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CHAPTER I

PRELIMINARY
A. Background
The digestive system or gastrointestinal tract (from
the mouth to the rectum) is an organ system in the human
functions to receive food, digest it into nutrients and energy,
to absorb nutrients into the bloodstream and remove parts of
the food that can not be digested or the rest of the process of
the body.
The human digestive system is a complex process
consisting of a breakdown of large organic mass into small
particles that the body is able to use it as fuel. Solving
nutrition requires

the coordination of several enzymes

secreted from specialized cells in the mouth, stomach,


intestines, and liver. The main organs or structures that
coordinate digestion in the human body including the mouth,
esophagus, stomach, small and large intestines, and liver.
We give this material because the digestive system is
important in human survival, without the digestive system,
food taken into the body we can not decompose and it can
damage other systems in the body, because there is no food
refining process.
Why the Gastrointestinal System so important? The
Gastrointestinal System so important because have a main
function to provide the body with nutrients to grow and
defend itself and to remove waste products from the body.
B. Formulation of the Problem
1. What is the definition of gastrointestinal system?
2. What is the function of gastrointestinal system and how
the digestion procces?

3. What is the parts of gastrointestinal system and what the


function?
C. Purpose
1. Can know the definition of gastrointestinal system
2. Can know the function of gastrointestinal system and how
the digestion procces
3. Can know the parts of gastrointestinal system and the
function

CHAPTER II
CONTENTS

A. Definition of Gastrointestinal System


Digestive organ system is the organ system that
receives food, digests for energy and niutrien, and put out the
rest of the process. Basically the digestive system that
extends from the mouth to the anus in humans is divided into
three parts :
1. The process of destruction of food that occurs in the
mouth to the stomach
2. The process of absorption of nutrients that occurs in the
intestine
3. The process of spending the rest of the food waste through
the rectum
Food eaten is important as a source of energy, then
used by the cell to generate ATP to carry out the activity as a
builder substance and replacement of cells - damaged cells.
Garbage disposal of the body or only a small function of the
digestive system through defecation. Another disposal takes
place through the lungs, kidneys and skin in the form of
sweat.
The composition of the digestive tract consists of the
mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine which
is divided into the duodenum (intestine 12 fingers), ileum
(intestinal absorption), jejunum, large intestine is divided into
cecum, colon and rectum.
B. Fungtion of Gastrointestinal System
Digestion proccess :
1. Ingestion
Digestion of food is the process of converting food of large size
into smaller size and smoother, and break down complex food molecules
into simpler molecules by using enzymes and digestive organs. This

enzyme is produced by the digestive organs and depending on the kind of


food to be digested by the body. Substances digested food will be absorbed
by the body in a simpler form. The process of digestion of food in the
human body can be divided into two kinds, namely :
a) The digestion process mechanically
That is the process of changing food from large or rough shape into the
shape of a small and delicate. In humans and mammals in general, the
digestive process is done by using a mechanical gear
b) The process of chemical digestion (enzymatic)
Namely the process of change of the substance of complex food
substances into simpler by using enzymes. Enzymes are chemical
substances produced by the body that functions speed up chemical
reactions in the body. Food ingestion in humans involves the digestion of
food equipment. The tools are the human digestive organs functioning
body digest the food we eat. Digestive tract can be distinguished on the
digestive tract and digestive gland. Digestive gland produces enzymes
that help the digestive process chemical. Human digestive glands consist
of salivary glands, lymph nodes of the stomach, liver (hepatic), and
pancreas. The following will be discussed one by one the digestive
process that occurs in the digestive tract in humans.
2. Cutting and roll
The digestive process begins from the food into the mouth. In the
mouth there are tools that help in the digestion process, namely the teeth,
tongue, and salivary glands (saliva). In the oral cavity, food undergo
mechanical and chemical digestion. Some organs in the mouth, namely :
a. Tooth
Tooth serves to chew food so the food becomes smooth. This allows
the state of digestive enzymes to digest food more quickly and
efficiently. Teeth can be divided into four kinds, namely incisors,
canines, molars front and rear molars. In general, human teeth
consists of three parts, namely dental crown (corona), neck teeth
(column), and the tooth root (root). Dental crown or cusp of the tooth
that is visible from the outside. Each type of tooth has a tooth crown

shape is different. Chisel-shaped incisors, canines shaped like a pointed


chisel, and molars somewhat cylindrical shape with a wide and flat
surfaces grooved. Form of dental crowns on incisors associated with
functions for cutting and biting food. Canines shaped like a pointed
chisel to tear food. While the molars with a wide and flat surfaces
grooved serves to chew food. Necks of teeth are the teeth in the gums
are protected, while the roots of the teeth is the tooth that is embedded
in the jaw. When we observe cross-sectional images of teeth, it will be
visible parts like in the picture below.

Parts of the tooth


Enamel is a hard white coating that covers the crown of the tooth.
Dental bone, dentin is composed of substances. Tooth marrow (pulp), a
tooth cavity in which there are nerve fibers and blood vessels. That is why
when we are perforated teeth will hurt, because the teeth are nerve cord.
b. Tongue
The tongue is used to stir the food in the mouth and help push food
(swallowing). In addition, the tongue also serves as a taster can taste
sweet, salty, bitter, and sour. Each flavor on substances that enter into the
oral cavity will be responded by the tongue in different places. The layout
of each of the different flavors, namely :
Saltiness -> tongue the front edge
Sweetness -> the tip of the tongue
Sour taste -> tongue side
Bitter taste -> tongue back / base of the tongue

For more details, can be seen as in the picture below.

Lies the sensitivity of the tongue to taste


The tongue has a receptor specifically related to chemical stimulation.
The tongue is an organ composed of muscle. The surface of the tongue is
coated with a layer of epithelium which contains mucus glands, and a
taster in the form of buds of taste receptors. Taste bud consists of a group
of sensory cells that have hair-like protrusions called papillae
3. Peristaltic
Gullet (esophagus) is a conduit between the mouth to the
stomach. The esophagus serves as a way for food that has been chewed
from the mouth to the stomach. Thus, the esophagus does not happen the
digestive process.
Esophageal muscles may contract in waves that push food into
the stomach. This movement is called motion esophageal peristalsis.
This movement occurs because the muscles are elongated and
encircling walls of the esophagus contract alternately. Thus, the motion
is a motion fireworks flared peristalsis of the esophagus to push food into
the stomach. For more details, can be seen in the following figure.

Peristalsis in the esophagus


The food is in the esophagus only about six seconds. The base of
the throat (pharynx) striated muscle. Striated muscle of the esophagus to
work consciously at will in the process of swallowing. That is, we swallow
if the food had been chewed as we please. However, after the process of
swallowing up before issuing a stool, working the muscles of the digestive
organs furthermore not according to the will of our (unconscious).
4. Digestion
Digestion is the complex process of turning the food you eat
into nutrients, which the body uses for energy, growth and cell repair
needed to survive. The digestion process also involves creating waste to be
eliminated.
The digestive tract (or gastrointestinal tract) is a long twisting tube
that starts at the mouth and ends at the anus. It is made up of a series of
muscles that coordinate the movement of food and other cells that
produce enzymes and hormones to aid in the breakdown of food.
Along the way are three other organs that are needed for digestion: the
liver, gallbladder, and the pancreas.

5. Absorption
Small bowel (intestine) is the absorption of nutrients and the
digestive process the longest. The small intestine is composed of:
Duodenum (duodenal)
Empty gut (jejenum)
Absorbent intestine (ileum)
In the duodenum and pancreatic lymph duct empties bile duct. The
pancreas produces pancreatic juice containing enzymes as follows :
Amilopsin (pancreatic amylase) That enzyme that converts starch

(starch) into simpler sugars (maltose).


Steapsin (pancreatic lipase) That enzyme that converts fat into fatty

acids and glycerol.


Trypsinogen If not active, then it will be activated to trypsin, an
enzyme that converts the protein and peptone into a dipeptide and
an amino acid that is readily absorbed by the small intestine.
The bile produced by the liver and stored in the gall bladder.

Furthermore, bile flowed through the bile duct to the duodenum. Bile
contains bile salts and bile pigment (bilirubin). Functioning bile salts
emulsify fat. Brown bile pigment, and is produced by means remodel red
blood cells in the liver that was old. Bile pigment gives characteristic
brown color in the stool. For more details, can be seen in the following
figure.

In the duodenum and pancreatic lymph duct empties bile duct.


In addition to enzymes from the pancreas, small intestine wall of
the small intestine also produces sap containing enzymes as follows:
Maltase, function convert maltose into glucose.
Lactase, serves convert lactose into glucose and galactose.
Sucrase, function convert sucrose into glucose and fructose.
Trypsin, works to change peptone into amino acids.
Enterokinase, activating trypsinogen to trypsin.
Occurs in the small intestine with a chemical digestion process
involving a variety of digestive enzymes. Digestible carbohydrates into
glucose. Digest fats into fatty acids and glycerol, as well as the protein is
digested into amino acids. So, in the duodenum, the whole process of
digestion of carbohydrates, fats, and proteins resolved. Furthermore, the
process of absorption (absorption) will take place in the gut is empty and
the majority of intestinal absorber. Carbohydrates are absorbed in the form
of glucose, fat is absorbed in the form of fatty acids and glycerol, and
protein is absorbed in the form of amino acids. Vitamins and minerals are
not experiencing digestion and can be directly absorbed by the small
intestine. The structure of the small intestine can be seen in the picture
below.

Cross section Human Intestinal Smooth


In the intestinal wall absorber-flakes are flakes intestine called villi
(See picture above). Vili function expanding area of the small intestine so
that absorption of food juices can be absorbed more and quickly. Wall villi
contains many capillaries blood capillaries and lymph (lymph vessels
intestine). In order to achieve blood, food juices must penetrate the
intestinal wall cells which then enter the blood vessels or lymph vessels.
Glucose, amino acids, vitamins, and minerals after being absorbed by the
small intestine, through the blood capillaries will be carried by the blood
through the hepatic portal vein to the liver. Furthermore, from heart to
heart and then circulated throughout the body. Fatty acids and glycerol
together with bile to form a solution called micelles. At the time of contact
with the cells of the small intestine villi, glycerol and fatty acids will be
absorbed. Furthermore, fatty acids and glycerol taken by the intestinal
lymphatic vessels (veins kil), and eventually into the bloodstream.
Whereas bile salts that have entered the blood to the liver to make bile
back. Fat-soluble vitamins (vitamins A, D, E, and K) are absorbed by the
small intestine and removed through the lymph vessels. Furthermore, these
vitamins into the circulatory system. Generally the nutrients absorbed
when it reaches the end of the small intestine. Leftover food that is not
absorbed, slowly moving towards the large intestine.
6. Defecation

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A hole where feces disposal of the body. Before being discharged


through the rectal, feces stored beforehand in the rectum. If the stool is
ready to be discarded then spinkter rectum muscle regulate the opening
and closing of the anus. Spinkter muscles that make up the rectum there
are two, namely smooth muscle and striated muscle. Thus, the process of
defecation (bowel movements) done consciously, with the contraction of
the abdominal wall muscles followed by loosening of the anal sphincter
muscle and the contractions of the colon and rectum. As a result, the stool
can be pushed to the outside of the anus. For more details, can be seen in
the picture below.

Rectal structure
C. Parts of Gastrointestinal System
1. Oral cavity
The oral cavity or mouth is responsible for the intake of food. It is
lined by a stratified squamous oral mucosa with keratin covering those
areas subject to significant abrasion, such as the tongue, hard palate and
roof of the mouth. Mastication refers to the mechanical breakdown of
food by chewing and chopping actions of the teeth. The tongue, a strong
muscular organ, manipulates the food bolus to come in contact with the
teeth. It is also the sensing organ of the mouth for touch, temperature and
taste using its specialised sensors known as papillae.

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Insalivation refers to the mixing of the oral cavity contents with


salivary gland secretions. The mucin (a glycoprotein) in saliva acts as a
lubricant. The oral cavity also plays a limited role in the digestion of
carbohydrates. The enzyme serum amylase, a component of saliva, starts
the process of digestion of complex carbohydrates. The final function of
the oral cavity is absorption of small molecules such as glucose and
water, across the mucosa. From the mouth, food passes through the
pharynx and oesophagus via the action of swallowing.
2. Salivary glands
Three pairs of salivary glands communicate with the oral cavity. Each is a
complex gland with numerous acini lined by secretory epithelium. The
acini secrete their contents into specialised ducts. Each gland is divided
into smaller segments called lobes. Salivation occurs in response to the
taste, smell or even appearance of food. This occurs due to nerve signals
that tell the salivary glands to secrete saliva to prepare and moisten the
mouth. Each pair of salivary glands secretes saliva with slightly different
compositions.

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Parotids
The parotid glands are large, irregular shaped glands located under
the skin on the side of the face. They secrete 25% of saliva. They are
situated below the zygomatic arch (cheekbone) and cover part of the
mandible (lower jaw bone). An enlarged parotid gland can be easier felt
when one clenches their teeth. The parotids produce a watery secretion
which is also rich in proteins. Immunoglobins are secreted help to fight
microorganisms and a-amylase proteins start to break down complex
carbohydrates.
Submandibular
The submandibular glands secrete 70% of the saliva in the mouth.
They are found in the floor of the mouth, in a groove along the inner
surface of the mandible. These glands produce a more viscid (thick)
secretion, rich in mucin and with a smaller amount of protein. Mucin is a
glycoprotein that acts as a lubricant.
Sublingual
The sublinguals are the smallest salivary glands, covered by a thin
layer of tissue at the floor of the mouth. They produce approximately 5%
of the saliva and their secretions are very sticky due to the large
concentration of mucin. The main functions are to provide buffers and
lubrication.
3. Oesophagus

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The oesophagus is a muscular tube of approximately 25cm in length and


2cm in diameter. It extends from the pharynx to the stomach after passing
through an opening in the diaphragm. The wall of the oesophagus is made
up of inner circular and outer longitudinal layers of muscle that are
supplied by the oesophageal nerve plexus. This nerve plexus surrounds
the lower portion of the oesophagus. The oesophagus functions primarily
as a transport medium between compartments.
4. Stomach

The stomach is a J shaped expanded bag, located just left of the midline
between the oesophagus and small intestine. It is divided into four main
regions and has two borders called the greater and lesser curvatures. The
first section is the cardia which surrounds the cardial orifice where the

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oesophagus enters the stomach. The fundus is the superior, dilated portion
of the stomach that has contact with the left dome of the diaphragm. The
body is the largest section between the fundus and the curved portion of
the J.
This is where most gastric glands are located and where most mixing of
the food occurs. Finally the pylorus is the curved base of the stomach.
Gastric contents are expelled into the proximal duodenum via the pyloric
sphincter. The inner surface of the stomach is contracted into numerous
longitudinal folds called rugae. These allow the stomach to stretch and
expand when food enters. The stomach can hold up to 1.5 litres of
material. The functions of the stomach include:
1.

The short-term storage of ingested food.

2.

Mechanical breakdown of food by churning and mixing motions.

3.

Chemical digestion of proteins by acids and enzymes.

4.

Stomach acid kills bugs and germs.

5.

Some absorption of substances such as alcohol.


Most of these functions are achieved by the secretion of stomach juices
by gastric glands in the body and fundus. Some cells are responsible for
secreting acid and others secrete enzymes to break down proteins.
5. Pancreas

Finally, the pancreas is a lobular, pinkish-grey organ that lies behind the
stomach. Its head communicates with the duodenum and its tail extends to

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the spleen. The organ is approximately 15cm in length with a long,


slender body connecting the head and tail segments. The pancreas has
both exocrine and endocrine functions. Endocrine refers to production
of hormones which occurs in the Islets of Langerhans. The Islets
produce insulin, glucagon and other substances and these are the areas
damaged in diabetes mellitus. The exocrine (secretrory) portion makes up
80-85% of the pancreas and is the area relevant to the gastrointestinal
tract.
It is made up of numerous acini (small glands) that secrete contents
into ducts which eventually lead to the duodenum. The pancreas secretes
fluid rich in carbohydrates and inactive enzymes. Secretion is triggered by
the hormones released by the duodenum in the presence of food.
Pancreatic enzymes include carbohydrases, lipases, nucleases and
proteolytic enzymes that can break down different components of food.
These are secreted in an inactive form to prevent digestion of the pancreas
itself. The enzymes become active once they reach the duodenum.
6. Liver

The liver is a large, reddish-brown organ situated in the right upper


quadrant of the abdomen. It is surrounded by a strong capsule and divided
into four lobes namely the right, left, caudate and quadrate lobes. The
liver has several important functions. It acts as a mechanical filter by
filtering blood that travels from the intestinal system. It detoxifies several
metabolites including the breakdown of bilirubin and oestrogen. In
addition, the liver has synthetic functions, producing albumin and blood
clotting factors. However, its main roles in digestion are in the production
of bile and metabolism of nutrients. All nutrients absorbed by the

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intestines pass through the liver and are processed before traveling to the
rest of the body. The bile produced by cells of the liver, enters the
intestines at the duodenum. Here, bile salts break down lipids into smaller
particles so there is a greater surface area for digestive enzymes to act.
7. Small intestine
The small intestine is composed of the duodenum, jejunum, and
ileum. It averages approximately 6m in length, extending from the pyloric
sphincter of the stomach to the ileo-caecal valve separating the ileum
from the caecum. The small intestine is compressed into numerous folds
and occupies a large proportion of the abdominal cavity.
The duodenum is the proximal C-shaped section that curves around
the head of the pancreas. The duodenum serves a mixing function as it
combines digestive secretions from the pancreas and liver with the
contents expelled from the stomach. The start of the jejunum is marked by
a sharp bend, the duodenojejunal flexure. It is in the jejunum where the
majority of digestion and absorption occurs. The final portion, the ileum,
is the longest segment and empties into the caecum at the ileocaecal
junction.

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The small intestine performs the majority of digestion and
absorption of nutrients. Partly digested food from the stomach is further
broken down by enzymes from the pancreas and bile salts from the liver
and gallbladder. These secretions enter the duodenum at the Ampulla of
Vater. After further digestion, food constituents such as proteins, fats, and
carbohydrates are broken down to small building blocks and absorbed into
the bodys blood stream.

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The lining of the small intestine is made up of numerous


permanent folds called plicae circulares. Each plica has numerous villi
(folds of mucosa) and each villus is covered by epithelium with projecting
microvilli (brush border). This increases the surface area for absorption by
a factor of several hundred. The mucosa of the small intestine contains
several specialised cells. Some are responsible for absorption, whilst
others secrete digestive enzymes and mucous to protect the intestinal
lining from digestive actions.
8. Large intestine
The large intestine is horse-shoe shaped and extends around the small
intestine like a frame. It consists of the appendix, caecum, ascending,
transverse, descending and sigmoid colon, and the rectum. It has a length
of approximately 1.5m and a width of 7.5cm.
The caecum is the expanded pouch that receives material from the
ileum and starts to compress food products into faecal material. Food then
travels along the colon. The wall of the colon is made up of several
pouches (haustra) that are held under tension by three thick bands of
muscle (taenia coli).
The rectum is the final 15cm of the large intestine. It expands to
hold faecal matter before it passes through the anorectal canal to the anus.
Thick bands of muscle, known as sphincters, control the passage of
faeces.

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The mucosa of the large intestine lacks villi seen in the small
intestine. The mucosal surface is flat with several deep intestinal glands.

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Numerous goblet cells line the glands that secrete mucous to lubricate
faecal matter as it solidifies. The functions of the large intestine can be
summarised as:
1. The accumulation of unabsorbed material to form faeces.
2. Some digestion by bacteria. The bacteria are responsible for the
formation of intestinal gas.
3. Reabsorption of water, salts, sugar and vitamins.

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CHAPTER III
CONCLUSION
The digestive system or gastrointestinal tract (from
the mouth to the rectum) is an organ system in the human
functions to receive food, digest it into nutrients and energy,
to absorb nutrients into the bloodstream and remove parts of
the food that can not be digested or the rest of the process of
the body.
The composition of the digestive tract consists of the
mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine which
is divided into the duodenum (intestine 12 fingers), ileum
(intestinal absorption), jejunum, large intestine is divided into
cecum, colon and rectum.

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REFERENCE
Syaifudin. 2011. Anatomi Fisiologi. Jakarta : EGC
Long, Chew. 2009. Gastrointestinal System. Philadelpia : MOSBY
ELSEVIER
http://www.le.ac.uk/pa/teach/va/anatomy/case6/frmst6.html
(diakses pada tanggal 22 Januari 2016)
http://www.myvmc.com/anatomy/gastrointestinal-system/#C2
(diakses pada tanggal 22 Januari 2016)
http://ningsuwarsih-undip.blogspot.co.id/2013/12/sistemgastrointestinal-sistem.html (diakses pada tanggal 22 Januari
2016)

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