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Submitted February 2004

Ultrasonic Testing for Transverse Discontinuities

in Dissimilar Welds: Theoretical and
Experimental Results
by V. Munikoti,* G. Brekow, U. Tessaro and A. Erhard

ABSTRACT
In a typical reactor pressure vessel, weld joints between dissimilar metals such as Ni-Cr alloy, austenite and ferrite, exist. These welds are very
vulnerable to stress corrosion cracking. Experimental and theoretical investigations have been made to determine the relevant test parameters necessary for crack detection. The experiments were done using two types of
probe arrangements: two separate probes, one acting as a transmitter and
the other one as a receiver arranged in a V form; and a phased array twin
crystal probe.
Characteristic differences in the crack detection procedure were investigated by measurements with respect to a representative reference specimen
with a circumferential dissimilar weld. Measurements show ways and
means for reliable detection of transverse discontinuities. Accompanying
theoretical calculations using the ray tracing model confirm the influence
of some test parameters on ultrasonic propagation behavior in anisotropic
regions of a dissimilar weld.
Keywords: ultrasound, transverse discontinuity, dissimilar weld,
anisotropy, echotomography, phased array, ray tracing.

INTRODUCTION
As a part of the cooling circuit in many nuclear power installations, dissimilar metals are welded together for example, weld
overlay cladding of an austenitic material (either a Ni-Cr alloy or
UNS S34700) on low alloy steel. These welds are prone to stress corrosion cracking. In some nuclear power stations, cracks were detected on the inner surface of the dissimilar weld. These cracks,
which have their orientation perpendicular to the welding direction, are designated as transverse cracks. The purpose of the present investigation is to develop an ultrasonic testing method for reliable detection of such transverse cracks. Very often, crack
detection and sizing with ultrasound in dissimilar welds can be
very difficult due to the following reasons.
In a welding process, high thermal gradients exist between the
molten weld pool and the neighboring colder regions. During the
solidification process, grains grow along the direction of heat flow
yielding a textured structure. This results in a structure consisting of
elongated grains. This textured structure is the cause for the
anisotropic nature of the weld region. An elastic wave in such an
anisotropic medium undergoes beam skewing (phase and group
velocity [energy flow] directions are no longer coincident).
Due to the abovementioned grain structure, elastic properties
vary spatially. This means that there are numerous grains with their
respective orientations and grain boundaries. This amounts to an
* Bundesanstalt fr Materialforschung und prfung, Division VIII.4,
Nondestructive Testing, Acoustical and Electrical Methods, Unter den
Eichen 87, Berlin D-12200, Germany; 49 30 8104 3675; fax 49 30 8104 1846;
e-mail <munikoti.vijayendra@bam.de>.
Bundesanstalt fr Materialforschung und prfung, Division VIII.4,
Nondestructive Testing, Acoustical and Electrical Methods, Unter den
Eichen 87, Berlin D-12200, Germany; 49 30 8104 3648; fax 49 30 8104 1845.
1148 Materials Evaluation/November 2004

ultrasonic wave undergoing multiple reflections at grain boundaries. The ray direction gets successively skewed at each grain
boundary, resulting in a curved path. In addition to the grain
boundaries, there are also interfaces between different parts of the
dissimilar weld such as buffer, weld, cladding and parent metal. At
these interfaces, reflections and mode conversions occur in addition
to scattering at grain boundaries. Altogether, ultrasonic testing of
dissimilar welds for discontinuity detection and sizing poses a new
challenge.
Presently, international research activities are concerned with
the development of improved signal processing methods and optimizing strategies for qualifying ultrasonic testing techniques for
dissimilar welds (Eriksen et al., 2001).
The European Commission, under the Fifth Framework Programme, funded the Signal Processing and Improved Qualification
for Non-destructive testing of Aging Reactors (Spiqnar) project to
improve testing capability through the development of signal processing methods to enhance signal to noise ratio and for the development of improved strategies for qualifying such tests (Dikstra
and Cameron, 2002).
The qualifying procedure at the Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) for the testing of dissimilar welds essentially deals with
special phased array probes having four to seven elements, a center
frequency of 1.5 MHz and an aperture of 12 by 20 mm (0.5 by
0.8 in.). For discontinuity detection in a circumferential direction of
a reference piece in a 1:1 scale sector, scans have been produced
with refraction angles between 30 and 70 degrees (MacDonald et
al., 2001).
For in service testing of dissimilar welds in a nuclear power
plant, a test technique has to be developed which is capable of detecting transverse cracks at the weld root at a very early stage. Experimental and theoretical investigations have been carried out to
find the relevant test parameters for crack detection. Measurements
were done on a dissimilar weld of a nozzle specimen. Experimental
procedures were supported by theoretical calculations based on a
ray tracing model (Wstenberg et al., 1993; Ogilvy, 1992). Theoretical predictions concerning the sound propagation behavior were
examined by using different probe configurations as mentioned
above for longitudinal wave incidence.
In this article some of the critical parameters based on theoretical
simulation results, which aid in the design of experimental procedures and interpretation of experimental results, are discussed.

EXPERIMENTS
Experimental investigations were done on a reactor water
cleanup nozzle specimen consisting of an austenitic (UNS S34700)
weld (Ni-Cr) buffer joint. Specimen structure and dimensions are
shown in Figure 1.
Artificial discontinuities (transverse notches) were introduced
at the weld root with the help of electric spark machining. The

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Figure 1 Positions and sizes of artificial notches at the two reactor water cleanup nozzle reference pieces (unspecified measurements are in
millimeters).
notches have depths of 2, 5 and 8 mm (0.08, 0.2 and 0.3 in.), respectively. Exact notch positions on the inner surface of the nozzle are
also shown in Figure 1. Two semicylindrical specimens are held together in a fixture.
The dissimilar welds of the two nozzle reference pieces were
tested with two types of probes. In one case, two probes were in
two separate housings, one serving as a transmitter and the other as
a receiver. The probes were arranged in a V form. The probe dimensions were 8 by 9 mm (0.3 by 0.35 in.) with a frequency of
2 MHz. A suitable wedge was designed to achieve a refraction
angle of approximately 35 degrees for longitudinal waves in the
weld metal. The other case involved a phased array twin crystal
probe, where the transmitter and receiver are enclosed in a single
housing. The probe dimensions were 30 by 10 mm (1.2 by 0.4 in.)
with a frequency of 1.3 MHz. The wedge curvature was adapted to
the curvature of the specimen for effective coupling. Here again, the
wedge was designed to achieve a refraction angle between 35 and
50 degrees in the weld metal.
In the case of the probes in a V form arrangement, the transmitter and receiver probes were positioned asymmetrically on the
specimen as shown in Figure 2. All of the measurements were
made using a manipulator, which controlled the probe movement
on the outer surface of the weld. The test specimen was placed on a
motor driven turntable. During the measurement, the actual turning position was registered through an incremental sensor device,
which was connected to the computer of the ultrasonic measurement unit. In this way, all the measured A-scans could be stored
along with the data corresponding to their circumferential position.
During measurements, ultrasonic waves were incident in both
clockwise and counterclockwise directions. Water was used as the
couplant. Measured A-scans were used for the analysis of the results presented in this article.

EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
Echotomographs were generated using measured A-scan
data. The principle of the echotomographic technique, which

was used for the purpose of reconstruction, is schematically

shown in Figure 3.
The echotomographs were generated by a reconstruction
process (Wstenberg et al., 1993). Digitized values of echo amplitudes were registered into the pixel elements taking the probes position and sound paths into account. The echotomograph shows
the grayscale values of added signal amplitudes in each pixel element, which helps in differentiating those regions with and without
discontinuities (Figure 4).
Using the phased array twin crystal probe, refraction angles for
longitudinal waves in weld metal were varied at each measurement position between 35 and 50 degrees. For each refraction angle,
an echotomograph was reconstructed and all 16 of the tomographs
were superpositioned. The result is shown in Figure 4, which
shows the existence of four discontinuity positions on the inner surface of the reference pieces. Two positions (one at the top and one at
the bottom of the circle) indicate the split existing between the reference pieces. The other two discontinuity indications belong to the
5 and 8 mm (0.2 and 0.3 in.) deep notches, respectively. The 2 mm
(0.08 in.) deep notches can hardly be seen.
Figure 5 shows where the experiment was performed for a fixed
refraction angle of approximately 35 degrees. There was no echo indication from the notches, even from the separation existing between the two semicylindrical specimens. Scanning in a counterclockwise direction yielded no better result.
This was an unexpected result because the separation existing
between the specimens can be considered as a large transverse discontinuity and the complete specimen was scanned in both a clockwise and counterclockwise direction.
However, in the case of the probes in the V form arrangement and for the refraction angle of approximately 35 degrees
( = 15.5 degrees), clear discontinuity indications at the 6, 8, 9 and 12
oclock positions are seen (Figure 2). In the counterclockwise direction of incidence, the separation existing between the two halves of
the specimen and the 5 and 8 mm (0.2 and 0.3 in.) deep notches are
clearly indicated.
Materials Evaluation/November 2004 1149

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(a)

(b)

Figure 2 Two probes in an asymmetrical V form arrangement the incidence direction is counterclockwise, the incidence wave is longitudinal
and the refraction angle in the weld metal is approximately 35 degrees (incidence angle = 15.5 degrees): (a) arrangement; (b) echotomograph.

Figure 3 Principle of ultrasonic echotomography.

THEORETICAL RESULTS
The results presented in this section are based on the ray tracing
method. The principles of the method are described in Ogilvy
(1986) and Munikoti (2001).
The following assumptions were made for the theoretical results,
which are presented in this article: the grain texture is simulated by
1150 Materials Evaluation/November 2004

an empirical formula; and a lay back angle of 10 degrees is assumed

in the direction of welding. Elastic constants for austenite and Ni-Cr
alloy are taken from Halkjr (1999).
The experimental results with reference to Figures 2 and 5,
as discussed in the previous section, can summed up briefly as
follows.

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(a)

(b)
Figure 4 Reactor water cleanup nozzle specimen the incidence direction is clockwise; the incidence wave is longitudinal; and the type of probe is
a phased array twin crystal: (a) phased array probe; (b) echotomograph. The refraction angle of the longitudinal wave in the weld metal range is from
approximately 35 to 50 degrees (incidence angle = 15.5 degrees).

(a)

(b)

Figure 5 Reactor water cleanup nozzle specimen: the incidence direction is clockwise, the incidence wave is longitudinal and the type of probe is a
phased array twin crystal: (a) phased array probe; (b) echotomograph. The refraction angle of the longitudinal wave in the weld metal is
approximately 35 degrees (incidence angle = 15.5 degrees).
Figure 5 shows where the phased array twin crystal probe was
used for the experiment. The refraction angle of the longitudinal
wave was approximately 35 degrees in the specimen (which corresponds to about 15 degrees of incidence angle in the transducer).
The specimen was scanned in both a clockwise and counterclockwise direction. The results show that the notches and the separation
between the semicylindrical specimens were not detected.
Figure 2 shows where two separate transducers were used for the
experiment (one acting as a transmitter and the other as receiver) but
in this case, they were arranged in a V form. The refraction angle
was the same as in the previous case (approximately 35 degrees). It

can be seen that clear indications were obtained from the discontinuities and the separation between the specimens.
The aim of the simulation was to analyze the two cases using a
theoretical model for ultrasonic wave propagation in dissimilar
anisotropic materials.
The simulation results shown in Figures 6 and 7 correspond to
the experimental results shown in Figure 2. The transmitter and receiver probes are arranged in a V form. Further, in the figures
what is denoted as a transverse discontinuity corresponds to the
separation between the two semicylindrical specimens (Figures 1,
2, 3 and 4).
Materials Evaluation/November 2004 1151

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(a)

The transmitter probe is placed on the buffer (ferritic side) of the

specimen as shown in Figures 6b and 7b. A fan of nine rays is assumed to be emitted from each point of the transducer. Each ray deviates from its neighboring rays by an angle , which is determined
by a distribution function representing a 6 dB drop in amplitude
(Furukawa and Date, 1995). The rays get scattered after reflecting at
the discontinuity. Nevertheless, a large enough number of rays
reaches the receiver. In the asymmetrical V form arrangement, for
clockwise or counterclockwise incidence directions, the discontinuities could be detected (Figures 6 and 7). The nonlinear ray paths
observed in the above figures are a consequence of successive ray
skewing at grain boundaries.
The ray tracing results (for clockwise and counterclockwise directions of incidence) for the twin crystal probe are shown in Figures 8 and 9. These correspond to the experimental results with reference to Figure 5. Here again, the refraction angle in the specimen
was the same as in the previous case (approximately 35 degrees).
The results show that the rays scattered away from the receiver
(Figures 8 and 9) after reflecting from the transverse discontinuity
(separation between the two halves of the specimen).

CONCLUSION

(b)
Figure 6 Ray traces for a longitudinal wave incidence to detect the
total separation (transverse discontinuity) existing between the two
halves of the specimen with probes in an asymmetrical V form
arrangement the direction of incidence is clockwise; the refraction
angle is approximately 35 degrees ( = 15.5 degrees): (a) lateral view;
(b) top view (T = transmitter; R = receiver).

(a)

Two single probes in a V arrangement and phased array twin

crystal probes were used on a buffered dissimilar weld to detect
transverse notches at the weld root. On the outer surface of a test
specimen, the probes were coupled on the circumferential position
of the weld. For detecting the transverse discontinuities, longitudinal wave transducers were used.
In a twin probe arrangement (transmitter and receiver in a single housing) for a refraction angle of approximately 35 degrees
( = 15.5 degrees), the separation between the two halves of the
specimen could not be detected for clockwise or counterclockwise
directions. This was surprising because the separation is the
largest transverse discontinuity that went undetected along all of

(a)

(b)
(b)
Figure 7 Ray traces for a longitudinal wave incidence to detect the
total separation (transverse discontinuity) existing between the two
halves of the specimen with probes in an asymmetrical V form
arrangement the direction of incidence is counterclockwise; the
refraction angle is approximately 35 degrees ( = 15.5 degrees):
(a) lateral view; (b) top view.
1152 Materials Evaluation/November 2004

Figure 8 Ray traces for longitudinal wave incidence to detect the

total separation (transverse discontinuity) existing between the two
halves of the specimen with a phased array crystal probe the
direction of incidence is clockwise; the refraction angle is approximately
35 degrees ( = 15.5 degrees): (a) lateral view; (b) top view.

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(a)

35 degrees ( = 15.5 degrees) is found unsuitable for transverse discontinuity detection in the investigated dissimilar weld.
A phased array twin crystal probe with variable refraction angles coupled with efficient reconstruction algorithms should yield a
better result.
The two probe combination (transmitter and receiver in a separate housing arranged asymmetrically in a V form) yields good
results.
The theoretical simulation is essential for the following reasons:
to understand wave propagation in a dissimilar weld structure
such as the one discussed in this article; to give better insight into
the wave propagation for improved reliable testing techniques; and
to optimize the time required for efficient design of the experiments.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We express our sincere thanks to VGB Power Tech GmbH for assisting in the investigations under the purview of a research and development project. Our sincere thanks also to the reviewers for their
useful comments and suggestions.

REFERENCES

(b)
Figure 9 Ray traces for longitudinal wave incidence to detect the
total separation (transverse discontinuity) existing between the two
halves of the specimen with a phased twin crystal probe the direction
of incidence is counterclockwise; the refraction angle is approximately
35 degrees ( = 15.5 degrees): (a) lateral view; (b) top view.

the scanning directions and positions. Theoretical calculations exactly reflect this as shown in Figures 8 and 9. Thus, the theoretical
simulation results help in understanding such unexpected behavior
of ultrasonic waves in an anisotropic medium.
In the case of two probes (one acting as a transmitter and the
other as a receiver) in an asymmetrical V form arrangement, the
separation could be detected (Figures 2, 6 and 7). Theoretical simulation results also supplement this.
However, it has to be noted that the agreement between the experimental and theoretical results are purely qualitative in nature.
The following general inferences could be made based on the
above experimental and theoretical results.
The twin probes (transmitter and receiver combination in a
single housing) with just one refraction angle of approximately

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