shadowing. Theoretical values come
from the log-normal distribution
790
Standard deviation of the shadowing

The standard deviation of the shadowing
distribution (in decibels) dB (the location
variability) varies with frequency, antenna
heights and the environment.
It gets its maximum values in suburban areas
and minimum values in open areas.
Typically its range is 512 dB.
791
Page 171
Lecture notes
Shadowing
A signal transmitted through a wireless channel will typically experience

random variation due to blockage from objects in the signal path,
giving rise to random variations of the received power at a given
distance.
Such variations are also caused by changes in reflecting surfaces and
scattering objects.
Thus, a model for the random attenuation due to these effects is also
needed.
Since the location, size and dielectric properties of the blocking
objects as well as the changes in reflecting surfaces and scattering
objects that cause the random attenuation are generally unknown,
statistical models must be used to characterize this attenuation.
The most common model for this additional attenuation is log-normal
shadowing.
Log-normal shadowing can be used to model the variation in received
power in both outdoor and indoor radio propagation environments.
792
Path loss, shadowing and multipath

versus distance
793
Page 172
Lecture notes
Justification of the model

The Gaussian model for the distribution of the mean received
signal in dB can be justified by the following attenuation model
when shadowing is dominated by the attenuation from blocking
objects.
The attenuation of a signal as it travels through an object of
depth d is approximately equal to
where is an attenuation constant that depends on the objects

materials and dielectric properties.
If we assume that is approximately equal for all blocking
objects, and that the ith blocking object has a random depth di,
then the attenuation of a signal as it propagates through this
region is
794
Justification of the model

where
is the sum of the random object depths through which the signal
travels.
If there are many objects between the transmitter and
receiver, then according to the Central Limit Theorem we can
approximate dt by a Gaussian random variable.
Thus,
will have a Gaussian distribution with mean and standard
deviation .
The value of will depend on the environment.
795
Page 173
Lecture notes
Note: Central Limit Theorem

(CLT)
Consider the sum y of N independent random
variables x
y= x1 + x2 + + xN
The central limit theorem states broadly that the
distribution of y always approaches a Gaussian
distribution
as N, provided that no one of the xj dominates,

whatever the distribution of the xj.
796
Shadowing
Dc
Models describe attenuation from obstructions
Attenuation is random due to random number and
random type of obstructions
Attenuation typically follows a log-normal distribution
dB value of power is normally distributed
=0 (mean captured in path loss), 4<2<12 (empirical)
Law of large numbers (LLN) used to explain this model
Decorrelated over decorrelation distance Dc
797
Page 174
Lecture notes
Log-normal shadowing
Log-normal shadowing is statistical model for variations in the
received signal strength due to blockage.
The received signal power with the combined effect of path loss
(power falloff model) and shadowing is, in dB, given by
Pr(dB) = Pt(dB) + 10log10K - 10log10(d/do) +(dB).
Empirical measurements support the log-normal distribution for
and the Gaussian distribution for dB :
This empirical distribution can be justified by a the law of large

numbers argument.
798
Note: Law of Large Numbers (LLN)

In probability theory, the law of large
numbers (LLN) is a theorem that describes
the result of performing the same random
experiment a large number of times.
According to the law, the average of the
results obtained from a large number of
trials should be close to the expected value,
and will tend to become closer as more
trials are performed.
The LLN is important because it "guarantees"
stable long-term results for random events.
799
Page 175
Lecture notes
Note: More formally

The law of large numbers (LLN) state that the sample average
converges
in probability or weakly
almost surely or strongly
to the expected value
where X1, X2, ... is an infinite sequence of independent and

identically distributed (i.i.d.) random variables with finite
expected value E(X1) = E(X2) = ... = < .
An assumption of finite variance Var(X1) = Var(X2) = ... = 2 < is
not necessary!
Large or infinite variance will make the convergence slower.
800
Combined path loss and shadowing

Linear model: lognormal
Pr
d
= K 0
Pt
d
dB model
10log
Pr/Pt
(dB)
Slow
-10
Very slow
log d
801
Page 176
Lecture notes
Model parameters from

empirical measurements
K (dB)
Fit model to data
Pr(dB)
Path loss (K,), d0 known:
2
10
log(d0)
log(d)
Best fit line through dB data

K obtained from measurements at d0.
Exponent is MMSE estimate based on data
Captures mean due to shadowing
Shadowing variance
Variance of data relative to path loss model
(straight line) with MMSE estimate for
802
Example
In the previous example the exponent for the
simplified path loss model that best fits the
measurements in Table below was = 3.71. Assuming
the simplified path loss model with this exponent and
the same K = -31.51 dB. Find dB2, the variance of
log-normal shadowing about the mean path loss based
on these empirical measurements.
803
Page 177
Lecture notes
Example
Solution:
The sample variance relative to the simplified path loss model
with = 3.71 is
where Mmeasured(di) is the path loss measurement in Table at

distance di and Mmodel(di) = K-10log10(di) is the path loss based
on simplified path loss model at di.
Now
Thus, the standard deviation of shadow fading on this path is

dB = 3.65 dB.
Note that the bracketed term in the above expression equals
the MMSE formula in the previous example with = 3.71.
804
Outage probability
and cell coverage area
Path loss: circular cells
Path loss+shadowing: amoeba cells
Tradeoff between coverage and interference
Outage probability
Probability received power below given minimum
Cell coverage area

% of cell locations at desired power
Increases as shadowing variance decreases
Large % indicates interference to other cells
805
Page 178
Lecture notes
Outage probability
Outage probability under path loss and shadowing:
With path loss and shadowing, the received power at any
given distance between transmitter and receiver is random.
Outage probability pout(Pmin,d) is defined as the probability
that the received power Pr(d) at a given distance d, is below
some given minimum Pmin or pout(Pmin, d) = Prob{Pr(d) Pmin}
p(Pr(d) Pmin) = 1-Prob{Pr(d) > Pmin} = 1-Q{[(Pmin-Pr(d)]/dB},
where the Q-function is defined as the probability that a
Gaussian random variable y (with mean zero and variance one)
is bigger than z
For the simplified path loss model and log normal

shadowing this becomes
806
Example
Find the outage probability at 150 m for a
channel based on the combined path loss and
shadowing models of the previous example (K
= -31.54, =3.71, dB = 3.65) assuming a
transmit power of Pt = 10 mW and minimum
power requirement Pmin = -110.5 dBm.
807
Page 179
Lecture notes
Example
Solution
Now Pt = 10 mW = 10 dBm.
From the previous example K = -31.54, =3.71, dB =
3.65
z := -2.25397652
pout := "1-0.5*erfc(z/sqrt(2.))"
pout := 0.0120980840
An outage probabilities of 1 % is a typical target in

wireless system designs.
808
Cell coverage area

The cell coverage area in a cellular system is defined as the
expected percentage of area within a cell that has received
power above a given minimum.
Consider a base station inside a circular cell of a given radius R.
All mobiles within the cell require some minimum received SNR
for acceptable performance.
Assuming some reasonable noise and interference model, the
SNR requirement translates to a minimum received power Pmin
throughout the cell.
The transmit power at the base station is designed for an
average received power at the cell boundary of PR averaged over
the shadowing variations.
However, shadowing will cause some locations within the cell to
have received power below PR, and others will have received
power exceeding PR.
809
Page 180
Lecture notes
Cell coverage area

Path loss and average shadowing constant power contours form a
circle around the base station, since combined path loss and
average shadowing is the same at a constant distance from the
base station.
For path loss and random shadowing the constant power
contours form an amoeba-like shape due to the random
shadowing variations about the average.
This means that it is not possible for all users at the cell
boundary to receive the same power level.
Thus, the base station must either transmit extra power to
insure that users behind shadows receive their minimum
required power Pmin.
Of course, this extra power causes excessive interference to
neighboring cells.
In fact, there is a nonzero probability that any mobile within
the cell will have a received power that falls below Pmin, even if
the mobile is close to the base station.
810
Contours of constant received

power
Path loss and
average shadowing
Path loss and
random shadowing
811
Page 181
Lecture notes
Coverage area
The total area within the cell where the minimum power
requirement is exceeded is:
where
and
is the received power at the cell boundary (distance R from the
base station) due to path loss alone.
812
Coverage area
If the target minimum received power equals the
average power at the cell boundary: Pmin =Pr(R) then a
= 0 and the coverage area simplifies to
Note that with this simplification C depends only on

the ratio /dB, because b=b(/dB).
Moreover, due to the symmetry of the Gaussian
distribution, under this assumption the outage
probability at the cell boundary
pout(Pr(R), R) =1-Q(0)= 0.5.
813
Page 182
Lecture notes
Example
Find the coverage area for a cell with the
combined path loss and shadowing models of
the previous examples (K = -31.54, =3.71, dB
= 3.65), with a cell radius of 600 m, a base
station transmit power of Pt = 100 mW = 20
dBm, and a minimum received power
requirement of a) Pmin = -110 dBm and b) Pmin =
-120 dBm.
814
Example
Solution :
a) Pmin = -110dBm and first we check if a = 0 to determine
whether to use the full or simplified version of C formula.
We have Pr(R) = Pt + K -10log10(600) = 20-31.54-37.1 log10[600]
=-114.6dBm 110 dBm, so we use the full version
Evaluating a and b from
yields a = (-110 + 114.6)/3.65 = 1.26 and b = 37.10.434/3.65 =

4.41.
815
Page 183
Lecture notes
Example
Substituting these into C formula yields
This would be a very low coverage value for a cellular

system (a lot of angry customers).
b) The less stringent received power requirement Pmin
= 120 dBm yields a = (-120 + 114.9)/3.65 =-1.479 and
the same b = 4.41.
Substituting these values into the C-formula yields C
= .988 a much more acceptable value for coverage
area.
816
Example
Assume that a cellular system is designed so
that Pmin = Pr(R), i.e. the received power due to
path loss and average shadowing at the cell
boundary equals the minimum received power
required for acceptable performance. Find
the coverage area for path loss values = 2,
4, 6 and dB = 4, 8, 12.
817
Page 184
Lecture notes
Example
Solution:
For Pmin= Pr(R), a = 0 so coverage is given by the simplified
version of C-formula
The coverage area thus depends only on the value of b =

10log10(e)/dB, which in turn depends only on the ratio /dB.
The following table contains coverage area evaluated from the
previous C-formula for the different and dB values
C increases
C increases
818
Comment about example

It is clear that for fixed the coverage area increases as dB
decreases: that is because a smaller dB means less variation
about the mean path loss, and since with no shadowing we have
100% coverage (since Pmin = Pr(R)), we expect that as dB
decreases to zero, coverage area increases to 100%.
It is a bit confusing that for a fixed dB coverage area increases
as increases, since a larger implies that received signal power
falls off more quickly.
But we must recall that we have set Pmin= Pr(R), so the faster
power falloff is already taken into account (i.e. we need to
transmit at much higher power with = 6 than with = 2 for this
equality to hold).
The coverage area increases as increases, because the
transmit power must increase to satisfy Pmin= Pr(R).
This results in higher average power throughout the cell,
resulting in a higher coverage area.
819
Page 185
Lecture notes
Probability density function of

shadowing loss
When shadowing is included, the total path loss becomes a random

variable, given by
where L50 is the level not exceeded at 50% of locations at a given

distance, as predicted by any standard path loss model (the local
median path loss) described earlier.
LS is the shadowing loss component, a zero-mean Gaussian random
variable with standard deviation L.
The probability density function of LS is therefore given by the
standard Gaussian formula:
In order to provide reliable communications at a given distance,

therefore, an extra fade margin has to be added into the link budget
according to the reliability required from the system.
820
Shadowing probability
The probability that the shadowing increases the
median path loss by at least z [dB] is then given by
It is convenient to normalize the variable z by the

location variability (L), then the shadowing
probability is expressed by
where the Q() function is the complementary

cumulative normal distribution.
Values for Q can be calculated from erfc-function
821
Page 186
Lecture notes
Q-function
822
Problem
A mobile communications system must provide 90%
successful communications at the edge of the cell.
The system operates in an environment where
propagation can be described by a plane earth loss
(PEL) model plus a 20 dB clutter factor, with
shadowing of location variability 6 dB (L). The
maximum acceptable path loss for the system is 140
dB. Antenna heights for the system are hm=1m and hb
= 30m. Determine the range of the cell. How is this
range modified if the location variability increases to
8 dB?
823
Page 187
Lecture notes
Note: Plane Earth Loss (PEL)

Here the base and mobile station antennas are situated above a
flat reflecting ground (plane earth), at heights hb and hm,
respectively, so that propagation takes place via both a direct
path between the antennas and a reflection from the ground.
These two paths sum up at the receiver with a phase difference
related to the difference in length between the two paths.
With r>>hb,hm we get simple approximation
1/r4
824
Plane earth loss (), free space loss (...) and

approximate plane earth loss ( )
(hm = 1.5 m, hb = 30m, f = 900MHz)
For small distances,
the influence of the
interference between
the two paths is visible
as the combined signal
undergoes distinct
peaks. As the distance
is increased, however,
the loss monotonically
increases.
Note that the plane
earth loss increases far
more rapidly than the
free space loss and that
it is independent of
carrier frequency. The
loss now increases by 12
dB per doubling of
825
distance or by 40
dB per
decade.
Page 188
Lecture notes
Solution of the previous problem

The total path loss is given by the sum of the plane earth loss
(LPEL), the clutter factor and the shadowing loss:
To find LS, we take the value of t = z/L for which the path loss
is less than the maximum acceptable value for at least 90% of
locations, or when Q(t) = 10% = 0.1.
From Q-function curve we get roughly t1.25. Multiplying this by
the standard deviation of the shadowing (the location
variability) gives
826
Calculating we get more accurately: Q(t)=0.5*erfc(t/sqrt(2))=0.1 t=1.28(1551566)
Solution continues
Thus
So the range of the system is r = 103.64 = 4.4 km

If L rises to 8 dB, the shadowing loss is
LS =z=tL=1.25*8=10 dB
and the range is reduced to r = 3.8 km.
Thus shadowing has a decisive effect on system
range.
827
Page 189
Lecture notes
Comment
In the example above, the system was designed
so that 90% of locations at the edge of the
cell have acceptable coverage.
Within the cell, although the value of
shadowing is the same, the value of the total
path loss will be less, so a greater percentage
of locations will have acceptable coverage.
828
Maximum Acceptable Path Loss (MAPL)

and fade margin
The maximum acceptable path loss is usually
split into two components, one of which is
given by the distance-dependent path loss
model (such as the free space or plane earth
models) and a fade margin, which is included
to allow the system some flexibility (room for
maneuver) against signal fading beyond the
value predicted by the model. Thus
829
Page 190
Lecture notes
Effect of shadowing margin (fade margin)

on cell range
In Figure, the cell range
would be around 9.5 km if
shadowing were
neglected, then only 50%
of locations at the edge
of the cell would be
properly covered.
By adding the fade
margin (here 10dB), the
cell radius is reduced to
around 5.5 km but the
reliability is greatly
increased, as a much
smaller proportion of
points exceed the
maximum acceptable path
loss (MAPL)
830
Outage probability as a function of MAPL

If we rearrange the calculation in the previous
problem, we can get the probability of outage.
The probability of outage pout, i.e. the probability that
the total path loss LT > Lm (dB) is
where Lm, is the maximum acceptable path loss

(MAPL).
Consequently, the fraction of locations covered at a
range r is simply
831
Page 191
Lecture notes
Coverage fraction
In general terms, Coverage fraction can be expressed as
where Lm, is the maximum acceptable path loss (MAPL) and L(r) is the
median path loss as predicted by any standard path loss model,
evaluated at a distance r.
M = [Lm L(r)] is the fade margin chosen for the system.
Coverage fraction in percentage form is presented in the following
figure using partly the same values (hm=1.5m, hb=30m in L(r) = LPEL=
40log(r)-20log(hm)-20log(hb) and Lm=140 dB) as in the previous problem.
The shadowing clearly has a significant effect on reducing the cell
radius from the value predicted using the median path loss alone (LS=0),
which would be around 6.7 km.
Note. The outage calculated here is purely due to inadequate signal level.
Outage may also be caused by inadequate signal-to-interference ratio
(SIR).
832
Note
Figure shows that,

although locations at the
edge of the cell may only
have a 90% chance of
successful communication,
most mobiles will be
closer to the base station
than this, and they will
therefore experience
considerably better
coverage.
L(r) = LPEL= 40log(r)-20log(hm)-20log(hb) and

Lm=140 dB), hm=1.5m, hb=30m
833
Page 192
Lecture notes
Whole Cell
Let us to design the system in terms of
the coverage probability experienced
over the whole cell.
Figure shows a cell of radius rmax with a
representative ring of radius r, small
width r, within which the coverage
probability is pe(r).
The area covered by the ring is (2r)r.
The coverage probability for the whole
cell, pcell is then the sum of the area
associated with all such rings from
radius 0 to rmax, multiplied by the
corresponding coverage percentages
and divided by the area of the whole
cell, ( rmax2).
834
Overall coverage probability

As the radius of the rings is reduced, the summation becomes an
integral in the limit r 0, and we have
After substituting
this yields
where erf(x)=1 - erfc(x).
This may be solved numerically for any desired path loss model
L(r).
835
Page 193
Lecture notes
Overall coverage probability
L(r) = LPEL= 40log(r)-20log(hm)-20log(hb) and

Lm=140 dB), hm=1.5m, hb=30m
836
Review of combined path loss

and shadowing
Random attenuation due to shadowing modeled as lognormal (empirical parameters).
Combined path loss and shadowing leads to outage and
amoeba-like cell shapes.
Shadowing affects cell coverage area, defined as the
percentage of locations within a cell with
acceptable received power.
Cellular coverage area dictates the percentage of
locations within a cell that are not in outage.
Path loss and shadowing parameters are obtained
from empirical measurements.
837
Page 194
Lecture notes

Used when path loss dominated by reflections.
Most important parameter is the path loss exponent , usually
determined empirically.
d
Pr = Pt K 0 ,
d
2 8
where K= Pr(d0)/Pt is a constant factor, d0 is a reference

distance, and is the path loss exponent.
Path loss exponent is function of carrier frequency, environment,
obstructions, etc.
Typically ranges from 2 to 8 (at around 1 GHz).
Model captures main characteristics of ray tracing: good for
high-level analysis.
Cell design impact: If the radius of a cell is reduced by half when
the propagation path loss exponent is 4, the transmit power level
of a base station is reduced by 12dB (=10 log 16 dB).
Costs: More base stations, frequent handovers
838
Combined path loss, shadowing, and

fast fading
839
Page 195
Lecture notes
Path loss exponents for different

environments
840
Why cannot distance predict path loss well?
Scatter plot of measured data and corresponding MMSE path loss

model for some cities
841
Page 196
Lecture notes
Why propagation models are designed ?

Modeling radio channel is important for determining :
Coverage area of a transmitter
Transmitter power requirement
Battery lifetime (portable terminals)
Modulation and coding schemes to improve the channel quality
The maximum channel capacity
842
Why different propagation models ?

Radio channels are extremely random and do not
offer easy analysis
(Unlike wired channels that are stationary and
predictable)
Each individual telecommunication link has to

encounter different
terrain
path
obstructions
atmospheric conditions
843
Page 197
Lecture notes
Models for outdoor and indoor

applications
Different models have been developed to
meet the needs of realizing the propagation
behavior in different conditions.
Models for outdoor applications (macro- and
microcells)
Models for indoor applications (picocells)
844
Microcells
The deployment of microcells is caused by a desire to reduce cell sizes

in areas where large numbers of users require access to the system.
Serving these users with limited radio spectrum requires frequencies
to be reused over very short distances.
As a result, large numbers of microcells have been deployed to serve
dense concentrations of cellular mobile users and increasing numbers of
microcells are being deployed in cities to provide near-continuous
outdoor WiFi operation.
In a microcell the base station antenna is typically mounted on the side
of a building at a height of 5-10m above street level.
Coverage is typically a few hundred metres, with cell shapes being far
from circular.
The dominant propagation mechanisms are free space propagation plus
multiple reflection and scattering within the cells desired coverage
area, together with diffraction around the corners of buildings and
over rooftops.
Diffraction becomes significant when determining interference
between co-channel cells.
In microcells there are important to carefully control the coverage
area and hence to manage the interference between sites.
845
Page 198
Lecture notes
Picocells
When a base station antenna is located inside a building, a
picocell is formed.
Picocells are increasingly used in cellular telephony for hightraffic areas such as railway stations, office buildings, sports
halls and airports.
Additionally, the high data rates required by wireless local area
networks (WLANs) restrict cell sizes to picocells.
Picocell propagation is also relevant in determining propagation
into buildings from both macrocellular and microcellular systems,
which could either act as a source of interference to the indoor
cells.
Note that other enclosed spaces, such as railway and road
tunnels and mines, exhibit similar propagation effects to
picocells.
846
Mixed cell architecture
847
Page 199
Lecture notes
Outdoor propagation models

There are a number of mobile radio propagation
models to predict path loss over irregular terrain.
These models
generally aim to predict the signal strength at a
particular sector.
vary widely in complexity and accuracy
are based on systematic interpretation of
measurement data obtained in the service area.
848
Indoor propagation models

Indoor radio channel differs from traditional mobile radio
channel in:
distances covered are much smaller
variability of the environment is greater for a much smaller
range of T-R separation distances
It is strongly influenced by specific features, such as

layout of the building
construction materials
building type
Same mechanisms: reflection, diffraction, and scattering are

main reasons of signal propagation and attenuation
Signal level varies very quickly depending upon:
Interior doors are open or closed
Antenna mounting
849
Page 200
Lecture notes
Indoor propagation models

Partition losses: Partitions play an important role in signal
propagation within buildings.
Hard partitions: Part of building structure and immoveable
partitions such as fixed internal walls, reinforced concrete
between floors, etc
Soft partitions: Moveable and not spanning to the ceiling,
such as office partitions
Same floor: A floor inside a building may have a

combination of partitions, hard as well as soft partitions
Inter floor: Mainly fixed partitions, concrete floors
Partitions offer wide variety of physical as well as
electrical characteristics
Difficult to apply general models to indoor radio signal
propagation
850
Indoor models
900 MHz: 10-20dB attenuation for
1-floor, 6-10dB/floor for next
floors (and frequency dependent)
Partition loss depending upon
material (see table)
Outdoor-to-indoor: building
penetration loss (8-20 dB),
decreases by 1.4dB/floor for
higher floors. (reduced clutter)
Windows: 6dB less loss than walls
851
Page 201
Lecture notes
Limitations of propagation model

For any model, the collection of data has to be
sufficiently large to provide enough likeliness
(or enough scope) to all kind of situations that
can happen in that specific scenario.
Like all models, radio propagation models do not
point out the exact behavior of a link.
Valid models predict the most likely behavior the
link may exhibit under the specified conditions.
852
Summary
Models vary in complexity and accuracy
Power falloff with distance is proportional to d-2 in
free space, d-4 in two path model
General ray tracing is computationally complex
Empirical models were used in 2G/3G/WiMAX
simulations
Main characteristics of path loss is captured in
simple model Pr=PtK[d0/d]
WiMAX - Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access, is a telecommunications 853

technology that provides fixed and fully mobile internet access.
Page 202
Lecture notes

Wave Propagation
Antennas
854
What is an Antenna?
Most fundamentally, an antenna is a

way of converting the guided waves
present in a waveguide, feeder cable
or transmission line into radiating
waves travelling in free space or vice
versa.
Figure shows how the fields trapped
in the transmission line travel in one
dimension towards the antenna,
which converts them into radiating
waves, carrying power away from the
transmitter in three dimensions into
free space.
The art of antenna design is to
ensure this process takes place as
efficiently as possible, with the
antenna radiating as much power
from the transmitter into useful
directions, particularly the direction
of the intended receiver, as can
practically be achieved.
855
Page 203
Lecture notes
What is an Antenna?
Antennas form a essential part of any radio communication system.
Antenna is that part of a transmitting or receiving system which is

designed to radiate or to receive electromagnetic waves.
An antenna can also be viewed as a transitional structure between

free-space and a transmission line (such as a coaxial line).
An important property of an antenna is the ability to focus and

shape the radiated power in space e.g.: it radiates more power in
some wanted direction/directions and less power in other
directions.
Many different types and mechanical forms of antennas exist.
Each type is specifically designed for special purposes.
856
Conditions for radiation
What distinguishes the current

in an antenna from the current
in a guided wave structure?
As a direct consequence of
Maxwells equations, a group of
charges in uniform motion (or
stationary charges) do not
produce radiation Figure(a) .
In Figure (b)-(d), however,
radiation does occur, because
the velocity of the charges is
changing in time.
In Figure (b) the charges are
reaching the end of the wire and
reversing direction, producing
radiation.
In Figure (c) the speed of the
charges remains constant, but
their direction is changing,
thereby creating radiation.
857
Page 204
Lecture notes
Conditions for radiation
Finally, in Figure (d), the charges

are oscillating in periodic motion,
causing a continuous stream of
radiation.
This is the usual practical case,
where the periodic motion is
excited by a sinusoidal
transmitter.
Antennas can therefore be seen
as devices which cause charges
to be accelerated in ways which
produce radiation with desired
characteristics.
Similarly, rapid changes of
direction in structures which are
designed to guide waves may
produce undesired radiation, as
is the case when a printed
circuit track carrying highfrequency currents changes
direction over a short distance.
Only accelerating charges

produce radiation.
858
Near-field and far-field regions

Close to an antenna, the field patterns change very rapidly
with distance and include both radiating energy and reactive
energy, which oscillates towards and away from the antenna,
appearing as a reactance which only stores, but does not
dissipate, energy.
Further away from antenna, the reactive fields are negligible
and only the radiating energy is present, resulting in a variation
of power with direction which is independent of distance.
These regions are conventionally divided at a radius R given by
where L is the diameter of the antenna or of the smallest

sphere which completely encloses the antenna [m] and is the
wavelength [m].
859
Page 205
Lecture notes
Fresnel and Fraunhofer region
Within that radius is the near-field or Fresnel region while beyond it

lies the far-field or Fraunhofer region.
Locally the waves look like plane waves in the far field, and differ from
plane waves only in that their amplitude is inversely proportional to the
distance from the antenna.
The wave fronts are actually spherical, but that a small section of the
wave fronts is indistinguishable from a plane wave if observed
sufficiently far from the antenna.
Within the far-field region only the power radiated in a particular
direction is of importance.
Measurements of the power radiated from an antenna have either to
be made well within the far field, or else special account has to be
taken of the reactive fields.
In siting an antenna, it is particularly important to keep other objects
out of the near field, as they will couple with the currents in the
antenna and change them, which in turn may greatly alter the designed
radiation and impedance characteristics.
860
Coordinate system for antenna

calculations
Usually most convenient
is to work in spherical
coordinates (r,,)
rather than Cartesian
coordinates, with the
antenna under analysis
placed at the origin.
Often the z-axis is
taken to be the vertical
direction and the xy
plane is horizontal, in
which case denotes
the azimuth angle.
861
Page 206
Lecture notes
Radiation intensity
The radiation pattern of an antenna is a plot of the far-field
radiation from the antenna.
More specifically, it is a plot of the power radiated from an
antenna per unit solid angle, or its radiation intensity U [watts
per unit solid angle].
This is obtained at by multiplying the power density at a given
distance by the square of the distance r, where the power
density S [watts per square metre] is given by the magnitude of
the time-averaged Poynting vector (S = E H )
This removes the effect of distance and of ensures that the

radiation pattern is the same at all distances from the
antenna, provided that r is within the far field.
862
Radiation intensity
The simplest example is an idealized antenna which radiates
equally in all directions, an isotropic antenna.
If the total power radiated by the antenna is P, then the power
is spread over a sphere of radius r, so the power density at this
distance and in any direction is
The radiation intensity is then
which is clearly independent of r.

863
Page 207
Lecture notes
Directivity
The directivity D of an antenna, a function of direction, is
defined by
Sometimes directivity is specified without referring to a

direction.
In this case the term directivity implies the maximum value of
D(
,
) = Dmax.
It is also common to express the directivity in decibels.
The use of the isotropic antenna as a reference is giving the
directivity units of dBi:
D[dBi] = 10log D
864
Radiation pattern
The main characteristics of antenna is the radiation pattern.
The antenna pattern is a graphical representation in three dimensions of the
radiation of the antenna as a function of angular direction.
Antenna radiation performance is usually measured and recorded in two
orthogonal principal planes (E-Plane and H-plane or vertical and horizontal
planes).
The pattern of most base station antennas contains a main lobe and several
minor lobes, termed side lobes.
A side lobe occurring in space in the direction opposite to the main lobe is
called back lobe.
865
Page 208
Lecture notes
Radiation pattern
866
Equivalent circuit
In the equivalent circuit of a
transmitter and its
associated antenna the
resistive part of the antenna
impedance is split into two
parts, a radiation resistance
Rr and a loss resistance Rl.
The power dissipated in the
radiation resistance is the
power actually radiated by
the antenna, and the loss
resistance is power lost
within the antenna itself.
Equivalent circuit of
transmitting antenna
867
Page 209
Lecture notes
Radiation resistance and efficiency

Because only the radiated power is useful, we define the
radiation efficiency e of the antenna as
An antenna with high radiation efficiency therefore has high

radiation resistance compared with the losses.
The antenna is said to be resonant if its input reactance Xa = 0.
If the source impedance, Zs = Rs +jXs, and the total antenna
impedance, Za = Rr + Rl +jXa, are complex conjugates, i.e. Zs= Za*
then the source is matched to the antenna and a maximum of
the source power is delivered to the antenna.
It is common to design antennas to a standard input impedance
of either 50 or 75 .
868
Reflection coefficient and VSWR

If the match is not ideal, then the degree of mismatch can be
measured using the reflection coefficient , defined by
where Vr and Vi are the amplitudes of the waves reflected from

the antenna to the transmitter and incident from the
transmitter onto the antenna terminals, respectively.
It is also common to measure the mismatch via the voltage
standing wave ratio (VSWR)
The optimum value of the VSWR is 1.

869
Page 210
Lecture notes
Gain
Antenna gain is a measure for antenna efficiency.
The gain G of an antenna is the ratio of its radiation intensity to
that of an isotropic antenna radiating the same total power.
When antenna manufacturers specify the gain of an antenna
they are usually referring to the maximum value of G.
The efficiency, the directivity and the power gain are related by
Gain is measured generally in decibels above isotropic (dBi) or

decibels above a dipole (dBd).
An isotropic radiator is an ideal antenna which radiates power
with unit gain uniformly in all directions
For readings: dBi = dBd + 2.15
870
Gain
Although the gain is, in principle, a function of both directions
(, ) together, it is common for manufacturers to specify
patterns in terms of the gain in only two orthogonal planes
(cuts).
In such cases the gain in any other direction may be estimated
by assuming that the pattern is separable into the product of
functions G and G which are functions of only and ,
respectively.
Thus
Antenna gain depends on the mechanical size, the effective
aperture area, the frequency band and the antenna
configuration.
Antennas for GSM1800 can achieve some 5 to 6 dB more gain
than antennas for GSM900 while maintaining the same
mechanical size.
871
Page 211
Lecture notes
Azimuthal and vertical pattern
872
Composite pattern
873
Page 212
Lecture notes
Antenna characteristics
Front-to-back ratio (F/B)
It is the ratio of the maximum directivity of an
antenna to its directivity in a specified rearward
direction.
Generally antenna with a high front-to-back ratio
should be used.
First Null Beamwidth
The first null beamwidth (FNBW) is the angular span
between the first pattern nulls adjacent to the main
lobe.
This term describes the angular coverage of the
downtilted cells.
874
Antenna Lobes
Main lobe is the radiation lobe containing the direction of maximum
radiation.
Side lobes
Half-power beamwidth
The half power beamwidth (HPBW) is the angle between the points on
the main lobe that are 3dB lower in gain compared to the maximum.
Narrow angles mean good focusing of radiated power.
Polarization
The polarization of an antenna is the orientation of the electric
field (E-plane) of the radio wave with respect to the Earth's surface
and is determined by the physical structure of the antenna and by
its orientation.
Antennas used in cellular communications are usually vertically
polarised or cross-polarised.
875
Page 213
Lecture notes
Antenna impedance
Maximum power coupling into the antennas can be achieved when the antenna
impedance matches the cables impedance.
Typical value is 50 ohms.
Mechanical size
Mechanical size is related to achievable antenna gain.
Large antennas provide higher gains but also need care in deployment and
apply high torque to the antenna mast.
Small antennas are usually preferred for convenience, but there is a

fundamental limit relating bandwidth, size and efficiency.
876
Main Lobe Axis
Power Beamwidth
First Null
Side Lobe
Back Lobe
877
Page 214
Lecture notes
Bandwidth
The bandwidth of an antenna expresses its ability to operate over a

wide frequency range.
The bandwidth of an antenna is the range of frequencies over which
it is effective, usually centered on the resonant frequency.
It is often defined as the range over which the power gain is maintained
to within 3 dB of its maximum value, or the range over which the VSWR
is no greater than 2:1.
The bandwidth is usually given as a percentage of the nominal operating
frequency.
The radiation pattern of an antenna may change dramatically outside its
specified operating bandwidth.
The bandwidth of an antenna may be increased by several techniques,
including using thicker wires, tapering antenna components (like in a
feed horn), and combining multiple antennas into a single assembly and
allowing the natural impedance to select the correct antenna or part of
antenna structure.
878
Reciprocity theorem
According to the reciprocity theorem
antennas behave in the same way in
transmitting and receiving mode.
The theorem is illustrated in Figure and
states:
If a voltage is applied to the terminals of an
antenna A and the current measured at the
terminals of another antenna B then an equal
current will be obtained at the terminals of
antenna A if the same voltage is applied to
the terminals of antenna B.
Thus, in Figure if Va=Vb then the

reciprocity theorem states that Ia=Ib and
879
Page 215
Lecture notes
Reciprocity
A necessary consequence of this theorem is that the
antenna gain must be the same whether used for
receiving or transmitting, so all of the gain and
pattern characteristics derived so far are fully
applicable in both mode.
Note that the reciprocity theorem does not state
that the current distribution on the two antennas will
be the same when receiving or transmitting, or that
the way in which the field changes with respect to
time or space at the two antennas will be the same.
880
Validity of R-theorem
The reciprocity theorem is valid very generally, for
any linear time-invariant medium.
There are some cases when transmission through the
ionosphere with very high powers can contravene the
assumption of linearity,
This occurs because the very high wave energy causes
ionization of atoms in the ionosphere, so that the
constitutive parameters of the medium change with
the power in the wave.
These cases are unlikely in the context of practical
transmission systems operated at VHF or above.
881
Page 216
Lecture notes
Receiving antenna aperture
If an antenna is used to receive a wave with a power density S [W/m2],

it will produce a power in its terminating impedance (usually a receiver
input impedance) of Pr watts.
The constant of proportionality between Pr and S is Ae, the effective
aperture of the antenna:
For some antennas, such as horn or dish antennas, the aperture has an
obvious physical interpretation, being almost the same as the physical
area of the antenna, but the concept is just as valid for all antennas.
The effective aperture may often be very much larger than the
physical area, especially in the case of wire antennas.
Note, however, that the effective aperture will reduce as the
efficiency of an antenna decreases.
The antenna gain G is related to the effective aperture as follows:
882
Beamwidth and directivity

The directivity of an antenna increases as its
beamwidth is made smaller.
This means that the radiated energy is concentrated
into a smaller solid angle.
For large directive antennas, with a single major lobe,
the half-power beamwidths of the antenna in the and
directions may be related to its directivity by the
following approximate formula:
where the units of the half-power beamwidths are

degrees.
883
Page 217
Lecture notes
Coupling between antennas

Antenna radiation pattern will become superimposed when the
distance between the antennas becomes too small.
This means the other antenna will mutually influence the individual
antenna patterns.
Generally 5 to 10 horizontal separation provides sufficient
decoupling of antenna patterns.
Only one wavelength separation in the vertical direction is sufficient,
if the vertical beamwidth is small.
884
Antenna types
In mobile communications two main categories
of antennas used are
Omnidirectional antenna
These antennas are mostly used in rural areas.
In all horizontal direction these antennas radiate with
equal power.
885
Page 218
Lecture notes
Antenna types
In mobile communications there are
used two main categories of antennas
Omnidirectional antenna
These antennas are mostly used in
rural areas.
In all horizontal direction these
antennas radiate with equal power
Directional antenna
These antennas are mostly used in
mobile cellular systems to get higher
gain compared to omnidirectional
antenna and to minimize interference
effects in the network.
In these type of antennas, the
radiation is directed at a specific angle
instead of uniformly across all azimuth
angles as in case of omnidirectional
antennas.
886
Antenna downtilting
Network planners often have the problem that the
base station antenna provides an overcoverage.
If the overlapping area between two cells is too large,
increased handover between the base station occurs.
There may even be interference of a neighbouring
cell with the same frequency.
Only that part of the energy which is radiated below
the horizon can be used for the coverage of the
sector.
Downtilting the antenna limits the range by reducing
the field strength in the horizon.
887
Page 219
Lecture notes
Antenna downtilting
Antenna downtilting is the downward tilt of the
vertical plane towards the ground by a fixed angle.
Downtilting of the antenna changes the position of
the half-power beamwidth and the first null relative
to the horizon.
With appropriate downtilt, the received signal
strength within the cell improves due to the
placement of the main lobe within the cell radius and
falls off in regions approaching the cell boundary and
towards the reuse cell.
888
Antenna downtilting
Unlike antennas for broadcast stations which must
cover tens of kilometers, there is usually a downward
beam tilt or downtilt so that the base station can
more effectively cover its immediate area and not
cause RF interference to distant cells.
The coverage area can be adjusted by changing
electrical or mechanical downtilts.
Electrical tilt is set by adjustments of the relative
phase of the elements.
Mechanical downtilt is set manually by adjusting an
antenna fastener.
889
Page 220
Lecture notes
Mechanical downtilting
890
891
Page 221
Lecture notes
Vertical antenna pattern at 0
Vertical antenna pattern at 15 downtilt

Backlobe shoots over the horizon
892
Electrical downtilting
893
Page 222
Lecture notes
Optimal downtilting
Although the use of downtilting can be a effective tool for
controlling interference, there is a optimum amount by which the
antenna can be downtilted whereby both the coverage losses and
the interference at the reuse cell can be kept at a minimum.
downtilting angle (D)
Height (H)
3 dB Beamwidth
Main lobe
Cellmax
894
Optimal downtilting
The previous figure shows a cells coverage area.
The primary illumination area is the area on the ground that
receives the signal contained within the 3dB vertical beamwidth of
the antenna.
The distance from the base station to the outer limit of the
illumination area is denoted by Cellmax.
It should be noted that the Cellmax can be different from the cell
boundary area which is customer defined.
Ideally in a well planned network Cellmax should always be less than
the co-channel reuse distance to minimize interference.
We now derive the relation between height (H), downtilt angle (D),
3dB vertical beamwidth and Cellmax.
As shown in the schematic is the angle between the upper limit of
the 3dB beamwidth and the horizon.
895
Page 223
Lecture notes
Optimal downtilting
The relation between height (H), downtilt angle (D), 3dB vertical beamwidth and
Cellmax can be expressed by
tan () = Cellmax / H
= D - 0.5 * 3dB vertical beamwidth
Cellmax = H * tan (D - 0.5 * 3dB vertical beamwidth)
For the Cellmax to be a positive quantity, downtilt angle (D) must be more than half
of the 3dB vertical beamwidth.
When the downtilt angle is less than half of the 3dB beamwidth, part of the signal
from the main beam shoots over the horizon .
The signal directed towards or above the horizon can potentially cause interference
at the reuse sites.
downtilting angle (D)
Height (H)
Main lobe
3 dB Beamwidth
896
Cellmax
Obstacle requirement
Nearby obstacles are those reflecting or shadowing materials

that can obstruct the radio beam both in horizontal and
vertical planes.
When mounting the antenna on a roof top, the dominating

obstacle in the vertical plane is the roof edge itself and in the
horizontal plane, obstacles further away like surrounding
buildings, can act as reflecting or shadowing material.
The antenna beam will be distorted if the antenna is too close

to the roof.
Hence the antenna must be mounted at a minimum height

above the rooftop or other obstacles.
If antennas are wall mounted, a safety margin of 15 degrees

between the reflecting surface and the 3-dB lobe should be
kept.
897
Page 224
Lecture notes
Obstacle requirement
Safety Margin
15 Degrees
Building
Main Radiation
Direction
Half Power
Beamwidth
898
Antenna arrays
The maximum directivity available from a single antenna in some
applications may not be sufficient.
One approach to improving on this is to combine arrays of
antenna elements, where the amplitude and phase with which
each element is fed may be different.
The fields produced by the elements then combine with
different phases in the far field, and the radiation pattern is
changed.
This also allows the radiation pattern to be tailored according to
the particular application, or varied to allow beam steering or
scanning without any physical antenna motion.
If the amplitude and phase weights are controlled electronically,
then the beam can be scanned very rapidly to track changes in
the communication channel.
899
Page 225
Lecture notes
Linear and planar arrays

Arrays may be linear or planar.
A linear array allows beam steering in one dimension,
permitting directivity to be obtained in a single plane,
hence an omnidirectional pattern can be synthesised.
A planar array has two dimensions of control,
permitting a narrow pencil beam to be produced.
The simplest array type is the uniform linear array,
which is a linear array with equal interelement
spacing and a progressive phase shift across the
array.
900
Uniform linear array

In this case the field pattern
of the total array is
equivalent to the pattern of
the individual elements
multiplied by an array
factor.
The peak gain is 20logn dB
greater than that for a
single element, so in principle
the gain may be increased to
any desired level.
The weights may be created
by splitting the signal
through a phasing network,
consisting of lengths of
transmission line of
increasing length (delay lines)
for each element.
The radiation pattern from a 10element uniform linear array.
901
Page 226
Lecture notes
Arrays
Each array element transmits/receives a signal which is a

version of the same signal apart from a weighting coefficient
902
Parasitic element array

Another array-based approach to enhancing the
directivity of dipole antennas is to use parasitic
elements.
Parasitic elements are mounted close to the driven
dipole and are not connected directly to the source.
Instead, the radiation field of the driven element
induces currents in the parasitics, causing them to
radiate in turn.
If the length and position of the parasitic elements
are chosen appropriately, then the radiation from the
parasitics and the driven element add constructively
in one direction, producing an increase in
directivity.
903
Page 227
Lecture notes
Yagi-Uda
The classic form of the parasitic element antenna is
the Yagi-Uda antenna, which is widely used as a
television reception antenna.
Typically, the driven element is made a little shorter
than /2, to permit a good match to 50.
Elements in the radiation direction, called directors,
are made a little shorter than the driver element, and
an element very close to /2 is placed behind and
called the reflector
Increasing the number of directors increases the
gain, although the improvement diminishes with the
number of directors.
904
Patch antennas
Patch antennas are based upon printed circuit technology to
create flat radiating structures on top of dielectric, groundplane-backed substrates.
The appeal of such structures is in allowing compact antennas
with low manufacturing cost and high reliability.
Improvements in the properties of the dielectric materials and
in design techniques have led to high efficiency or high
bandwidth structures and thus a large number of commercial
applications.
Many shapes of patch are possible, with varying applications, but
the most popular are rectangular, circular and thin strips (i.e.
printed dipoles).
A major application of patch antennas is in arrays, where all of
the elements, plus the feed and matching networks, can be
created in a single printed structure.
905
Page 228
Lecture notes

Wave Propagation
Diversity techniques
906
Diversity
A diversity concept refers to a method for improving the
reliability of a message signal by using two or more
communication channels with different characteristics.
Diversity plays an important role in combatting fading and cochannel interference and this way avoiding error bursts.
Diversity techniques are based on the fact that individual
channels experience different levels of fading and
interference.
Multiple versions of the same signal may be transmitted
and/or received and combined in the receiver.
Alternatively, a redundant forward error correction code may
be added and different parts of the message transmitted over
different channels.
Diversity techniques may utilize the multipath propagation,
resulting in a diversity gain.
907
Page 229
Lecture notes
Diversity antenna system
Fade
Transmission
media 1
Information
Receiver
Transmission
media 2
Peak
908
Need of diversity
Building
Building
Building
909
Page 230
Lecture notes
Diversity antenna system

Combining
Combined signal
fed to receiver
Signal 2
Signal 1
910
Multipath Propagation
Multipath propagation causes large and rapid fluctuations in a
signal
These fluctuations are not the same as the propagation path
loss.
Multipath causes three major things
Rapid changes in signal strength over a short distance or time.
Random frequency modulation due to Doppler shifts on
different multipath signals.
Time dispersion caused by multipath delays
These are called fading effects
Multipath propagation results in small-scale fading.
911
Page 231
Lecture notes
Diversity
Rayleigh fading and log-normal shadowing induce a
very large power penalty on the performance of
modulation over wireless channels.
One of the most powerful techniques to mitigate the
effects of fading is to use diversity-combining of
independently fading signal paths.
Diversity-combining uses the fact that independent
signal paths have a low probability of getting deep
fades simultaneously.
The idea behind diversity is to send the same data
over independent fading paths.
These independent paths are combined in some way
such that the fading of the resultant signal is
reduced.
912
Need of diversity
In a typical cellular radio environment, the
communication between the cell site and mobile is not
by a direct radio path but via many paths.
The direct path between the transmitter and the
receiver is obstructed by buildings and other objects.
Hence the signal that arrives at the receiver is either
by reflection from the flat sides of buildings or by
diffraction around man made or natural obstructions.
When various incoming radiowaves arrive at the
receiver antenna, they combine constructively or
destructively, which leads to a rapid variation in signal
strength.
The signal fluctuations are known as multipath
fading.
913
Page 232
Lecture notes
Probability that R-distributed field is less than

abscissa value using 1-10 independent fading channels
914
Example
Consider a system with two antennas at either
the transmitter or receiver that experience
independent fading.
If the antennas are spaced sufficiently far
apart, it is unlikely that they both experience
deep fades at the same time.
By selecting the antenna with the strongest
signal (selection combining), we obtain a much
better signal than if we just had one antenna.
915
Page 233
Lecture notes
Channel signals
916
Diversity techniques have been recognized as an effective means

which enhances the immunity of the communication system to
the multipath fading.
Diversity techniques include
Interleaving
in time domain
Frequency hopping
in frequency domain
Spatial diversity
in spatial domain
Polarization diversity
in polarization domain
917
Page 234
Lecture notes
Example
Time: When signal is weak at time t, it may
not be weak at t+t
Space: When one position is in deep fade,
another position may be not
Frequency: When one frequency is in deep
fade (or has large interference), another
frequency may be in good shape
918
Diversity types
Time diversity
Frequency diversity
Space diversity
Multiuser diversity
Cooperative diversity
919
Page 235
Lecture notes
Time diversity
Multiple versions of the same signal are
transmitted at different time instants.
Alternatively, a redundant forward error
correction code is added and the message is
spread in time by means of bit-interleaving
before it is transmitted.
Thus, error bursts are shortened, which
simplifies the error correction.
920
Frequency and polarization

diversity
Frequency diversity:
The signal is transferred using several frequency
channels or spread over a wide spectrum that is
affected by frequency-selective fading.
Polarization diversity:
Multiple versions of a signal are transmitted and
received via antennas with different polarization.
A diversity combining technique is applied on the
receiver side.
921
Page 236
Lecture notes
User diversity: Cooperative

diversity
Different users can form a distributed
antenna array to help each other in increasing
diversity
Interesting characteristics:
users have to exchange administrative information
and this consumes bandwidth
broadcast nature of the wireless medium can be
utilized
922
922
Space diversity
The signal is transferred over several different
propagation paths.
Space diversity can be achieved by antenna diversity
using multiple transmitter antennas (transmit
diversity) and/or multiple receiving antennas
(reception diversity).
If the antennas are far apart, for example at
different cellular base station sites or WLAN access
points, this is called macrodiversity (site diversity).
If the antennas are at a distance in the order of one
wavelength (/4 ) , this is called microdiversity.
A special case is phased antenna arrays, which also
can be used for beamforming and MIMO channels.
923
Page 237
Lecture notes
Micro- and macrodiversity

Diversity techniques that mitigate the effect of
multipath fading are called microdiversity.
Diversity to mitigate the effects of shadowing from
buildings and objects is called macrodiversity.
Macrodiversity is generally implemented by combining
signals received by several base stations or access
points.
This requires coordination among the different base
stations or access points.
Such coordination is implemented as part of the
networking protocols in infrastructure-based wireless
networks.
924
Space diversity
Receive
SIMO
Transmit
MISO
Both
MIMO
925
The use of diversity techniques at both ends of the link is also called space-time coding
Page 238
Lecture notes
Multiple Input Multiple Output (MIMO)

Uses multiple antennas at both
transmit and receive ends
Exploits multipath propagation to
increase throughput or to
reduce bit error rates
Can be used in conjunction with
OFDM
It is a part of the IEEE 802.11n
standard
It has been added to the Mobile
WiMAX (802.16)
926
Antenna array and diversity

Using antenna arrays for diversity reception
is one of the most straightforward uses of
antenna arrays.
The power level of a received signal can vary
significantly with small changes in distance.
A diversity array simply uses a set of
antennas and combines the signals to obtain
the maximum signal.
927
Page 239
Lecture notes
Example
Somebody is talking on cell phone, and a

hypothetical (though reasonable) power
is shown in the areas around the user.
As figure illustrates, the received power
can change by 30 dB (a factor of 1000)
by moving the cell-phone a relatively
small distance.
This strong variation in signal power is
caused by motion of surrounding objects
(the user, cars, windy trees, etc) and
multipath.
To combat this fading effect, an array of
antennas can be used.
For instance, if three antennas are
placed in the situations, as shown in
figure, the antenna with the maximum
signal can be selected and used.
In this case at antenna number 1 has the
largest signal, and can therefore be used.
In this manner, the effects of fading are
greatly reduced, and the probability of
having a undetectable signal decreases
as the number of antennas increases.
928
Diversity antenna systems

Spatial and polarization diversity techniques are
realized through antenna systems.
A diversity antenna system provides a number of
receiving branches or ports from which the
diversified signals are derived and fed to a receiver.
The receiver then combines the incoming signals from
the branches to produce a combined signal with
improved quality in terms of signal strength or signalto-noise ratio (SNR).
The performance of a diversity antenna system
primarily relies on the branch correlation and signal
level difference between branches.
929
Page 240
Lecture notes
Correlation between branches

The branch correlation coefficient (r) represents the degree of
similarity between the signals from two different receiving
branches.
r=1 means the signals from two different branches behave
exactly the same.
Signals are coherent.
r=0 means the signals from two different branches behave

completely different.
Signals are uncorrelated.
To achieve the best performance, a diversity antenna system is

required to provide uncorrelated signals.
For r=1, the diversity antenna becomes ineffective in combating
the multipath fading.
However, it is not always practical to have a diversity antenna
system which guarantees r=0.
Extensive research has revealed that a diversity antenna system
can perform satisfactorily provided that r0.7.
930
Signal level difference

The second key parameter for a good diversity
antenna system is the mean signal level difference.
The difference is a statistical parameter which
indicates the balance of the signal strengths from
the two receiving branches.
The statistical balance can be verified by comparing
the mean values of the two signals measured over a
lengthy period.
If the difference between the median values is 0, the
two receiving branches are statistically balanced.
The performance of the diversity system will
deteriorate while the difference changes from 0.
931
Page 241
Lecture notes
Spatial diversity antenna systems
The spatial diversity antenna system is constructed by physically

separating two receiving base station antennas.
The further apart the antennas are, the more likely the signals
are uncorrelated.
The types of the configuration used in cellular networks are:
horizontal separation
vertical separation
composite separation.
932
Spatial configurations
Horizontal separation
Vertical separation
933
Page 242
Lecture notes
Criteria for selecting type of spatial

separation
Branch correlation
The physical limitation of the supporting structure should also be
considered while selecting the spatial diversity antenna
configuration.
For example, if a wide framework is not permitted on top of a
mounting tower, vertical separation is an alternative to be
considered.
To achieve the required correlation coefficient (r0.7) different
configurations require different separations.
The low values of correlation are more easily obtained with
horizontal rather than vertical separation.
That is why most of the diversity antenna systems in cellular
networks use horizontal separation.
934

separation
Signal level difference
A system using horizontally separated diversity
antennas has a symmetrical configuration and is
therefore able to provide balanced signal strengths.
A system using vertically separated antennas needs
large separation to meet the required correlation.
The consequence is that the two antennas have
different antenna height gains, which may result in
imbalance between the two signal strengths
935
Page 243
Lecture notes

separation
Angular dependence
Angular dependence reflects the dependence of the

performance of a diversity antenna system on the angular
position of a mobile relative to the boresight of the antenna.
Horizontally separated antenna system has high dependence on

the mobiles angular position.
The effective separation reduces as the mobile moves away from

the antenna boresight.
As the mobile is 90 off the antenna boresight, the effective

separation becomes zero.
In such a case, the signals from two antennas are very likely
coherent which will then lead to a deterioration of the diversity
performance.
936 of
Antenna boresight is the axis of a directional radio antenna, or equivalently, the direction
maximum gain of a directional antenna.
Angular dependence
Separation
View from boresight
Reduced
separation
Zero
separation
View from 45 deg off boresight View from 90 deg off boresight
Most of the cell sites are 3 sectored cell sites.

The maximum angular offset is therefore approximately 60.
It seems that the performance of a horizontally separated antenna
system experiences noticeable deterioration only when the angular
offset exceeds 70 .
937
Page 244
Lecture notes
Pros and cons of horizontal

configuration
Advantages
Easier to achieve low values of correlation and
balance between the signals.
Disadvantages
High angular dependence.
The impact is, however, marginal for
sectorized applications.
Require sizeable headframe on the supporting
structure.
938
Pros and cons of vertical

configuration
Advantages
Slim supporting structure.
Angular independence
Disadvantages
Require large separation for low values of
correlation.
May cause imbalance between the two
diversity branches
939
Page 245
Lecture notes
Three antenna spatial

configuration
10 Separation
Transmit
Receive 1
Receive 2
940
Two antenna spatial configuration

10 Separation
Tx Rx
Transmit
Duplexer
Receive 2
Receive 1
941
Page 246
Lecture notes
Diversity reception can also occur for two
antennas not separated, but receiving
orthogonal polarizations.
If one antenna receives vertically polarized
waves, a second antenna can be placed near
the first that receives horizontally polarized
waves.
Probably, these orthogonal waves in a fading
environment are not too strongly correlated.
Thus, diversity technique is useful.
942
Dual polarized antennas

A dual-polarization antenna consists of two sets of radiating
elements which radiate or, in reciprocal, receive two orthogonal
polarized fields.
The antenna has two input connectors which separately connects
to each set of the elements.
The antenna has therefore the ability to simultaneously transmit
and receive two orthogonally polarized fields.
H/V
Tilt 45
943
Page 247
Lecture notes
Advantages of dual polarized

antenna
The best advantage of using the dual
polarization antenna is the reduction in the
number of antennas per sector.
Reduced size of the head frame of the
supporting structure
Reduced wind load and weight.
Cost saving
slim tower
less installation time
one dual polarization antenna is probably cheaper
than two single polarized antennas
944
TX RX
RX
RX
DUAL POLE ANTENNA
DUAL POLE ANTENNA
T R
SINGLE POLE ANTENNA
DUAL POLE ANTENNA
Dual polarized antenna

configurations
RX
T R
T R
TX RX
TX RX
TX
945
Page 248
Lecture notes
Reliability
Communication over a
flat fading channel has
poor performance due
to significant probability
that channel is in a
deep fade
Reliability is increased
by providing more
resolvable signal paths
that fade independently
How to utilize the added diversity
in an efficient manner?
946
Time diversity
Time diversity can be obtained by interleaving and
coding over symbols across different coherent time
periods
coherence
time
interleave
947
Page 249
Lecture notes
Example: GSM
Amount of time diversity limited by delay constraint and how

fast channel varies
In GSM, delay constraint is 40 ms (voice)
To get better diversity, needs faster moving vehicles !
948 to
In voice systems the total delay must be less than around 40 msec or it becomes noticeable
the end user.
Note
In a fast-fading channel, the transmitter may take advantage of
the variations in the channel conditions using time diversity to
get over a temporary deep fade.
Although a deep fade may temporarily erase some of the
information transmitted, use of an error-correcting code
coupled with successfully transmitted bits during other time
instances (interleaving) can allow for the erased bits to be
recovered.
In a slow-fading channel, it is not possible to use time diversity
because the transmitter sees only a single realization of the
channel within its delay constraint.
A deep fade therefore lasts the entire duration of
transmission and cannot be mitigated using coding.
949
Page 250
Lecture notes
Simplest code: Repetition

After interleaving over L coherence
time periods
1
Pe
SNR L
Repetition coding gets full diversity, but sends only

950
one symbol every L symbol times
Performance
Pe
1
SNR L
951
Page 251

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Lecture notes

Wireless Techniques by Jorma Kekalainen

Wireless channel and radio wave propagation

Wireless Techniques by Jorma Kekalainen

Wireless Channel and Radio

are governed by the same fundamental laws of

Wireless channel and radio wave propagation

Wireless Techniques by Jorma Kekalainen

Wireless channel and radio wave propagation

Wireless Techniques by Jorma Kekalainen

Source of the electromagnetic

Wireless channel and radio wave propagation

Wireless Techniques by Jorma Kekalainen

Wireless channel and radio wave propagation

Wireless Techniques by Jorma Kekalainen

Maxwells equations for free space

Therefore, as an oscillating electric field generates an

Characteristics of a medium: Terminology

If the behavior of the medium is the same regardless of the

A material is linear if the relations between the physical

Materials may also have time-varying characteristics, as when

Wireless channel and radio wave propagation

Wireless Techniques by Jorma Kekalainen

Wave equations in a vacuum

These wave equations are a vector-valued differential

Solution of the wave equation

Wireless channel and radio wave propagation

Wireless Techniques by Jorma Kekalainen

Solution of the wave equation

A wavenumber or a phase coefficient

The wavevector k gives the direction of propagation (the

This speed is the phase velocity of the wave.

Wireless channel and radio wave propagation

Wireless Techniques by Jorma Kekalainen

Phase velocity and refraction index

where c is the phase velocity of the electromagnetic radiation in

is refraction index of the medium.

Refraction index and phase velocity

and the phase velocity of the electromagnetic radiation in

Wireless channel and radio wave propagation

Wireless Techniques by Jorma Kekalainen

The permittivity and therefore the index of refraction n are

Both of these fields

These fields oscillate in

Wireless channel and radio wave propagation

Wireless Techniques by Jorma Kekalainen

The electric field, magnetic field, and direction of

Wireless channel and radio wave propagation

Wireless Techniques by Jorma Kekalainen

Wireless channel and radio wave propagation

Wireless Techniques by Jorma Kekalainen

Wireless channel and radio wave propagation

Wireless Techniques by Jorma Kekalainen

Wireless channel and radio wave propagation

Wireless Techniques by Jorma Kekalainen

where, T is the time period of one cycle

When waves travel from one medium to another, their

Wireless channel and radio wave propagation

Wireless Techniques by Jorma Kekalainen

The angle is known as the zero

Wireless channel and radio wave propagation

Wireless Techniques by Jorma Kekalainen

Three sine waves with the same amplitude and frequency,

Phase describes the position of the