Contents

Ruanda redirects here.

(disambiguation).

For other uses, see Rwanda centralising power, and later enacting anti-Hutu policies.
Germany colonised Rwanda in 1884 as part of German East
Africa, followed by Belgium, which invaded in 1916 durRwanda (/rund/ or /rund/ ( listen); Kinyarwanda: ing World War I. Both European nations ruled through the
kings and perpetuated a pro-Tutsi policy. The Hutu popU Rwanda [u.wanda]), ocially the Republic of
Rwanda (Kinyarwanda: Repubulika y'u Rwanda; French: ulation revolted in 1959. They massacred numerous Tutsi
and ultimately established an independent, Hutu-dominated
Rpublique du Rwanda), is a sovereign state in central and
east Africa and one of the smallest countries on the African state in 1962. The Tutsi-led Rwandan Patriotic Front
mainland. Located a few degrees south of the Equator, launched a civil war in 1990. Social tensions erupted in
Rwanda is bordered by Uganda, Tanzania, Burundi and the 1994 genocide, in which Hutu extremists killed an esthe Democratic Republic of the Congo. Rwanda is in the timated 500,000 to 1.3 million Tutsi and moderate Hutu.
African Great Lakes region and is highly elevated; its geog- The RPF ended the genocide with a military victory.
Rwandas economy suered heavily during the 1994 Rwandan Genocide, but has since strengthened. The economy is
based mostly on subsistence agriculture. Coee and tea are
the major cash crops for export. Tourism is a fast-growing
sector and is now the countrys leading foreign exchange
earner. Rwanda is one of only two countries in which
mountain gorillas can be visited safely, and visitors pay for
gorilla tracking permits. Music and dance are an integral
part of Rwandan culture, particularly drums and the highly
choreographed intore dance. Traditional arts and crafts are
produced throughout the country.

raphy is dominated by mountains in the west and savanna to

the east, with numerous lakes throughout the country. The
climate is temperate to subtropical, with two rainy seasons
and two dry seasons each year.
The population is young and predominantly rural, with
a density among the highest in Africa. Rwandans are
drawn from just one cultural and linguistic group, the
Banyarwanda, although within this group there are three
subgroups: the Hutu, Tutsi and Twa. The Twa are a forestdwelling pygmy people descended from Rwandas earliest
inhabitants. Scholars disagree on the origins of and dierences between the Hutu and Tutsi; some believe dierences
are derived from former social castes within a single people, while others believe the Hutu and Tutsi arrived in the
country separately, and from dierent locations. Christianity is the largest religion in the country; the principal language is Kinyarwanda, spoken by most Rwandans, with English and French serving as ocial languages. Rwanda has
a presidential system of government. The president is Paul
Kagame of the Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF), who took
oce in 2000. Rwanda today has low corruption compared
with neighbouring countries, although human rights organisations report suppression of opposition groups, intimidation and restrictions on freedom of speech. The country
has been governed by an ordered administrative hierarchy
since pre-colonial times; there are ve provinces delineated
by borders drawn in 2006. Rwanda is one of only two countries with a female majority in the national parliament.

History

Main article: History of Rwanda

Modern human settlement of what is now Rwanda dates
from, at the latest, the last glacial period, either in the
Neolithic period around 8000 BC, or in the long humid
period which followed, up to around 3000 BC.[6] Archaeological excavations have revealed evidence of sparse settlement by hunter gatherers in the late stone age, followed
by a larger population of early Iron Age settlers, who produced dimpled pottery and iron tools.[7][8] These early inhabitants were the ancestors of the Twa, aboriginal pygmy
hunter-gatherers who remain in Rwanda today.[9] Between
700 BC and 1500 AD, a number of Bantu groups migrated
into Rwanda, clearing forest land for agriculture.[9][10] The
forest-dwelling Twa lost much of their habitat and moved
to the mountain slopes.[11] Historians have several theories regarding the nature of the Bantu migrations; one theory is that the rst settlers were Hutu, while the Tutsi mi-

Hunter gatherers settled the territory in the stone and iron

ages, followed later by Bantu peoples. The population
coalesced rst into clans and then into kingdoms. The
Kingdom of Rwanda dominated from the mid-eighteenth
century, with the Tutsi kings conquering others militarily,
1

2
grated later to form a distinct racial group, possibly of Nilohamitic origin.[12] An alternative theory is that the migration was slow and steady, with incoming groups integrating
into rather than conquering the existing society.[9][13] Under this theory, the Hutu and Tutsi distinction arose later
and was a class distinction rather than a racial one.[14][15]

A reconstruction of the King of Rwanda's palace at Nyanza

HISTORY

cal lineages or geographical area, and most included Hutu,

Tutsi, and Twa.[17] From the 15th century, the clans began to coalesce into kingdoms;[18] by 1700 around eight
kingdoms existed in present-day Rwanda.[19] One of these,
the Kingdom of Rwanda, ruled by the Tutsi Nyiginya clan,
became increasingly dominant from the mid-eighteenth
century.[20] The kingdom reached its greatest extent during the nineteenth century under the reign of King Kigeli
Rwabugiri. Rwabugiri conquered several smaller states, expanded the kingdom west and north,[20][21] and initiated
administrative reforms; these included ubuhake, in which
Tutsi patrons ceded cattle, and therefore privileged status, to Hutu or Tutsi clients in exchange for economic
and personal service,[22] and uburetwa, a corve system in
which Hutu were forced to work for Tutsi chiefs.[21] Rwabugiris changes caused a rift to grow between the Hutu and
Tutsi populations.[21] The Twa were better o than in preKingdom days, with some becoming dancers in the royal
court,[11] but their numbers continued to decline.[23]
The Berlin Conference of 1884 assigned the territory to
Germany as part of German East Africa, marking the beginning of the colonial era. The explorer Gustav Adolf von
Gtzen was the rst European to signicantly explore the
country in 1894; he crossed from the south-east to Lake
Kivu and met the king.[24][25] The Germans did not significantly alter the social structure of the country, but exerted
inuence by supporting the king and the existing hierarchy
and delegating power to local chiefs.[26] Belgian forces took
control of Rwanda and Burundi during World War I, beginning a period of more direct colonial rule.[27] Belgium
simplied and centralised the power structure,[28] and introduced large-scale projects in education, health, public
works, and agricultural supervision, including new crops
and improved agricultural techniques to try to reduce the
incidence of famine.[29] Both the Germans and the Belgians promoted Tutsi supremacy, considering the Hutu and
Tutsi dierent races.[30] In 1935, Belgium introduced identity cards labelling each individual as either Tutsi, Hutu,
Twa or Naturalised. While it had previously been possible
for particularly wealthy Hutu to become honorary Tutsi, the
identity cards prevented any further movement between the
classes.[31]

Belgium continued to rule Rwanda as a UN Trust Territory after World War II, with a mandate to oversee
independence.[32][33] Tension escalated between the Tutsi,
who favoured early independence, and the Hutu emancipation movement, culminating in the 1959 Rwandan Revolution: Hutu activists began killing Tutsi, forcing more than
100,000 to seek refuge in neighbouring countries.[34][35]
In 1961, the now pro-Hutu Belgians held a referendum in
Juvnal Habyarimana, president from 1973 to 1994
which the country voted to abolish the monarchy. Rwanda
was separated from Burundi and gained independence in
The earliest form of social organisation in the area was the
1962.[36] Cycles of violence followed, with exiled Tutsi atclan (ubwoko).[16] The clans were not limited to genealogi-

3
tacking from neighbouring countries and the Hutu retaliating with large-scale slaughter and repression of the Tutsi.[37]
In 1973, Juvnal Habyarimana took power in a military
coup. Pro-Hutu discrimination continued, but there was
greater economic prosperity and a reduced amount of violence against Tutsi.[38] The Twa remained marginalised,
and by 1990 were almost entirely forced out of the forests by
the government; many became beggars.[39] Rwandas population had increased from 1.6 million people in 1934 to 7.1
million in 1989, leading to competition for land.[40]

of Gacaca, a traditional village court system. Since 2000

Rwandas economy,[51] tourist numbers,[52] and Human Development Index have grown rapidly;[53] between 2006 and
2011 the poverty rate reduced from 57% to 45%,[54] while
life expectancy rose from 46.6 years in 2000[55] to 59.7
years in 2015.[56]

Politics and government

Main articles: Politics of Rwanda, Foreign relations of

Rwanda, and Military of Rwanda
The President of Rwanda is the head of state,[57] and

Human skulls at the Nyamata Genocide Memorial

In 1990, the Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF), a rebel

group composed mostly of Tutsi refugees, invaded northern Rwanda, initiating the Rwandan Civil War.[41] Neither
side was able to gain a decisive advantage in the war,[42] but
by 1992 it had weakened Habyarimanas authority; mass
demonstrations forced him into a coalition with the domestic opposition and eventually to sign the 1993 Arusha Accords with the RPF.[43] The cease-re ended on 6 April
1994 when Habyarimanas plane was shot down near Kigali Airport, killing him.[44] The shooting down of the plane
served as the catalyst for the Rwandan Genocide, which
began within a few hours. Over the course of approximately 100 days, between 500,000 and 1,000,000[45] Tutsi
and politically moderate Hutu were killed in well-planned
attacks on the orders of the interim government.[46] Many
Twa were also killed, despite not being directly targeted.[39]
The Tutsi RPF restarted their oensive, and took control of the country methodically, gaining control of the
whole country by mid-July.[47] The international response
to the genocide was limited, with major powers reluctant
to strengthen the already overstretched UN peacekeeping
force.[48] When the RPF took over, approximately two million Hutu ed to neighbouring countries, in particular Zare,
fearing reprisals;[49] additionally, the RPF-led army was a
key belligerent in the First and Second Congo Wars.[50]
Within Rwanda, a period of reconciliation and justice began, with the establishment of the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR) and the reintroduction

Rwandan President Paul Kagame

has broad powers including creating policy in conjunction

with the Cabinet,[58] exercising the prerogative of mercy,[59]
commanding the armed forces,[60] negotiating and ratifying treaties,[61] signing presidential orders,[62] and declaring
war or a state of emergency.[60] The President is elected by
popular vote every seven years,[63] and appoints the Prime
Minister and all other members of Cabinet.[64] The incumbent President is Paul Kagame, who took oce upon
the resignation of his predecessor, Pasteur Bizimungu, in
2000. Kagame subsequently won elections in 2003 and
2010,[65][66] although human rights organisations have criticised these elections as being marked by increasing political repression and a crackdown on free speech.[67] Arti-

2 POLITICS AND GOVERNMENT

cle 101 of the current constitution limits presidents to two

terms in oce,[68] but as of 2015 there is a motion underway
in the Rwandan parliament to amend this and allow Kagame
to run for a third term.[69] The motion, which would require
ratication by referendum, was brought following receipt of
a petition signed by 3.8 million Rwandans.[69]
The constitution was adopted following a national referendum in 2003, replacing the transitional constitution which
had been in place since 1994.[70] The constitution mandates
a multi-party system of government, with politics based
on democracy and elections.[71] However, the constitution
places conditions on how political parties may operate. Article 54 states that political organizations are prohibited
from basing themselves on race, ethnic group, tribe, clan,
region, sex, religion or any other division which may give
rise to discrimination.[72] The government has also enacted laws criminalising genocide ideology, which can include intimidation, defamatory speeches, genocide denial
and mocking of victims.[73] According to Human Rights
Watch, these laws eectively make Rwanda a one-party
state, as under the guise of preventing another genocide,
the government displays a marked intolerance of the most
basic forms of dissent.[74] Amnesty International is also
critical; in its 2014/15 report Amnesty said that laws against
inciting insurrection or trouble among the population had
been used to imprison people for the legitimate exercise of
their rights to freedom of association or of expression.[75]

The Chamber of Deputies building

cutorial power, and pressure on judges to make particular decisions.[85] The constitution provides for two types of
courts: ordinary and specialised.[86] Ordinary courts are the
Supreme Court, the High Court, and regional courts, while
specialised courts are military courts[86] and a system of
commercial courts created in 2011 to expedite commercial
litigations.[87] Between 2004 and 2012, a system of Gacaca
courts was in operation.[88] Gacaca, a Rwandan traditional
court operated by villages and communities, was revived to
expedite the trials of genocide suspects.[89] The court sucThe Parliament consists of two chambers. It makes legis- ceeded in clearing the backlog of genocide cases, but was
by human rights groups as not meeting legal fair
lation and is empowered by the constitution to oversee the criticised[90]
[76]
standard.
activities of the President and the Cabinet.
The lower
chamber is the Chamber of Deputies, which has 80 mem- Rwanda has low corruption levels relative to most other
bers serving ve-year terms. Twenty-four of these seats African countries; in 2014, Transparency International
are reserved for women, elected through a joint assembly ranked Rwanda as the fth cleanest out of 47 counof local government ocials; another three seats are re- tries in Sub-Saharan Africa and 55th cleanest out of
served for youth and disabled members; the remaining 53 175 in the world.[91][92] The constitution provides for an
are elected by universal surage under a proportional repre- Ombudsman, whose duties include prevention and ghting
sentation system.[77] Following the 2013 election, there are of corruption.[93][94] Public ocials (including the Presi51 female deputies,[78] up from 45 in 2008;[79] as of 2015, dent) are required by the constitution to declare their wealth
Rwanda is one of only two countries with a female major- to the Ombudsman and to the public; those who do not comity in the national parliament.[80] The upper chamber is the ply are suspended from oce.[95]
26-seat Senate, whose members are selected by a variety of
The Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF) has been the domibodies. A mandatory minimum of 30% of the senators are
nant political party in the country since 1994. The RPF
[81]
women. Senators serve eight-year terms.
has maintained control of the presidency and the ParliaRwandas legal system is largely based on German and ment in national elections, with the partys vote share conBelgian civil law systems and customary law.[56] The judi- sistently exceeding 70%. The RPF is seen as a Tutsiciary is independent of the executive branch,[82] although dominated party but receives support from across the counthe President and the Senate are involved in the appoint- try, and is credited with ensuring continued peace, stabilment of Supreme Court judges.[83] Human Rights Watch ity, and economic growth.[96] Human rights organisation
have praised the Rwandan government for progress made in Freedom House claims that the government suppresses the
the delivery of justice including the abolition of the death freedoms of opposition groups; in its 2015 report, Freepenalty,[84] but also allege interference in the judicial sys- dom House alleged that the RPF had prevented new potem by members of the government, such as the politi- litical parties from registering and arrested the leaders of
cally motivated appointment of judges, misuse of prose- several existing parties, eectively preventing them from

5
elding candidates in elections.[97] Amnesty International 3 Administrative divisions
also claims that the RPF rules Rwanda without any meaningful opposition.[98]
Main articles: Provinces of Rwanda and Districts of
Rwanda is a member of the United Nations,[99] African Rwanda
Union, Francophonie,[100] East African Community,[101] Rwanda has been governed by a strict hierarchy since preand the Commonwealth of Nations.[102] For many years
during the Habyarimana regime, the country maintained
close ties with France, as well as Belgium, the former
colonial power.[103] Under the RPF government, however,
Rwanda has sought closer ties with neighbouring countries in the East African Community and with the Englishspeaking world. Diplomatic relations with France were suspended in 2006 following the indictment of Rwandan ocials by a French judge,[104] and despite their restoration
in 2010, as of 2015 relations between the countries remain
strained.[105] Relations with the Democratic Republic of the
Congo (DRC) were tense following Rwandas involvement
in the First and Second Congo Wars;[50] the Congolese army
alleged Rwandan attacks on their troops, while Rwanda
blamed the Congolese government for failing to suppress
Hutu rebels in North and South Kivu provinces.[106][107]
Relations soured further in 2012, as Kinshasa accused
Rwanda of supporting the M23 rebellion, an insurgency
in the eastern Congo.[108] As of 2015, peace has been restored and relations are improving.[109] Rwandas relationProvinces of Rwanda
ship with Uganda was also tense for much of the 2000s following a 1999 clash between the two countries armies as
colonial times.[115] Before colonisation, the King (Mwami)
they backed opposing rebel groups in the Second Congo
exercised control through a system of provinces, districts,
War,[110] but improved signicantly in the early 2010s;[111]
[116]
The current constitution di[112] hills, and neighbourhoods.
as of 2015, the two countries enjoy a good relationship.
vides Rwanda into provinces (intara), districts (uturere),
The Rwanda Defence Force (RDF) is the national army of cities, municipalities, towns, sectors (imirenge), cells (utuRwanda. Largely composed of former Rwandan Patriotic gari), and villages (imidugudu); the larger divisions, and
Army (RPA) soldiers, it includes the Rwanda Land Force, their borders, are established by Parliament.[117]
Rwanda Air Force and specialised units.[113] After the sucThe ve provinces act as intermediaries between the nacessful conquest of the country in 1994 in the aftermath of
tional government and their constituent districts to enthe Rwandan Genocide, the Rwandan Patriotic Front desure that national policies are implemented at the district
cided to split the RPF into a political division (which relevel. The Rwanda Decentralisation Strategic Frametained the RPF name) and the RDF, a military division
work developed by the Ministry of Local Government aswhich was to serve as the ocial army of the Rwandan
signs to provinces the responsibility for coordinating govstate. Defence spending continues to represent an imporernance issues in the Province, as well as monitoring and
tant share of the national budget, largely due to continuing
evaluation.[118] Each province is headed by a governor, apsecurity problems along the frontiers with the Democratic
pointed by the President and approved by the Senate.[119]
Republic of the Congo and Burundi, and lingering concerns
The districts are responsible for coordinating public service
about Uganda's intentions towards its former ally. In 2010,
delivery and economic development. They are divided into
the United Nations released a report accusing the Rwandan
sectors, which are responsible for the delivery of public serarmy of committing wide scale human rights violations and
vices as mandated by the districts.[120] Districts and sectors
crimes against humanity in the Democratic Republic of the
have directly elected councils, and are run by an executive
Congo during the First and Second Congo Wars, charges
committee selected by that council.[121] The cells and vil[114]
denied by the Rwandan government.
lages are the smallest political units, providing a link between the people and the sectors.[120] All adult resident citizens are members of their local cell council, from which
an executive committee is elected.[121] The city of Kigali is
a provincial-level authority, which coordinates urban plan-

ning within the city.[118]

The present borders were drawn in 2006 with the aim of decentralising power and removing associations with the old
system and the genocide. The previous structure of twelve
provinces associated with the largest cities was replaced
with ve provinces based primarily on geography.[122]
These are Northern Province, Southern Province, Eastern
Province, Western Province, and the Municipality of Kigali
in the centre.

GEOGRAPHY

with Tanzania. The Nyabarongo-Kagera eventually drains

into Lake Victoria, and its source in Nyungwe Forest is a
contender for the as-yet undetermined overall source of the
Nile.[128] Rwanda has many lakes, the largest being Lake
Kivu. This lake occupies the oor of the Albertine Rift
along most of the length of Rwandas western border, and
with a maximum depth of 480 metres (1,575 ft),[129] it is
one of the twenty deepest lakes in the world.[130] Other sizeable lakes include Burera, Ruhondo, Muhazi, Rweru, and
Ihema, the last being the largest of a string of lakes in the
eastern plains of Akagera National Park.[131]

Geography

Main articles: Geography of Rwanda and Climate of

Rwanda
At 26,338 square kilometres (10,169 sq mi), Rwanda is

Lake and volcano in the Virunga Mountains

The Kagera and Ruvubu rivers, part of the upper Nile

the worlds 149th-largest country,[123] and the fourth smallest on the African mainland after Gambia, Swaziland, and
Djibouti.[123] It is comparable in size to Burundi, Haiti and
Albania.[56][124] The entire country is at a high altitude: the
lowest point is the Rusizi River at 950 metres (3,117 ft)
above sea level.[56] Rwanda is located in Central/Eastern
Africa, and is bordered by the Democratic Republic of the
Congo to the west, Uganda to the north, Tanzania to the
east, and Burundi to the south.[56] It lies a few degrees south
of the equator and is landlocked.[125] The capital, Kigali, is
located near the centre of Rwanda.[126]
The watershed between the major Congo and Nile drainage
basins runs from north to south through Rwanda, with
around 80% of the countrys area draining into the Nile and
20% into the Congo via the Rusizi River and Lake Tanganyika.[127] The countrys longest river is the Nyabarongo,
which rises in the south-west, ows north, east, and southeast before merging with the Ruvubu to form the Kagera;
the Kagera then ows due north along the eastern border

Mountains dominate central and western Rwanda. They

are part of the Albertine Rift Mountains that ank the Albertine branch of the East African Rift, which runs from
north to south along Rwandas western border.[132] The
highest peaks are found in the Virunga volcano chain in the
northwest; this includes Mount Karisimbi, Rwandas highest point, at 4,507 metres (14,787 ft).[133] This western section of the country lies within the Albertine Rift montane
forests ecoregion.[132] It has an elevation of 1,500 to 2,500
metres (4,921 to 8,202 ft).[134] The centre of the country is
predominantly rolling hills, while the eastern border region
consists of savanna, plains and swamps.[135]
Rwanda has a temperate tropical highland climate, with
lower temperatures than are typical for equatorial countries
because of its high elevation.[125] Kigali, in the centre of
the country, has a typical daily temperature range between
12 and 27 C (54 and 81 F), with little variation through
the year.[136] There are some temperature variations across
the country; the mountainous west and north are generally
cooler than the lower-lying east.[137] There are two rainy
seasons in the year; the rst runs from February to June
and the second from September to December. These are
separated by two dry seasons: the major one from June to
September, during which there is often no rain at all, and a
shorter and less severe one from December to February.[138]

7
Rainfall varies geographically, with the west and northwest
of the country receiving more precipitation annually than
the east and southeast.[139] Global warming has caused a
change in the pattern of the rainy seasons. According to a
report by the Strategic Foresight Group, change in climate
has reduced the number of rainy days experienced during a
year, but has also caused an increase in frequency of torrential rains.[140] Both changes have caused diculty for
farmers, decreasing their productivity.[141] Strategic Foresight also characterise Rwanda as a fast warming country,
with an increase in average temperature of between 0.7 C
to 0.9 C over fty years.[140]

4.1

Biodiversity

Main article: Wildlife of Rwanda

In prehistoric times montane forest occupied one-third

in Africa.[148] Rwandas population of lions was destroyed

in the aftermath of the genocide of 1994, as national parks
were turned into camps for displaced people and remaining
animals were poisoned by cattle herders. In June 2015, two
South African parks donated seven lions to Akagera National Park, reestablishing a lion population in Rwanda.[149]
The lions were held initially in a fenced o area of the
park, and then collared and released into the wild a month
later.[150]
There are 670 bird species in Rwanda, with variation
between the east and the west.[151] Nyungwe Forest, in
the west, has 280 recorded species, of which 26 are endemic to the Albertine Rift;[151] endemic species include
the Ruwenzori turaco and handsome francolin.[152] Eastern Rwanda, by contrast, features savanna birds such as the
black-headed gonolek and those associated with swamps
and lakes, including storks and cranes.[151]

Economy

Main article: Economy of Rwanda

Rwandas economy suered heavily during the 1994 geno-

Topis in Akagera National Park

of the territory of present-day Rwanda. Naturally occurring vegetation is now mostly restricted to the three
National Parks, with terraced agriculture dominating the
rest of the country.[142] Nyungwe, the largest remaining
tract of forest, contains 200 species of tree as well as orchids
and begonias.[143] Vegetation in the Volcanoes National
Park is mostly bamboo and moorland, with small areas of
forest.[142] By contrast, Akagera has a savanna ecosystem in
which acacia dominates the ora. There are several rare or
endangered plant species in Akagera, including Markhamia
lutea and Eulophia guineensis.[144]
The greatest diversity of large mammals is found in the
three National Parks, which are designated conservation
areas.[145] Akagera contains typical savanna animals such
as giraes and elephants,[146] while Volcanoes is home to
an estimated one-third of the worldwide mountain gorilla
population.[147] Nyungwe Forest boasts thirteen primate
species including chimpanzees and Ruwenzori colobus arboreal monkeys; the Ruwenzori colobus move in groups of
up to 400 individuals, the largest troop size of any primate

Coee beans drying in Maraba. Coee is one of Rwandas major

cash crops.

cide, with widespread loss of life, failure to maintain infrastructure, looting, and neglect of important cash crops.
This caused a large drop in GDP and destroyed the countrys ability to attract private and external investment.[56]
The economy has since strengthened, with per-capita GDP
(PPP) estimated at $1,784 in 2015,[3] compared with $416
in 1994.[153] Major export markets include China, Germany, and the United States.[56] The economy is managed
by the central National Bank of Rwanda and the currency
is the Rwandan franc; in August 2015, the exchange rate
was 755 francs to the United States dollar.[154] Rwanda
joined the East African Community in 2007, and has rat-

ECONOMY

ied a plan for monetary union amongst the ve member

nations,[155] which could eventually lead to a common East
African shilling.[156]
Rwanda is a country of few natural resources,[125] and the
economy is based mostly on subsistence agriculture by local
farmers using simple tools.[157] An estimated 90% of the
working population farms, and agriculture constituted an
estimated 32.5% of GDP in 2014.[56] Farming techniques
are basic, with small plots of land and steep slopes.[158]
Since the mid-1980s, farm sizes and food production have
been decreasing, due in part to the resettlement of displaced people.[159][125] Despite Rwandas fertile ecosystem,
food production often does not keep pace with population
Mountain gorillas in Volcanoes National Park
growth, and food imports are required.[56]
Subsistence crops grown in the country include matoke
(green bananas), which occupy more than a third of the
countrys farmland,[158] potatoes, beans, sweet potatoes,
cassava, wheat and maize.[158] Coee and tea are the major
cash crops for export, with the high altitudes, steep slopes
and volcanic soils providing favourable conditions.[158] Reliance on agricultural exports makes Rwanda vulnerable to
shifts in their prices.[160] Animals raised in Rwanda include
cows, goats, sheep, pigs, chicken, and rabbits, with geographical variation in the numbers of each.[161] Production
systems are mostly traditional, although there are a few intensive dairy farms around Kigali.[161] Shortages of land
and water, insucient and poor-quality feed, and regular
disease epidemics with insucient veterinary services are
major constraints that restrict output. Fishing takes place
on the countrys lakes, but stocks are very depleted, and
live sh are being imported in an attempt to revive the
industry.[162]
The industrial sector is small, contributing 14.8% of GDP
in 2014.[56] Products manufactured include cement, agricultural products, small-scale beverages, soap, furniture,
shoes, plastic goods, textiles and cigarettes.[56] Rwandas
mining industry is an important contributor, generating US$93 million in 2008.[163] Minerals mined include
cassiterite, wolframite, gold, and coltan, which is used in
the manufacture of electronic and communication devices
such as mobile phones.[163][164]
Rwandas service sector suered during the late-2000s recession as bank lending, foreign aid projects and investment were reduced.[165] The sector rebounded in 2010,
becoming the countrys largest sector by economic output and contributing 43.6% of the countrys GDP.[56] Key
tertiary contributors include banking and nance, wholesale and retail trade, hotels and restaurants, transport, storage, communication, insurance, real estate, business services and public administration including education and
health.[165] Tourism is one of the fastest-growing economic
resources and became the countrys leading foreign ex-

change earner in 2007.[166] In spite of the genocides legacy,

the country is increasingly perceived internationally as a
safe destination.[167] The number of tourist arrivals in 2013
was 864,000 people, up from 504,000 in 2010.[52] Revenue from tourism was US$303 million in 2014, up from
just US$62 million in 2000.[168] The largest contributor to
this revenue was mountain gorilla tracking, in the Volcanoes
National Park;[168] Rwanda is one of only two countries in
which mountain gorillas can be visited safely; the gorillas
attract thousands of visitors per year, who are prepared to
pay high prices for permits.[169] Other attractions include
Nyungwe Forest, home to chimpanzees, Ruwenzori colobus
and other primates, the resorts of Lake Kivu, and Akagera,
a small savanna reserve in the east of the country.[170]
In 2016, Rwanda was ranked 42nd and second best country
in Africa to do business in the Mara Foundation-The Ashish
J Thakkar Global Entrepreneurship Index report.[171]

5.1

Media and communications

Main article: Telecommunications in Rwanda

The largest radio and television stations are state-run,
and the majority of newspapers are owned by the
government.[172] Most Rwandans have access to radio; during the 1994 genocide, the radio station Radio Tlvision Libre des Mille Collines broadcast across the country, and helped to fuel the killings through anti-Tutsi
propaganda.[172] As of 2015, the state-run Radio Rwanda
is the largest station and the main source of news throughout the country.[172] Television access is limited, with most
homes not having their own set.[173] The government rolled
out digital television in 2014, and a year later there were
seven national stations operating, up from just one in the
pre-2014 analogue era.[174] The press is tightly restricted,
and newspapers routinely self-censor to avoid government
reprisals.[172] Nonetheless, publications in Kinyarwanda,

5.2

Infrastructure

English, and French critical of the government are widely

available in Kigali. Restrictions were increased in the runup to the Rwandan presidential election of 2010, with two
independent newspapers, Umuseso and Umuvugizi, being
suspended for six months by the High Media Council.[175]
The countrys oldest telecommunications group,
Rwandatel, went into liquidation in 2011, having been
80% owned by Libyan company LAP Green.[176] The
company was acquired in 2013 by Liquid Telecom,[177]
a company providing telecommunications and bre optic
networks across eastern and southern Africa.[178] As of
2015, Liquid Telecom provides landline service to 30,968
subscribers, with mobile operator MTN Rwanda serving
an additional 15,497 xed line subscribers.[179] Landlines
are mostly used by government institutions, banks, NGOs
and embassies, with private subscription levels low.[180]
As of 2015, mobile phone penetration in the country is
72.6%,[181] up from 41.6% in 2011.[182] MTN Rwanda
is the leading provider, with 3,957,986 subscribers, followed by Tigo with 2,887,328, and Bharti Airtel with
1,336,679.[179] Rwandatel has also previously operated a
mobile phone network, but the industry regulator revoked
its licence in April 2011, following the companys failure
to meet agreed investment commitments.[183] Internet
penetration is low but rising rapidly; in 2015 there were
12.8 internet users per 100 people,[181] up from 2.1
in 2007.[184] In 2011, a 2,300 kilometres (1,400 mi)
bre-optic telecommunications network was completed,
intended to provide broadband services and facilitate
electronic commerce.[185] This network is connected
to SEACOM, a submarine bre-optic cable connecting
communication carriers in southern and eastern Africa.
Within Rwanda the cables run along major roads, linking
towns around the country.[185] Mobile provider MTN also
runs a wireless internet service accessible in most areas of
Kigali via pre-paid subscription.[186]

5.2

Infrastructure

Rural water pump

750 millimetres (30 in) annually in most of the country,[190]

little use is made of rainwater harvesting, and residents are
forced to use water very sparingly, relative to usage in other
African countries.[188] Access to sanitation remains low;
the United Nations estimates that in 2006, 34% of urban
and 20% of rural dwellers had access to improved sanitation.[191] Government policy measures to improve sanitation are limited, focusing only on urban areas.[191] The majority of the population, both urban and rural, use public
shared pit latrines.[191]
Rwandas electricity supply was, until the early 2000s, generated almost entirely from hydroelectric sources; power
stations on Lakes Burera and Ruhondo provided 90% of
the countrys electricity.[192] A combination of below average rainfall and human activity, including the draining
of the Rugezi wetlands for cultivation and grazing, caused
the two lakes water levels to fall from 1990 onwards; by
2004 levels were reduced by 50%, leading to a sharp drop
in output from the power stations.[193] This, coupled with increased demand as the economy grew, precipitated a shortfall in 2004 and widespread loadshedding.[193] As an emergency measure, the government installed diesel generators
north of Kigali; by 2006 these were providing 56% of the
countrys electricity, but were very costly.[193] The government enacted a number of measures to alleviate this problem, including rehabilitating the Rugezi wetlands, which
supply water to Burera and Ruhondo and investing in a
scheme to extract methane gas from Lake Kivu, expected
in its rst phase to increase the countrys power generation by 40%.[194] Only 18% of the population had access
to electricity in 2012, though this had risen from 10.8% in
2009.[195] The governments Economic Development and
Poverty Reduction Strategy for 201318 aims to increase
access to electricity to 70% of households by 2017.[196]

Main articles: Transport in Rwanda, Energy in Rwanda,

and Water supply and sanitation in Rwanda
The Rwandan government prioritised funding of water supply development during the 2000s, signicantly increasing
its share of the national budget.[187] This funding, along with
donor support, caused a rapid increase in access to safe
water; in 2015, 74% of the population had access to safe
water,[188] up from about 55% in 2005;[187] the government
has committed to increasing this to 100% by 2017.[188] The
countrys water infrastructure consists of urban and rural
systems that deliver water to the public, mainly through
standpipes in rural areas and private connections in urban
areas. In areas not served by these systems, hand pumps and The government has increased investment in the transport
managed springs are used.[189] Despite rainfall exceeding infrastructure of Rwanda since the 1994 genocide, with aid

10

from the United States, European Union, Japan, and others. The transport system consists primarily of the road
network, with paved roads between Kigali and most other
major cities and towns in the country.[197] Rwanda is linked
by road to other countries in the East African Community, namely Uganda, Tanzania, Burundi and Kenya, as well
as to the eastern Congolese cities of Goma and Bukavu;
the countrys most important trade route is the road to
the port of Mombasa via Kampala and Nairobi, which is
known as the Northern Corridor.[198] The principal form of
public transport in the country is the minibus, accounting
for more than half of all passenger carrying capacity.[199]
Some minibuses, particularly in Kigali,[200] operate an unscheduled service, under a shared taxi system,[201] while
others run to a schedule, oering express routes between
the major cities. There are a smaller number of large
buses,[199] which operate a scheduled service around the
country. The principal private hire vehicle is the motorcycle
taxi; in 2013 there were 9,609 registered motorcycle taxis in
Rwanda, compared with just 579 taxicabs.[199] Coach services are available to various destinations in neighbouring
countries. The country has an international airport at Kigali that serves several international destinations, the busiest
routes being those to Nairobi and Entebbe;[202] there is one
domestic route, between Kigali and Kamembe Airport near
Cyangugu.[203] The national carrier is RwandAir, and the
country is served by seven foreign airlines.[202] As of 2015
the country has no railways, but there is a project underway, in conjunction with Burundi and Tanzania, to extend
the Tanzanian Central Line into Rwanda; the three countries have invited expressions of interest from private rms
to form a public private partnership for the scheme.[204]
There is no public water transport between the port cities
on Lake Kivu, although a limited private service exists and
the government has initiated a programme to develop a full
service.[205] The Ministry of Infrastructure is also investigating the feasibility of linking Rwanda to Lake Victoria
via shipping on the Akagera River.[205]

Demographics

Main articles: Demographics of Rwanda, Religion in

Rwanda, and Languages of Rwanda
As of 2015, the National Institute of Statistics of Rwanda
estimates Rwandas population to be 11,262,564.[1] The
2012 census recorded a population of 10,515,973.[2] The
population is young: in the 2012 census, 43.3% of the population were aged 15 and under, and 53.4% were between
16 and 64.[206] According to the CIA World Factbook, the
annual birth rate is estimated at 40.2 births per 1,000 inhabitants in 2015, and the death rate at 14.9.[56] The life expectancy is 59.67 years (61.27 years for females and 58.11

DEMOGRAPHICS

Rural children

years for males), which is the 26th lowest out of 224 countries and territories.[56][207] The sex ratio of the country is
relatively even.[56]
At 445 inhabitants per square kilometre (1,150/sq mi),[1]
Rwandas population density is amongst the highest in
Africa.[208] Historians such as Grard Prunier believe that
the 1994 genocide can be partly attributed to the population
density.[40] The population is predominantly rural, with a
few large towns; dwellings are evenly spread throughout the
country.[209] The only sparsely populated area of the country is the savanna land in the former province of Umutara
and Akagera National Park in the east.[210] Kigali is the
largest city, with a population of around one million.[211]
Its rapidly increasing population challenges its infrastructural development.[56][212][213] According to the 2012 census, the second largest city is Gisenyi, which lies adjacent
to Lake Kivu and the Congolese city of Goma, and has
a population of 126,000.[214] Other major towns include
Ruhengeri, Butare, and Gitarama, all with populations below 100,000.[214] The urban population rose from 6% of
the population in 1990,[212] to 16.6% in 2006;[215] by 2011,
however, the proportion had dropped slightly, to 14.8%.[215]
Rwanda has been a unied state since pre-colonial times,[30]
and the population is drawn from just one cultural and
linguistic group, the Banyarwanda;[216] this contrasts with
most modern African states, whose borders were drawn by
colonial powers and did not correspond to ethnic boundaries
or pre-colonial kingdoms.[217] Within the Banyarwanda
people, there are three separate groups, the Hutu, Tutsi and
Twa.[218] The CIA World Factbook gives estimates that the
Hutu made up 84% of the population in 2009, the Tutsi
15% and Twa 1%.[56] The Twa are a pygmy people who
descend from Rwandas earliest inhabitants, but scholars
do not agree on the origins of and dierences between
the Hutu and Tutsi.[219] Anthropologist Jean Hiernaux contends that the Tutsi are a separate race, with a tendency towards long and narrow heads, faces and noses";[220] others,

11
such as Villia Jefremovas, believe there is no discernible
physical dierence and the categories were not historically
rigid.[221] In precolonial Rwanda the Tutsi were the ruling class, from whom the kings and the majority of chiefs
were derived, while the Hutu were agriculturalists.[222] The
current government discourages the Hutu/Tutsi/Twa distinction, and has removed such classication from identity
cards.[223] The 2002 census was the rst since 1933[224]
which did not categorise Rwandan population into the three
groups.[225]

6.1

between the English-speaking population and the Frenchspeaking remainder of the country.[230] Kinyarwanda, English and French are all ocial languages. Kinyarwanda
is the language of government and English is the primary
educational medium. Swahili, the lingua franca of the
African Great Lakes, and the ocial language of the East
African Community,[231] is also spoken by some as a second language, particularly returned refugees from Kenya
and Tanzania.[232] In 2015, Swahili was introduced as a
mandatory subject in secondary schools.[231] Inhabitants of
Rwandas Nkombo Island speak Amashi, a language closely
related to Kinyarwanda.[233]

Religion

Culture

Main articles: Culture of Rwanda, Music of Rwanda, and

Cuisine of Rwanda
Music and dance are an integral part of Rwandan cere-

Roman Catholic church in Rwamagana

The largest faith in Rwanda is Roman Catholicism, but

there have been signicant changes in the nations religious
demographics since the genocide, with many conversions
to Protestantism, especially its Evangelical wing, and, to a
lesser degree, Islam.[226] According to the 2012 census, Roman Catholics represented 43.7% of the population, Protestants (excluding Seventh-day Adventists) 37.7%, Seventhday Adventists 11.8%, and Muslims 2.0%; 0.2% claimed
no religious beliefs and 1.3% did not state a religion.[227]
Traditional religion, despite ocially being followed by
only 0.1% of the population, retains an inuence. Many
Rwandans view the Christian God as synonymous with the Traditional Rwandan intore dancers
traditional Rwandan God Imana.[228]
monies, festivals, social gatherings and storytelling. The
most famous traditional dance is a highly choreographed
6.2 Language
routine consisting of three components: the umushagiriro,
or cow dance, performed by women;[234] the intore, or
The countrys principal language is Kinyarwanda, which is dance of heroes, performed by men;[234] and the drumming,
spoken by most Rwandans. The major European languages also traditionally performed by men, on drums known as induring the colonial era were German, and then French, goma.[235] The best known dance group is the National Balwhich was introduced by Belgium and remained an ocial let. It was established by President Habyarimana in 1974,
and widely spoken language after independence.[229] The and performs nationally and internationally.[236] Traditioninux of former refugees from Uganda and elsewhere dur- ally, music is transmitted orally, with styles varying between
ing the late 20th century[229] has created a linguistic divide the social groups. Drums are of great importance; the royal

12
drummers enjoyed high status within the court of the King
(Mwami).[237] Drummers play together in groups of varying sizes, usually between seven and nine in number.[238]
The country has a growing popular music industry, inuenced by African Great Lakes, Congolese, and American
music. The most popular genre is hip hop, with a blend of
rap, ragga, R&B and dance-pop.[239]

CULTURE

Rwanda does not have a long history of written literature, but there is a strong oral tradition ranging from poetry to folk stories. Many of the countrys moral values
and details of history have been passed down through the
generations.[245] The most famous Rwandan literary gure
was Alexis Kagame (19121981), who carried out and published research into oral traditions as well as writing his own
poetry.[246] The Rwandan Genocide resulted in the emergence of a literature of witness accounts, essays and ction
by a new generation of writers such as Benjamin Sehene. A
number of lms have been produced about the Rwandan
Genocide, including the Golden Globe-nominated Hotel
Rwanda, Shake Hands with the Devil, Sometimes in April,
and Shooting Dogs, the last two having been lmed in
Rwanda and having featured survivors as cast members.[247]
Fourteen regular national holidays are observed throughout
the year,[248] with others occasionally inserted by the government. The week following Genocide Memorial Day on
7 April is designated an ocial week of mourning.[249] The
victory for the RPF over the Hutu extremists is celebrated as
Liberation Day on 4 July. The last Saturday of each month
is umuganda, a national morning of mandatory community
service lasting from 8am to 11am, during which all able
bodied people between 18 and 65 are expected to carry out
community tasks such as cleaning streets or building homes
for vulnerable people.[250] Most normal services close down
during umuganda, and public transportation is limited.[250]

7.1

Rwandan woven basket

Traditional arts and crafts are produced throughout the

country, although most originated as functional items rather
than purely for decoration. Woven baskets and bowls are especially common.[240] Imigongo, a unique cow dung art, is
produced in the southeast of Rwanda, with a history dating
back to when the region was part of the independent Gisaka
kingdom. The dung is mixed with natural soils of various colours and painted into patterned ridges to form geometric shapes.[241] Other crafts include pottery and wood
carving.[242] Traditional housing styles make use of locally
available materials; circular or rectangular mud homes with
grass-thatched roofs (known as nyakatsi) are the most common. The government has initiated a programme to replace these with more modern materials such as corrugated
iron.[243][244]

Cuisine

The cuisine of Rwanda is based on local staple foods produced by subsistence agriculture such as bananas, plantains (known as ibitoke), pulses, sweet potatoes, beans, and
cassava (manioc).[251] Many Rwandans do not eat meat
more than a few times a month.[251] For those who live
near lakes and have access to sh, tilapia is popular.[251] The
potato, thought to have been introduced to Rwanda by German and Belgian colonialists, is very popular.[252] Ubugari
(or umutsima) is a paste made from cassava or maize and
water to form a porridge-like consistency that is eaten
throughout the African Great Lakes.[253] Isombe is made
from mashed cassava leaves and served with dried sh.[252]
Lunch is usually a buet known as mlange, consisting
of the above staples and sometimes meat.[254] Brochettes
are the most popular food when eating out in the evening,
usually made from goat but sometimes tripe, beef, or
sh.[254] In rural areas, many bars have a brochette seller
responsible for tending and slaughtering the goats, skewering and barbecuing the meat, and serving it with grilled
bananas.[255] Milk, particularly in a fermented yoghurt
form called ikivuguto, is a common drink throughout the
country.[256] Other drinks include a traditional beer called
urwagwa, made from sorghum or bananas, which features

13
in traditional rituals and ceremonies.[252] The major drinks
manufacturer in Rwanda is Bralirwa, which was established in the 1950s and is now listed on the Rwandan Stock
Exchange.[257] Bralirwa manufactures soft drink products
from The Coca-Cola Company, under license, including
Coca-Cola, Fanta, and Sprite,[258] and a range of beers including Primus, Mtzig, Amstel, and Turbo King.[259] In
2009 a new brewery, Brasseries des Mille Collines (BMC)
opened, manufacturing Skol beer and a local version known
as Skol Gatanu;[260] BMC is now owned by Belgian company Unibra.[261] East African Breweries also operate in the
country, importing Guinness, Tusker, and Bell, as well as
whisky and spirits.[262]

Olympics in London, representing it in athletics, swimming,

mountain biking and judo,[272] and 15 competitors to
the London Summer Paralympics to compete in athletics,
powerlifting and sitting volleyball.[273] The country has also
participated in the Commonwealth Games since joining
the Commonwealth in 2009.[274][275] The countrys national
basketball team has been growing in prominence since the
mid-2000s, with the mens team qualifying for the nal
stages of the African Basketball Championship four times
in a row since 2007.[276] The country bid unsuccessfully to
host the 2013 tournament.[277][278] Rwandas national football team has appeared in the African Cup of Nations once,
in the 2004 edition of the tournament,[279] but narrowly
failed to advance beyond the group stages.[280] The team
have failed to qualify for the competition since, and have
7.2 Sport
never qualied for the World Cup.[281] Rwandas highest domestic football competition is the Rwanda National FootMain article: Sport in Rwanda
ball League;[282] as of 2015, the dominant team is APR FC
The Rwandan government, through its Sports Develop- of Kigali, having won 13 of the last 17 championships.[283]
Rwandan clubs participate in the Kagame Interclub Cup for
Central and East African teams, sponsored since 2002 by
President Kagame.[284]

Education

Main article: Education in Rwanda

Prior to 2012, the Rwandan government provided free ed-

Adrien Niyonshuti, one of the most famous people in Rwanda,[263]

competing in the cross-country mountain biking event at the 2012
Summer Olympics

ment Policy, promotes sport as a strong avenue for development and peace building,[264] and the government has
made commitments to advancing the use of sport for a variety of development objectives, including education.[265]
The most popular sports in Rwanda are association football,
volleyball, basketball, athletics and Paralympic sports.[266]
Cricket has been growing in popularity,[267] as a result of
refugees returned from Kenya, where they had learned to
play the game.[268] Cycling, traditionally seen largely as a
mode of transport in Rwanda, is also growing in popularity as a sport;[269] and Team Rwanda have been the subject of a book, Land of Second Chances: The Impossible
Rise of Rwandas Cycling Team and a lm, Rising from
Ashes.[270][271]

Children in a Rwandan primary school, using laptops supplied by

the One Laptop Per Child scheme

ucation in state-run schools for nine years: six years in

primary and three years following a common secondary
programme.[285] In 2012, this started to be expanded to 12
years.[286] A 2015 study suggests that while enrolment rates
in primary schools are near ubiquity, rates of completion
Rwandans have been competing at the Olympic Games are low and repetition rates high.[287] While schooling is feesince 1984,[272] and the Paralympic Games since 2004.[273] free, there is an expectation that parents should contribute
The country sent seven competitors to the 2012 Summer to the cost of their childrens education by providing them

14

with materials, supporting teacher development and making

a contribution to school construction. According to the government, these costs should not be a basis for the exclusion
of children from education, however.[286] There are many
private schools across the country, some church-run, which
follow the same syllabus but charge fees.[288] From 1994 until 2009, secondary education was oered in either French
or English; because of the countrys increasing ties with the
East African Community and the Commonwealth, only the
English syllabi are now oered.[289] The country has a number of institutions of tertiary education. In 2013, the public
University of Rwanda (UR) was created out of a merger of
the former National University of Rwanda and the countrys other public higher education institutions.[290][291][292]
In 2013, the gross enrolment ratio for tertiary education in
Rwanda was 7.9%, from 3.6% in 2006.[293] The countrys
literacy rate, dened as those aged 15 or over who can read
and write, was 71% in 2009, up from 38% in 1978 and 58%
in 1991.[294]

HEALTH

2011 the rate has varied on a sliding scale, with the poorest paying nothing, and maximum premiums rising to US$8
per adult.[302] As of 2014, more than 90% of the population was covered by the scheme.[303] The government has
also set up training institutes including the Kigali Health
Institute (KHI), which was established in 1997[304] and is
now part of the University of Rwanda. In 2005, President
Kagame also launched a program known as The Presidents
Malaria Initiative.[305] This initiative aimed to help get the
most necessary materials for prevention of malaria to the
most rural areas of Rwanda, such as mosquito nets and medication.
In recent years Rwanda has seen improvement on a number
of key health indicators:
Between 2005 and 2013, life expectancy increased
from 55.2 to 64.0,[306]
under-5 mortality decreased from 106.4 to 52.0 per
1,000 live births,[307]

Health

incidence of tuberculosis has dropped from 101 to 69

per 100,000 people.[308]
The countrys progress in healthcare has been cited by the
international media and charities. The Atlantic devoted
an article to Rwandas Historic Health Recovery,.[309]
Partners In Health described the health gains among the
most dramatic the world has seen in the last 50 years.[302]

Despite these improvements, however, the countrys health

prole remains dominated by communicable diseases,[310]
and the United States Agency for International Development has described signicant health challenges,[311] including the rate of maternal mortality, which it describes as
unacceptably high,[311] as well as the ongoing HIV/AIDS
Butaro Hospital at Burera, Northern Province
epidemic.[311] According to the American Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, travelers to Rwanda are highly
The quality of healthcare in Rwanda has historically been recommended to take preventive malaria medication as well
very low, both before and immediately after the 1994 as make sure they are up to date with vaccines such as yelgenocide.[295] In 1998, more than one in ve children died low fever.[312]
before their fth birthday,[296] often from malaria.[297]
Rwanda also has a shortage of medical professionals,
President Kagame has made healthcare one of the priorities for the Vision 2020 development programme,[298]
boosting spending on health care to 6.5% of the countrys
gross domestic product in 2013,[299] compared with 1.9% in
1996.[300] The government has devolved the nancing and
management of healthcare to local communities, through
a system of health insurance providers called mutuelles de
sant.[301] The mutuelles were piloted in 1999, and were
made available nationwide by the mid-2000s, with the assistance of international development partners.[301] Premiums under the scheme were initially US$2 per annum; since

with only 0.84 physicians, nurses, and midwives per

1,000 residents.[313] The United Nations Development
Programme (UNDP) is monitoring the countrys health
progress towards Millennium Development Goals 46,
which relate to healthcare. A mid-2015 UNDP report noted
that the country was not on target to meet goal 4 on infant
mortality, despite it having fallen dramatically";[314] the
country is making good progress towards goal 5, which is
to reduce by three quarters the maternal mortality ratio,[315]
while goal 6 is not yet met as HIV prevalence has not started
falling.[316]

15

10

See also

Index of Rwanda-related articles

Outline of Rwanda

11

Notes

[30] Appiah & Gates 2010, p. 450.

[31] Gourevitch 2000, pp. 5657.
[32] United Nations (II).
[33] United Nations (III).
[34] Gourevitch 2000, pp. 5859.
[35] Prunier 1995, p. 51.

[1] National Institute of Statistics of Rwanda 2015.

[36] Prunier 1995, p. 53.

[2] National Institute of Statistics of Rwanda 2014, p. 3.

[37] Prunier 1995, p. 56.

[3] IMF (II) 2015.

[38] Prunier 1995, pp. 7476.

[4] World Bank (XII).

[39] UNPO 2008, History.

[5] UNDP (VII) 2015, p. 210.

[40] Prunier 1995, p. 4.

[6] Chrtien 2003, p. 44.

[41] Prunier 1995, p. 93.

[7] Dorsey 1994, p. 36.

[42] Prunier 1995, pp. 135136.

[8] Chrtien 2003, p. 45.

[43] Prunier 1995, pp. 190191.

[9] Mamdani 2002, p. 61.

[44] BBC News (III) 2010.

[10] Chrtien 2003, p. 58.

[45] Henley 2007.

[11] King 2007, p. 75.

[46] Dallaire 2005, p. 386.

[12] Prunier 1995, p. 16.

[47] Dallaire 2005, p. 299.

[13] Mamdani 2002, p. 58.

[48] Dallaire 2005, p. 364.

[14] Chrtien 2003, p. 69.

[49] Prunier 1995, p. 312.

[15] Shyaka, pp. 1011.

[50] BBC News (V) 2010.

[16] Chrtien 2003, p. 88.

[51] World Bank (X).

[17] Chrtien 2003, pp. 8889.

[52] World Bank (XI).

[18] Chrtien 2003, p. 141.

[53] UNDP (I) 2010.

[19] Chrtien 2003, p. 482.

[54] National Institute of Statistics of Rwanda 2012.

[20] Chrtien 2003, p. 160.

[55] UNDP (V) 2013, p. 2.

[21] Mamdani 2002, p. 69.

[56] CIA (I).

[22] Prunier 1995, pp. 1314.

[57] CJCR 2003, article 98.

[23] Prunier 1995, p. 6.

[58] CJCR 2003, article 117.

[24] Chrtien 2003, p. 217.

[59] CJCR 2003, article 111.

[25] Prunier 1995, p. 9.

[60] CJCR 2003, article 110.

[26] Prunier 1995, p. 25.

[61] CJCR 2003, article 189.

[27] Chrtien 2003, p. 260.

[62] CJCR 2003, article 112.

[28] Chrtien 2003, p. 270.

[63] CJCR 2003, articles 100101.

[29] Chrtien 2003, pp. 276277.

[64] CJCR 2003, article 116.

16

[65] Lacey 2003.

11

[99] United Nations (I).

[66] BBC News (IV) 2010.

[100] Francophonie.

[67] Human Rights Watch 2010.

[101] Grainger 2007.

[68] Mufulukye 2015.

[102] Fletcher 2009.

[69] Uwiringiyamana 2015.

[103] Prunier 1995, p. 89.

[70] Panapress 2003.

[104] Porter 2008.

[71] CJCR 2003, article 52.

[105] Xinhua News Agency 2015.

[72] CJCR 2003, article 54.

[106] USA Today 2008.

[73] National Commission for the Fight against Genocide 2008, [107]
p. 1.
[108]
[74] Roth 2009.
[109]
[75] Amnesty International 2015, p. 311.
[110]
[76] CJCR 2003, article 62.
[111]
[77] CJCR 2003, article 76.
[112]
[78] Munyaneza 2013.
[113]
[79] McGreal 2008.
[114]
[80] Inter-Parliamentary Union 2015.
[115]
[81] CJCR 2003, article 82.
[116]
[82] CJCR 2003, article 140.
[117]
[83] CJCR 2003, article 148.
[118]
[84] Human Rights Watch & Wells 2008, I. Summary.
[119]
[85] Human Rights Watch & Wells 2008, VIII. Independence of
[120]
the Judiciary.

Al Jazeera 2007.
BBC News (X) 2012.
Agence Africaine de Presse 2015.
Heuler 2011.
BBC News (VI) 2011.
Maboja 2015.
Ministry of Defence.
McGreal 2010.
OAU 2000, p. 14.
Melvern 2004, p. 5.
CJCR 2003, article 3.
MINALOC 2007, p. 8.
Southern Province.
MINALOC 2007, p. 9.

[86] CJCR 2003, article 143.

[121] MINALOC 2004.

[87] Kamere 2011.

[122] BBC News (I) 2006.

[88] BBC News (VIII) 2015.

[123] CIA (II).

[89] Walker March 2004.

[124] Richards 1994.

[90] BBC News (IX) 2012.

[125] U.S. Department of State 2004.

[91] Transparency International 2014.

[126] Encyclopdia Britannica 2010.

[92] Agutamba 2014.

[127] Nile Basin Initiative 2010.

[93] CJCR 2003, article 182.

[128] BBC News (II) 2006.

[94] Oce of the Ombudsman.

[129] Jrgensen 2005, p. 93.

[95] Asiimwe 2011.

[130] Briggs & Booth 2006, p. 153.

[96] Clark 2010.

[131] Hodd 1994, p. 522.

[97] Freedom House 2015.

[132] WWF 2001, Location and General Description.

[98] Amnesty International 2015, p. 310.

[133] Mehta & Katee 2005, p. 37.

NOTES

17

[134] Munyakazi & Ntagaramba 2005, p. 7.

[169] Nielsen & Spenceley 2010, p. 2.

[135] Munyakazi & Ntagaramba 2005, p. 18.

[170] RDB (II).

[136] World Meteorological Organization.

[171] Supportive policies prop up Rwanda in inaugural global entrepreneurship index.

[137] Best Country Reports 2007.

[138] King 2007, p. 10.
[139] Adekunle 2007, p. 1.
[140] Strategic Foresight Group 2013, p. 29.
[141] Bucyensenge 2014.
[142] Briggs & Booth 2006, pp. 34.
[143] King 2007, p. 11.
[144] REMA (Chapter 5) 2009, p. 3.
[145] Government of Rwanda (II).
[146] RDB (III).
[147] RDB (I) 2010.
[148] Briggs & Booth 2006, p. 140.
[149] Smith 2015.

[172] BBC News (VII) 2015.

[173] Gasore 2014.
[174] Opobo 2015.
[175] Reporters Without Borders 2010.
[176] Mugisha 2013.
[177] Southwood 2013.
[178] Mugwe 2013.
[179] RURA 2015, p. 6.
[180] Majyambere 2010.
[181] RURA 2015, p. 5.
[182] RURA 2011, p. 3.
[183] Butera 2011.

[150] The New Times 2015.

[184] World Bank (II).

[151] King 2007, p. 15.

[185] Reuters 2011.

[152] WCS.

[186] Butera 2010.

[153] IMF (I).

[187] IDA 2009.

[154] Agutamba 2015.

[188] Umutesi 2015.

[155] Asiimwe 2014.

[189] MINECOFIN 2002, pp. 2526.

[156] Lavelle 2008.

[190] Berry, Lewis & Williams 1990, p. 533.

[157] FAO / WFP 1997.

[191] USAID (I) 2008, p. 3.

[158] Our Africa.

[192] World Resources Report 2011, p. 3.

[159] WRI 2006.

[193] World Resources Report 2011, p. 5.

[160] WTO 2004.

[194] AfDB 2011.

[161] MINAGRI 2006.

[195] World Bank (XIII).

[162] Namata 2008.

[196] Baringanire, Malik & Banerjee 2014, p. 1.

[163] Mukaaya 2009.

[197] AfDB & OECD Development Centre 2006, p. 439.

[164] Delawala 2001.

[198] Tancott 2014.

[165] Nantaba 2010.

[199] MININFRA 2013, p. 34.

[166] Mukaaya 2008.

[200] MININFRA 2013, p. 67.

[167] Nielsen & Spenceley 2010, p. 6.

[201] MININFRA 2013, p. 32.

[168] KT Press 2015.

[202] Centre For Aviation 2014.

18

11

[203] Tumwebaze 2015.

[238] Adekunle 2007, p. 139.

[204] Senelwa 2015.

[239] Mbabazi 2008.

[205] MININFRA 2013, p. 43.

[240] Adekunle 2007, pp. 6870.

[206] National Institute of Statistics of Rwanda 2014, p. 8.

[241] Briggs & Booth 2006, p. 243244.

[207] CIA (III) 2011.

[242] Briggs & Booth 2006, p. 31.

[208] Banda 2015.

[243] Ntambara 2009.

[209] Straus 2013, p. 215.

[244] Adekunle 2007, p. 75.

[210] Streissguth 2007, p. 11.

[245] King 2007, p. 105.

[211] Kigali City.

[246] Briggs & Booth 2006, p. 29.

[212] Percival & Homer-Dixon 1995.

[247] Milmo 2006.

[213] REMA (Chapter 2) 2009.

[248] Government of Rwanda (I).

[214] City Population 2012.

[249] Watson, Renzi & Viggiani 2010, p. 25.

[215] National Institute of Statistics of Rwanda 2012, p. 29.

[250] Rwanda Governance Board.

[216] Mamdani 2002, p. 52.

[251] Adekunle 2007, p. 81.

[217] Boyd 1979, p. 1.

[252] Adekunle 2007, p. 13.

[218] Prunier 1995, p. 5.

[253] Auzias 2007, p. 74.

[219] Mamdani 2002, pp. 4647.

[254] Briggs & Booth 2006, p. 66.

[220] Mamdani 2002, p. 47.

[255] Anyango 2010.

[221] Jefremovas 1995.

[256] Nzabuheraheza 2005.

[222] Prunier 1995, pp. 1112.

[257] Bralirwa (I).

[223] Coleman 2010.

[258] Bralirwa (II).

[224] Kiwuwa 2012, p. 71.

[259] Bralirwa (III).

[225] Agence France-Presse 2002.

[260] Ngarambe 2012.

[226] Walker April 2004.

[261] Craig 2012.

[227] National Institute of Statistics of Rwanda 2014, p. 17.

[262] Kezio-Musoke 2014.

[228] Wiredu et al. 2006, pp. 236237.

[263] CyclingNews.com 2012.

[229] Universit Laval 2010.

[264] MINISPOC 2012, p. 18.

[230] Samuelson & Freedman 2010.

[265] McCracken & Colucci 2014, pp. 8690.

[231] Tabaro 2015.

[266] Ndengeye 2014, pp. 125128.

[232] Stanford University Swahili Department.

[267] Aglietti 2014.

[233] Nakayima 2010.

[268] BBC News (XI) 2014.

[234] Rwanda Development Gateway.

[269] Hoye et al. 2015, p. 206.

[235] RMCA.

[270] Robbins 2013.

[236] Briggs 2004.

[271] Willgoss 2014.

[237] Adekunle 2007, pp. 135136.

[272] BBC Sport (I) 2012.

NOTES

19

[273] International Paralympic Committee 2015.

[307] World Bank (VIII).

[274] BBC Sport (II) 2010.

[308] World Bank (IX).

[275] Oce of the Prime Minister 2014.

[309] Emery 2013.

[276] Bishumba 2015.

[310] WHO 2015.

[277] Mackay 2009.

[311] USAID (III) 2015.

[278] International Basketball Federation 2011.

[312] Health Information for Travelers to Rwanda. Centers for

Disease Control and Prevention. Retrieved 8 June 2016.

[279] Carlin 2003.

[280] Copnall 2004.
[281] Montague 2014, p. 67.
[282] Mugabe & Kamasa 2014.
[283] Schggl 2015.
[284] CECAFA.
[285] MINEDUC 2010, p. 2.
[286] Williams, Abbott & Mupenzi 2015, p. 935.
[287] Williams, Abbott & Mupenzi 2015, p. 931.
[288] Briggs & Booth 2006, p. 27.
[289] McGreal 2009.
[290] Koenig 2014.
[291] MacGregor 2014.
[292] Rutayisire 2013.
[293] World Bank (III).
[294] World Bank (I).
[295] Drobac & Naughton 2014.
[296] World Bank (IV).
[297] Bowdler 2010.
[298] Evans 2014.
[299] World Bank (V).
[300] World Bank (VI).
[301] WHO 2008.
[302] Rosenberg 2012.
[303] USAID (II) 2014.
[304] IMF 2000, p. 34.
[305] HIV/AIDS, Malaria and other diseases. United Nations in
Rwanda. Retrieved 20 May 2016.
[306] World Bank (VII).

[313] Partners In Health 2013.

[314] UNDP (II) 2015.
[315] UNDP (III) 2015.
[316] UNDP (IV) 2015.

12

References

Adekunle, Julius (2007). Culture and customs of

Rwanda. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press. ISBN
978-0-313-33177-0.
African Development Bank (AfDB) (26 August
2011). Boosting Rwandas Energy Sector: AfDB,
other Lenders Commit USD 91.25 million to Kivuwatt
Project. Retrieved 10 November 2015.
African Development Bank (AfDB); Organisation for
Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD)
Development Centre (2006). African Economic Outlook (5 ed.). Paris: OECD Publishing. ISBN 978-9264-02243-0.
Agence Africaine de Presse (24 July 2015). Rwanda,
DR Congo open trade talks. Dakar. Archived from
the original on 24 July 2015. Retrieved 30 October
2015.
Agence France-Presse (16 August 2002). Ethnic origins ignored in Rwandas rst census since genocide.
Paris. Retrieved 30 October 2015.
Aglietti, Stephanie (11 September 2014). Rwanda
cricket, growing a game of hope. Paris: Yahoo
Sports. Agence France-Presse. Retrieved 10 November 2015.
Agutamba, Kenneth (9 August 2015). BNR 'defeats
speculators but exchange rate woes continue. The
New Times. Kigali. Retrieved 31 August 2015.
Agutamba, Kenneth (4 December 2014). Rwanda
graft index falters but ranking unaected. The New
Times. Kigali. Retrieved 30 August 2015.

20
Al Jazeera (20 September 2007). Rwanda blames
DR Congo for violence. Doha. Retrieved 10 November 2015.
Amnesty International (2015). Amnesty International Report 2014/15: The State of the Worlds Human Rights (PDF). Retrieved 3 August 2015.
Anyango, Gloria I. (4 February 2010). The Barbecue
Chef who masters his roast. The New Times. Kigali.
Retrieved 10 November 2015.
Appiah, Anthony; Gates, Henry Louis (2010).
Encyclopedia of Africa, Volume 1 (illustrated ed.).
Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19533770-9.
Asiimwe, Bosco R (28 September 2011). Gov't to
sanction ocials who failed to declare wealth. The
New Times. Kigali. Retrieved 10 November 2015.
Asiimwe, Dicta (20 December 2014). Uganda races
to meet Monetary Union date. The EastAfrican.
Nairobi. Retrieved 31 August 2015.
Auzias, Dominique (2007). Rwanda (in French).
Paris: Petit Fut. ISBN 978-2-7469-2037-8.
Banda, Honor (12 February 2015). Rwandas job
crunch. Paris: The Africa Report. Retrieved 7
September 2015.
Baringanire, Paul; Malik, Kabir; Banerjee, Sudeshna
Ghosh (2014). Scaling Up Access to Electricity: The
Case of Rwanda (PDF). World Bank Group. Retrieved 10 October 2015.
BBC News (I) (3 January 2006). Rwanda redrawn
to reect compass. London. Retrieved 10 November
2015.
BBC News (II) (31 March 2006). Team reaches
Niles 'true source'". London. Retrieved 10 November 2015.
BBC News (III) (12 January 2010). Hutus 'killed
Rwanda President Juvenal Habyarimana'". London.
Retrieved 10 November 2015.
BBC News (IV) (11 August 2010). Rwanda President Kagame wins election with 93% of vote. London. Retrieved 10 November 2015.
BBC News (V) (27 August 2010). Q&A: DR Congo
conict. London. Retrieved 10 November 2015.
BBC News (VI) (3 November 2011). Rwanda gives
DR Congo back tonnes of smuggled minerals. London. Retrieved 10 November 2015.

12 REFERENCES
BBC News (VII) (23 June 2015). Rwanda prole
Media. London. Retrieved 1 October 2015.
BBC News (VIII) (4 June 2015). Rwanda country
prole Overview. London. Retrieved 30 October
2015.
BBC News (IX) (18 June 2012). Rwanda 'gacaca'
genocide courts nish work. London. Retrieved 30
October 2015.
BBC News (X) (20 November 2012). Goma: M23
rebels capture DR Congo city. London. Retrieved 30
October 2015.
BBC News (XI) (24 December 2014). Why cricket is
gaining in popularity in Rwanda. London. Retrieved
10 November 2015.
BBC Sport (I) (13 August 2012). Rwanda. Retrieved 10 November 2015.
BBC Sport (II) (27 September 2010).
Commonwealth Games 2010: Participating nations in Africa. Retrieved 10 November 2015.
Berry, Philip; Lewis, Janice; Williams, Cara (1990).
32: East African Highlands. In Turner, B.L. The
Earth as Transformed by Human Action: Global and
Regional Changes in the Biosphere Over the Past 300
Years (Illustrated, Reprint ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-36357-0.
Best Country Reports (2007). Temperature Map of
Rwanda. World Trade Press. Retrieved 12 November 2015.
Bishumba, Richard (7 February 2015). Meet Mutokambali, the national hoops team coach. The New
Times. Kigali. Retrieved 9 April 2015.
Bowdler, Neil (14 May 2010). Apprentice adviser
Nick Hewers Rwanda mission. BBC News. London.
Retrieved 12 November 2015.
Boyd, J. Barron (December 1979). African Boundary Conict: An Empirical Study. African Studies
Review. 22 (3): 114. ISSN 0002-0206. JSTOR
523892.
Bralirwa (I). History and Background Information.
Retrieved 13 September 2015.
Bralirwa (II). Sparkling beverages. Retrieved 13
September 2015.
Bralirwa (III). Beer. Retrieved 13 September 2015.

21
Briggs, Jimmy (August 2004). A dance of hope in
Rwanda. Dance Magazine. New York, N.Y. Retrieved 28 June 2015 via HighBeam. (subscription
required (help)).

Commission Juridique Et Constitutionnelle Du

Rwanda (CJCR) (26 May 2003). Constitution of the
Republic of Rwanda. Archived from the original on
25 March 2009. Retrieved 12 November 2015.

Briggs, Philip; Booth, Janice (2006). Rwanda The

Bradt Travel Guide (3rd ed.). London: Bradt Travel
Guides. ISBN 978-1-84162-180-7.

Copnall, James (2 February 2004). Camara breaks

Rwanda hearts. The Guardian. London. Retrieved 7
November 2015.

Bucyensenge, Jean-Pierre (17 September 2014).

Farmers wary as new weather patterns threaten production. The New Times. Kigali. Retrieved 4
November 2015.

Craig, Tara (23 October 2012). Unibra ramps up in

Rwanda. Brewers Guardian. Reigate. Retrieved 5
November 2015.

Butera, Saul (9 January 2010). MTN Rwanda deploys new Internet technology. The New Times. Kigali. Retrieved 12 November 2015.
Butera, Saul (6 April 2011). MTN, Tigo Reaping
From Rwandatel Misery. The New Times. Kigali.
Retrieved 12 November 2015.
Carlin, John (13 July 2003). Rwandas magic moment. The Guardian. London. Retrieved 9 April
2015.
CECAFA. Kagame Cup Championships. Retrieved
29 October 2015.
Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) (I). Rwanda. The
World Factbook. Retrieved 12 November 2015.
Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) (II). Rank Order
Area. The World Factbook. Retrieved 12 November
2015.
Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) (III) (2011).
Rank Order Life expectancy at birth. The World
Factbook. Retrieved 12 November 2015.
Centre For Aviation (22 December 2014). RwandAir
plans further regional expansion in 2015 and launch
of long-haul services in 2017. Retrieved 26 October
2015.
Chrtien, Jean-Pierre (2003). The Great Lakes of
Africa: Two Thousand Years of History. Cambridge,
Mass.: MIT Press. ISBN 978-1-890951-34-4.
City Population (2012). Rwanda: Cities. Retrieved
7 September 2015.
Clark, Phil (5 August 2010). Rwanda: Kagames
power struggle. The Guardian. London. Retrieved
12 November 2015.
Coleman, Isobel (7 April 2010). Rwanda: Road to
Recovery. The Hungton Post. New York, N.Y. Retrieved 12 November 2015.

CyclingNews.com (27 July 2012). Niyonshuti to

carry Rwandan ag in Olympic Games opening ceremony. London. Retrieved 6 November 2015.
Dallaire, Romo (2005). Shake Hands with the Devil:
The Failure of Humanity in Rwanda. London: Arrow.
ISBN 978-0-09-947893-5.
Delawala, Imtiyaz (7 September 2001). What Is
Coltan?". ABC News. New York, N.Y. Retrieved 12
November 2015.
Oce of the Prime Minister, Republic of Rwanda.
Statement on Cabinet Decisions of 29.07.2014. Retrieved 9 April 2015.
Dorsey, Learthen (1994). Historical Dictionary of
Rwanda. Metuchen, N.J.: Scarecrow Press. ISBN
978-0-8108-2820-9.
Drobac, Peter; Naughton, Brienna (15 June 2014).
Health Equity in Rwanda: The New Rwanda, Twenty
Years Later. Harvard International Review. Cambridge, Mass. Retrieved 19 August 2015.
Emery, Neal (20 February 2013). Rwandas Historic Health Recovery: What the U.S. Might Learn.
The Atlantic. Washington, D.C. Retrieved 20 August
2015.
Encyclopdia Britannica (2010). Rwanda. Retrieved 19 November 2015.
Evans, Ruth (20 January 2014). Rwandas health service evolution podcast. The Guardian. London.
Retrieved 27 July 2015.
Fletcher, Pascal (30 November 2009). Rwanda accepted into Commonwealth only 15 years after genocide. The Scotsman. Edinburgh. Retrieved 13
November 2015.
Food and Agriculture Organization / World Food Programme (FAO / WFP) (1 July 1997). Special Report: FAO/WFP Crop and Food Supply Assessment
Mission to Rwanda. Retrieved 13 November 2015.

22
Francophonie. Welcome to the International Organisation of La Francophonies ocial website. Retrieved 13 November 2015.
Freedom House (2015). Freedom in the World:
Rwanda. Retrieved 23 August 2015.
Gasore, Ben (31 December 2014). Digital broadcasting stirs up local TV industry, but .... The New Times.
Kigali. Retrieved 1 October 2015.
Gourevitch, Philip (2000). We Wish To Inform You
That Tomorrow We Will Be Killed With Our Families
(Reprint ed.). London; New York, N.Y.: Picador.
ISBN 978-0-330-37120-9.
Government of Rwanda (I). Ocial Holidays. Retrieved 8 September 2015.
Government of Rwanda (II). Animals. Retrieved 13
November 2015.
Grainger, Sarah (18 June 2007). East Africa trade
bloc expanded. BBC News. London. Retrieved 13
November 2015.

12 REFERENCES
International Monetary Fund (IMF) (November
2000). An approach to the Poverty Reduction
Action Plan for Rwanda: The Interim PRSP (PDF).
Retrieved 10 November 2015.
International Monetary Fund (IMF) (I) (2012).
Gross domestic product based on purchasing-powerparity (PPP) per capita GDP, Rwanda, 1994. World
Economic Outlook Database. Retrieved 23 November
2015.
International Monetary Fund (IMF) (II) (2015).
Rwanda. Retrieved 30 August 2015.
International Paralympic Committee (4 March 2015).
Rwandan para-sport develops at pace. Bonn. Retrieved 27 April 2015.
Inter-Parliamentary Union (1 August 2015). Women
in national parliaments. Retrieved 31 August 2015.
Jefremovas, Villia (1995). Acts of Human Kindness:
Tutsi, Hutu and the Genocide. Issue: A Journal of
Opinion. 23 (2): 2831. doi:10.2307/1166503. ISSN
0047-1607. JSTOR 1166503.

Henley, Jon (31 October 2007). Scar tissue. The

Guardian. London. Retrieved 13 November 2015.

Jrgensen, Sven Erik (2005). Lake and reservoir management. Amsterdam: Elsevier. ISBN 978-0-44451678-7.

Heuler, Hilary (12 December 2011). Uganda,

Rwanda Move to Mend Troubled Relations. Voice
of America News. Washington, D.C. Retrieved 13
November 2015.

Kamere, Emmanuel (17 March 2011). Enforcing

Contracts: The Experience of Rwanda (PDF). Retrieved 30 October 2015.

Hodd, Michael (1994). East African Handbook.

Trade & Travel Publications. ISBN 978-0-84428983-0.
Hoye, Russell; Smith, Aaron C.T; Nicholson,
Matthew; Stewart, Bob (2015). Sport Management:
Principles and Applications (4th ed.). Abingdon:
Routledge. ISBN 978-1-138-83960-1.
Human Rights Watch; Wells, Sarah (2008). Law and
reality: progress in judicial reform in Rwanda. ISBN
978-1-56432-366-8. Retrieved 13 November 2015.
Human Rights Watch (2 August 2010). Rwanda: Silencing Dissent Ahead of Elections. New York, N.Y.
Retrieved 13 November 2015.
International Basketball Federation (21 November
2011). CIV Ivory Coast to host AfroBasket 2013.
Mies. Retrieved 9 April 2015.
International Development Association (IDA).
Rwanda: Bringing Clean Water to Rural Communities. Retrieved 13 November 2015.

Kezio-Musoke, David (16 September 2014). A

Beautiful Rwandan Economy ... Made in Kenya.
Inspire Rwanda. Kigali. Retrieved 5 November 2015.
Kigali City. Kigali at a glance.
November 2015.

Retrieved 13

King, David C. (2007). Rwanda (Cultures of the

World). New York, N.Y.: Benchmark Books. ISBN
978-0-7614-2333-1.
Kiwuwa, David E. (2012). Ethnic Politics and Democratic Transition in Rwanda. Abingdon: Routledge.
ISBN 978-0-415-61608-9.
Koenig, Ann M. (9 September 2014). Rwanda: Reorganization of public higher education underway.
American Association of Collegiate Registrars and Admissions Ocers. Washington, D.C. Retrieved 7 April
2015.
KT Press (11 February 2015). Over a Million
Tourists Help Rwandas Tourism Revenue Cross US$
300m. London: PR Newswire. Retrieved 1 October
2015.

23
Lacey, Marc (26 August 2003). Rwandan President
Declares Election Victory. The New York Times.
New York, N.Y. Retrieved 13 November 2015.

Melvern, Linda (2004). Conspiracy to Murder: The

Rwandan Genocide. Revised. London; New York,
N.Y.: Verso Books. ISBN 978-1-85984-588-2.

Lavelle, John (5 July 2008). Resurrecting the East

African Shilling. East African Business Week. Kampala. Retrieved 13 November 2015.

Milmo, Cahal (29 March 2006). Flashback to terror: Survivors of Rwandan genocide watch screening
of Shooting Dogs. The Independent. London. Retrieved 13 November 2015.

Maboja, Wilhelmina (12 February 2015). Rwanda

and Uganda Move to Strengthen Relations. CNBC
Africa. Johannesburg. Retrieved 29 October 2015.
MacGregor, Karen (21 June 2014). A new university, new international leader, new future. University
World News (325). London. Retrieved 7 April 2015.
Mackay, Duncan (24 December 2009). Rwanda
launch bid for 2013 African Championships.
insidethegames.biz. Milton Keynes. Retrieved 9 April
2015.
Majyambere, Gertrude (14 May 2010). Rwandatels
Landline Telephony Increases By 7 Percent. The New
Times. Kigali. Retrieved 13 November 2015.
Mamdani, Mahmood (2002). When Victims Become
Killers: Colonialism, Nativism, and the Genocide in
Rwanda. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.
ISBN 978-0-691-10280-1.
Mbabazi, Linda (11 May 2008). Hip Hop Dominating Music Industry. The New Times. Kigali. Retrieved 13 November 2015.
McCracken, Kathryn; Colucci, Emma (2014). Using
sport and play to achieve educational objectives
(PDF). In Dudeld, Oliver. Strengthening Sport for
Development and Peace: National Policies and Strategies. London: Commonwealth Secretariat. ISBN 9781-84859-912-3.
McGreal, Chris (17 December 2008). "'We are the
future'". The Guardian. London. Retrieved 31 August
2015.
McGreal, Chris (16 January 2009). Why Rwanda
said adieu to French. The Guardian. London. Retrieved 13 November 2015.
McGreal, Chris (1 October 2010). Delayed UN report links Rwanda to Congo genocide. The Guardian.
London. Retrieved 10 November 2015.
Mehta, Hitesh; Katee, Christine (2005). Virunga
Massif Sustainable Tourism Development Plan
(PDF). International Gorilla Conservation Programme (IGCP). Retrieved 13 November 2015.

Ministry of Agriculture (MINAGRI), Republic of

Rwanda (10 June 2006). Livestock production.
Archived from the original on 23 March 2012. Retrieved 13 November 2015.
Ministry of Defence; Republic of Rwanda. Rwanda
Defence Force. Retrieved 30 October 2015.
Ministry of Education (MINEDUC), Republic of
Rwanda (13 July 2010). Achievements (2003
2010)" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on
11 March 2012. Retrieved 13 November 2015.
Ministry of Finance and Economic Planning
(MINECOFIN), Republic of Rwanda (June 2002).
Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper (PDF). Retrieved
31 October 2015.
Ministry of Infrastructure (MININFRA), Republic of
Rwanda (June 2013). Ministry of Infrastructure Final Report on Transport Sector Strategic Plan for EDPRS2 (PDF). Retrieved 26 October 2015.
Ministry of Local Government (MINALOC), Republic of Rwanda (2004). Administrative Units. Retrieved 16 November 2015.
Ministry of Local Government (MINALOC), Republic of Rwanda (August 2007). Rwanda Decentralization Strategic Framework. Archived from the original on 29 March 2013. Retrieved 19 November 2015.
Ministry of Sports and Culture, Republic of Rwanda
(MINISPOC), Republic of Rwanda (October 2012).
Rwanda Sports Development Policy. Retrieved 8
April 2015.
Montague, James (2014). Thirty-One Nil: On the
Road With Footballs Outsiders, A World Cup Odyssey.
London: Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 67. ISBN 9781-4081-5884-5.
Mufulukye, Fred (22 January 2015). Analysing
Rwandas presidential term limits. ConstitutionNet.
Stockholm. Retrieved 31 August 2015.
Mugabe, Bonnie; Kamasa, Peter (18 October 2014).
Who will win the 2014/15 national football league?".
The New Times. Kigali. Retrieved 9 April 2015.

24
Mugisha, Ivan R (3 June 2013). Liquid Telecom acquires Rwandatel assets. The New Times. Kigali. Retrieved 5 October 2015.
Mugwe, David (3 June 2013). Liquid Telecom acquires RwandaTel, eyes broadband market. The East
African. Nairobi. Retrieved 5 October 2015.
Mukaaya, Eddie (28 January 2008). Tourism is
Rwandas biggest foreign exchange earner. The New
Times. Kigali. Retrieved 12 November 2015.
Mukaaya, Eddie (15 January 2009). Mining industry generated $93 million in 2008. The New Times.
Kigali. Retrieved 12 November 2015.

12 REFERENCES
a Collaborative Study of Selected Country Cases.
Stellenbosch: SUN Press. ISBN 978-1-920689-40-7.
Ngarambe, Alex (21 September 2012). Competition
heats up for beer market. The EastAfrican. Nairobi.
Retrieved 5 November 2015.
Nielsen, Hannah; Spenceley, Anna (April 2010). The
success of tourism in Rwanda Gorillas and more
(PDF). African Success Stories Study. World Bank
& SNV Netherlands Development Organisation. Retrieved 16 November 2015.
Nile Basin Initiative (2010). Nile Basin Countries.
Retrieved 16 November 2015.

Munyakazi, Augustine; Ntagaramba, Johnson Funga

(2005). Atlas of Rwanda (in French). Oxford:
Macmillan Education. ISBN 0-333-95451-3.

Ntambara, Paul (9 December 2009). Minister Irked

By Big Number of Grass-Thatched Houses. The New
Times. Kigali. Retrieved 16 November 2015.

Munyaneza, James (18 September 2013). Women

take 64% seats in Parliament. The New Times. Kigali. Retrieved 31 August 2015.

Nzabuheraheza, Franois Dominicus (2005). Milk

Production and Hygiene in Rwanda. African Journal of Food, Agriculture, Nutrition and Development. 5
(2). ISSN 1684-5374. Retrieved 19 November 2015.

Nakayima, Lillian (23 June 2010). Nkombo Islands

Hope for the Future. The New Times. Kigali. Retrieved 16 November 2015.
Namata, Berna (28 December 2008). Rwanda to restock water bodies with sheries. The New Times.
Kigali. Retrieved 16 November 2015.
Nantaba, Eriosi (18 October 2010). Rwanda services sector boosts GDP. East African Business Week.
Kampala. Retrieved 16 November 2015.
National Commission for the Fight against Genocide,
Republic of Rwanda (15 October 2008). Law No
18/2008 of 23/07/2008 Relating to the Punishment of
the Crime of Genocide Ideology. Archived from the
original on 25 April 2012. Retrieved 19 November
2015.
National Institute of Statistics of Rwanda (February
2012). The third Integrated Household Living Conditions Survey (EICV 3) Main indicators Report
(PDF). Retrieved 19 November 2015.
National Institute of Statistics of Rwanda (January
2014). Fourth Population and Housing Census,
Rwanda, 2012Final Results: Main indicators report (PDF). Retrieved 13 August 2015.
National Institute of Statistics of Rwanda (2015).
Featured indicators. Retrieved 7 September 2015.
Ndengeye, Joseph (2014).
Country Report:
Rwanda. In Keim, Marion; de Coning, Christo.
Sport and Development Policy in Africa: Results of

Oce of the Ombudsman, Republic of Rwanda.

Oce of the Ombudsman: Mandate. Retrieved 19
November 2015.
Opobo, Moses (24 May 2015). Digital TV is opening
the oodgates of opportunities for local content producers Watta. The New Times. Kigali. Retrieved 1
October 2015.
Organization of African Unity (OAU) (2000).
Rwanda The preventable genocide (PDF). The
Report of International Panel of Eminent Personalities
to Investigate the 1994 Genocide in Rwanda and
Surrounding Events. Archived from the original
(PDF) on 8 September 2015. Retrieved 16 November
2015.
Our Africa. Rwanda: Climate & Agriculture. Retrieved 5 October 2015.
Panapress (4 June 2003). Rwandan Presidents promulgates new constitution. Dakar. Retrieved 13
November 2015.
Partners In Health (20 November 2013). Rwanda
Launches Bold Medical Education Partnership.
Boston, Mass. Retrieved 20 August 2015.
Percival, Valerie; Homer-Dixon, Thomas (1995).
Environmental Scarcity and Violent Conict, The
Case of Rwanda. Occasional Paper: Project on Environment, Population and Security. University of
Toronto. Archived from the original on 22 February
2012. Retrieved 19 November 2015.

25
Porter, Andrew (7 August 2008). Europe 'ignoring
French role in genocide'". The Daily Telegraph. London. Retrieved 12 November 2015.
Prunier, Grard (1995). The Rwanda Crisis, 1959
1994: History of a Genocide (2nd ed.). London: C.
Hurst & Co. Publishers. ISBN 978-1-85065-243-4.
Reporters Without Borders (14 April 2010). Two
leading independent weeklies suspended for six
months. Retrieved 16 November 2015.
Reuters (16 March 2011). Rwanda completes $95
mln bre optic network. London. Retrieved 19
November 2015.
Richards, Charles (24 July 1994). Rwanda: Question
Time: How could it happen?: Rebellion, slaughter, exodus, cholera: the catastrophe in Rwanda is beyond
our worst imaginings. Who is to blame? Who are the
Hutus and Tutsis? Can peace ever be restored? Some
answers .... The Independent. London. Retrieved 19
November 2015.
Robbins, Tom (9 August 2013). Bumpy ride. The
Financial Times. London. Retrieved 8 April 2015.

Rwanda Environment Management Authority

(REMA) (Chapter 2) (2009). Chap II. Population,
Health and human settlements. Rwanda State of
Environment and Outlook Report. Retrieved 19
November 2015.
Rwanda Environment Management Authority
(REMA) (Chapter 5) (2009). Chap V. Biodiversity
and Genetic Resources. Rwanda State of Environment and Outlook Report. Retrieved 19 November
2015.
Rwanda Governance Board. Umuganda. Retrieved
8 September 2015.
Rwanda Utilities Regulatory Authority (RURA) (December 2011). Statistics and tari information in
telecom sector as of December 2011 (PDF). Retrieved 5 October 2015.
Rwanda Utilities Regulatory Authority (RURA) (June
2015). Statistics and tari information in telecom
sector as of June 2015 (PDF). Retrieved 5 October
2015.

Rosenberg, Tina (3 July 2012). In Rwanda, Health

Care Coverage That Eludes the U.S.. The New York
Times. New York, N.Y. Retrieved 19 August 2015.

Samuelson, Beth Lewis; Freedman, Sarah Warshauer

(2010). Language policy, multilingual education, and
power in Rwanda. Language Policy. 9 (3): 191215.
doi:10.1007/s10993-010-9170-7. ISSN 1568-4555.
Retrieved 19 November 2015.

Roth, Kenneth (11 April 2009). The power of horror

in Rwanda. Human Rights Watch. New York, N.Y.
Retrieved 16 November 2015.

Schggl, Hans (1 October 2015). Rwanda List of

Champions. Rec.Sport.Soccer Statistics Foundation.
Retrieved 10 October 2015.

Royal Museum for Central Africa (RMCA).

Ingoma. Retrieved 16 November 2015.

Senelwa, Kennedy (25 July 2015). Rwanda, Burundi,

Tanzania plan joint railway project. The East African.
Nairobi. Retrieved 29 October 2015.

Rutayisire, Emmanuel (16 August 2013). Institutes

of higher learning to merge with University of
Rwanda. The EastAfrican. Nairobi. Retrieved 7
April 2015.

Shyaka, Anastase. The Rwandan Conict: Origin,

Development, Exit Strategies (PDF). National Unity
and Reconciliation Commission, Republic of Rwanda.
Retrieved 19 November 2015.

Rwanda Development Board (RDB) (I) (7 May 2010).

World Environment Day & Kwita Izina. Archived
from the original on 11 May 2012. Retrieved 19
November 2015.

Smith, David (28 June 2015). Lions to be reintroduced to Rwanda after 15-year absence following
genocide. The Guardian. London. Retrieved 4
November 2015.

Rwanda Development Board (RDB) (II). National

Parks. Archived from the original on 13 April 2012.
Retrieved 23 November 2015.

Southern Province. Governor. Archived from the

original on 4 March 2012. Retrieved 16 November
2015.

Rwanda Development Board (RDB) (III). Akagera

National Park. Retrieved 12 November 2015.

Strategic Foresight Group (2013). Blue Peace for the

Nile (PDF). Retrieved 4 November 2015.

Rwanda Development Gateway. National Ballet

Urukerereza. Archived from the original on 14
March 2012. Retrieved 16 November 2015.

Straus, Scott (2013). The Order of Genocide: race,

power, and war in Rwanda. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell
University Press. ISBN 978-0-8014-6714-1.

26
Streissguth, Thomas (2007). Rwanda in Pictures.
Minneapolis, Minn.: Twenty-First Century Books.
ISBN 978-0-8225-8570-1.
Southwood, Russell (19 October 2013). What is Liquid Telecom upto after buying Rwandatel?". The East
African. Nairobi. Retrieved 5 October 2015.
Stanford University Swahili Department. Where
Swahili is Spoken. Retrieved 29 October 2015.
Tabaro, Jean de la Croix (21 January 2015). Rwanda
Introduces Kiswahili in Curriculum. KT Press. London. Retrieved 29 October 2015.
Tancott, Glen (30 June 2014). Northern corridor.
Transport World Africa. Johannesburg. Retrieved 26
October 2015.
The New Times (13 June 2015). VIDEO: The lions
are now free to stroll Akagera Park. Kigali. Retrieved
4 November 2015.
Transparency International (2014). Corruption Perceptions Index 2014 Results. Retrieved 30 August
2015.
Tumwebaze, Peterson (13 June 2015). Kamembe
airport reopens to ights. The New Times. Kigali.
Retrieved 26 October 2015.
Umutesi, Doreen (18 March 2015). Rwandans urged
to embrace rain water harvesting. The New Times.
Kigali. Retrieved 10 October 2015.
United Nations (I). United Nations Member States.
Retrieved 19 November 2015.

12 REFERENCES
United Nations Development Programme (UNDP)
(IV) (2015). Millennium Development Goal 6:
Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria, and other diseases. Retrieved 20 August 2015.
United Nations Development Programme (UNDP)
(V) (2013). Human Development Report 2013:
Rwanda (PDF). Retrieved 31 August 2015.
United Nations Development Programme (UNDP)
(VI) (2014). Human Development Report 2014:
Summary (PDF). Retrieved 29 October 2015.
United Nations Development Programme (UNDP)
(VII) (2015). Human Development Report 2015
(PDF). Retrieved 8 June 2016.
United States Agency for International Development
(USAID) (I) (2008). Rwanda: Water and Sanitation
Prole (PDF). Retrieved 19 November 2015.
United States Agency for International Development
(USAID) (II) (8 December 2014). Health Insurance
Expands Care For Rwandas Poorest. Retrieved 10
October 2015.
United States Agency for International Development
(USAID) (III) (2015). Rwanda: Global Health. Retrieved 19 August 2015.
United States Department of State (2004).
Background Note: Rwanda. Background Notes.
Retrieved 12 November 2015.
Universit Laval (2010). Rwanda: Amnagement
linguistique dans le monde (in French). Retrieved 19
November 2015.

United Nations (II). International Trusteeship System. Retrieved 19 November 2015.

Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization

(UNPO) (25 March 2008). Batwa. Retrieved 19
November 2015.

United Nations (III). Trust and Non-Self-Governing

Territories (19451999)". Retrieved 19 November
2015.

USA Today (29 October 2008). Congolese army

claims attack by Rwandan troops. Tysons Corner,
Va. Retrieved 19 November 2015.

United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) (I)

(2010). Human Development Index Trends, 1980
2010 (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 1
April 2012. Retrieved 19 November 2015.

Uwiringiyamana, Clement (14 July 2015). Rwanda

elections: MPs back move to let President Paul
Kagame run for unprecedented third term. The Independent. London. Retrieved 31 August 2015.

United Nations Development Programme (UNDP)

(II) (2015). Millennium Development Goal 4: Reduce child mortality. Retrieved 20 August 2015.

Walker, Robert (30 March 2004). Rwanda still

searching for justice. BBC News. London. Retrieved
16 November 2015.

United Nations Development Programme (UNDP)

(III) (2015). Millennium Development Goal 5: Improve maternal health. Retrieved 20 August 2015.

Walker, Robert (1 April 2004). Rwandas religious

reections. BBC News. London. Retrieved 16
November 2015.

27
Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS). Birds endemic to the Albertine Rift (PDF). Albertine Rift Programme. Retrieved 16 November 2015.
Willgoss, Graham (30 October 2014). Tour de Second Chance. Sport Magazine. Retrieved 8 April
2015.
Williams, Timothy P.; Abbott, Pamela; Mupenzi,
Alfred (2015). "'Education at our school is not
free': the hidden costs of fee-free schooling in
Rwanda. Compare: A Journal of Comparative
and International Education. 45 (6): 931952.
doi:10.1080/03057925.2014.938611.
Watson, Graeme; Renzi, Barbara Gabriella; Viggiani,
Elisabetta (2010). Friends and Foes Volume II: Friendship and Conict from Social and Political Perspectives.
Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4438-1993-0.
Wiredu, Kwasi; Abraham, William E.; Irele, Abiola;
Menkiti, Ifeanyi (2006). A companion to African philosophy. Malden, Mass.: Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN
978-1-4051-4567-1.
World Bank (I). Rwanda. Data. Archived from the
original on 3 April 2012. Retrieved 23 November
2015.
World Bank (II). Internet users (per 100 people),
graph. Data. Retrieved 19 November 2015.
World Bank (III). School enrollment, tertiary (%
gross), graph. Data. Retrieved 19 November 2015.
World Bank (IV). Mortality rate, under-5 (per 1,000
live births)". Data. Retrieved 27 July 2015.
World Bank (V). Health expenditure, public (% of
GDP), 20102014. Data. Retrieved 19 August
2015.
World Bank (VI). Health expenditure, public (% of
GDP), 19951999. Data. Retrieved 19 August
2015.
World Bank (VII). Life expectancy at birth, total
(years), graph. Data. Retrieved 19 August 2015.
World Bank (VIII). Mortality rate, under-5 (per
1,000 live births), graph. Data. Retrieved 19 August
2015.

World Bank (X). GDP (current US$), graph. Data.

Retrieved 19 August 2015.
World Bank (XI). International tourism, number of
arrivals, graph. Data. Retrieved 19 August 2015.
World Bank (XII). GINI index (World Bank estimate)". Data. Retrieved 29 October 2015.
World Bank (XIII). Access to electricity (% of population)". Data. Retrieved 13 November 2015.
World Health Organisation (WHO) (2015). WHO
Country Cooperation Strategy at a glance: Rwanda
(PDF).
World Health Organisation (WHO) (2008). Sharing
the burden of sickness: mutual health insurance in
Rwanda. Bulletin of the World Health Organization.
86 (11): 817908. ISSN 0042-9686.
World Meteorological Organization. World Weather
Information Service Kigali. Retrieved 12 November 2015.
World Resources Institute (WRI) (2006).
Agriculture and Food: Country prole Rwanda.
EarthTrends: The Environmental Information Portal.
Archived from the original on 2 April 2012. Retrieved
16 November 2015.
World Resources Report (2011). Maintenance of
Hydropower Potential in Rwanda Through Ecosystem
Restoration (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF)
on 24 March 2012. Retrieved 16 November 2015.
World Trade Organization (WTO) (30 September
2004). Continued reforms and technical assistance
should help Rwanda in its eorts to achieve a dynamic
economy. Trade policy review: Rwanda. Retrieved
16 November 2015.
World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) (2001).
Terrestrial Ecoregions: Albertine Rift montane
forests (AT0101)". Archived from the original on 22
December 2004. Retrieved 16 November 2015.
Xinhua News Agency (26 August 2015). Rwanda deplores French decision on case of genocide suspect.
Beijing. Retrieved 30 October 2015.

13

External links

World Bank (IX). Incidence of tuberculosis (per Government

100,000 people), graph. Data. Retrieved 19 August
2015.
The Republic of Rwanda (ocial government site)

28

13 EXTERNAL LINKS

General
Rwanda. The World Factbook. Central Intelligence
Agency.
Rwanda prole from the BBC News
Tourism
Rwanda Tourism (ocial Rwanda Tourism Board site)
Coordinates:
29.87389E

15625S 295226E / 1.94028S

29

14
14.1

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

Text

Rwanda Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rwanda?oldid=754517909 Contributors: Stephen Gilbert, Koyaanis Qatsi, Scipius, Danny,
Rmhermen, William Avery, SimonP, Drbug, Akir, Montrealais, Edward, D, Fred Bauder, Liftarn, Mic, Delirium, Miknight, Ahoerstemeier,
Kricxjo, Docu, TUF-KAT, Notheruser, KoyaanisQatsi, Angela, Darkwind, GCarty, Efghij, CarlKenner, Tobias Conradi, Wfeidt, Dwo, Pascal,
Guaka, Bemoeial, JonMoore, WhisperToMe, Wik, AHands, DJ Clayworth, Tpbradbury, Grendelkhan, Itai, Populus, Topbanana, Joy, Cabalamat, Bloodshedder, Bcorr, Rschmertz, Robbot, Lambda, Vardion, ChrisO~enwiki, PBS, Moncrief, Kowey, Romanm, Sam Spade, Calmypal,
Babbage, Academic Challenger, Timrollpickering, Jondel, Bkell, Saforrest, Wereon, Scythian99, Pengo, GreatWhiteNortherner, ManuelGR,
Alan Liefting, Xyzzyva, Christopher Parham, Wizzy, Jpta~enwiki, Netoholic, Meursault2004, Lupin, HangingCurve, Snowdog, Curps, Alison,
Michael Devore, Brequinda, Patrick-br, Cantus, Rick Block, Maroux, Pteron, Maarten van Vliet, Slyguy, Utcursch, Pgan002, Knutux, LiDaobing, Antandrus, The Singing Badger, Madmagic, Lesgles, Kaldari, PDH, Jossi, Rdsmith4, Secfan, Wkdewey, PFHLai, Bodnotbod, Borameer,
TJSwoboda, Ukexpat, Acad Ronin, Sarcelles, Adashiel, Trevor MacInnis, RevRagnarok, Dostal, Mike Rosoft, D6, ChanochGruenman, Sdrawkcab, PZFUN, Freakofnurture, Econrad, Discospinster, Eb.hoop, Rich Farmbrough, Guanabot, Brutannica, Pmsyyz, Wikiacc, HeikoEvermann,
Xezbeth, Quiensabe, Nvj, Dbachmann, Chadlupkes, Bender235, Bayang, TerraFrost, Danny B-), Brian0918, Aecis, El C, Lankiveil, Bletch,
Kwamikagami, Mwanner, Galaga88, Aude, Bookofjude, Bobo192, Valentino, NetBot, Smalljim, Reinyday, Viriditas, Unquietwiki, Acntx, Giraedata, Jojit fb, Nk, Flammifer, Polylerus, Krellis, A2Kar, Espoo, Mrzaius, Alansohn, JYolkowski, Davidl, Mark Dingemanse, SnowFire,
Buaidh, Arthena, Slof, Andrew Gray, AzaToth, Derumi, MarkGallagher, Mailer diablo, Cdc, Mysdaao, Hadija, Snowolf, Burwellian, Bucephalus, Velella, BanyanTree, Cburnett, Suruena, Evil Monkey, Amorymeltzer, Bnguyen, Sciurin, Pethr, Bsadowski1, SteinbDJ, Paraphelion,
Tainter, Nightstallion, Umapathy, SmthManly, A D Monroe III, Stephen, Feezo, Gmaxwell, Philthecow, Kelly Martin, Jerey O. Gustafson,
Will-h, Mel Etitis, OwenX, Woohookitty, TigerShark, Camw, LOL, Jersyko, MghtyRoach, Je3000, Pauladamsmith, Shiferaw, Tabletop, Bbatsell, TreveX, Flamingspinach, Macaddct1984, Emops, Toussaint, Abd, Rejnal, Dysepsion, RichardWeiss, Graham87, Magister Mathematicae, Zerblatt, BD2412, Chun-hian, FreplySpang, Jclemens, Reisio, BorgHunter, Electionworld, Jorunn, Tizio, Angusmclellan, Koavf,
, Gryndor, Wikibofh, Jivecat, JHMM13, JDanM, Funnyhat, Matt Deres, DirkvdM, Yamamoto Ichiro, FayssalF, Titoxd, FlaBot,
RobertG, Shultzc, Nivix, Rmpfu89, RexNL, Payo, Gurch, Bennie Noakes, Tijuana Brass, Jrtayloriv, Quuxplusone, Malhonen, McDogm, Idaltu,
NGerda~enwiki, Irregulargalaxies, DougOfDoom, Chobot, DVdm, Bgwhite, Hall Monitor, Gwernol, E Pluribus Anthony, The Rambling Man,
YurikBot, Wavelength, Stan2525, NTBot~enwiki, Jimp, Pigman, Chensiyuan, Stephenb, Gaius Cornelius, Pseudomonas, Wimt, Thane, NawlinWiki, Lao Wai, Sparklejess, Aeusoes1, Clam0p, Chunky Rice, NYScholar, Robchurch, JDoorjam, Irishguy, Bestofmed, Bobak, Ezeu, Scs,
Ospalh, Bucketsofg, Kyle Barbour, TastyCakes, DeadEyeArrow, Bota47, Denis C., Everyguy, Elkman, Jpeob, Martinwilke1980, Black Falcon,
Canuckguy, Wknight94, Bob247, FF2010, UW, Sandstein, Trilemma, Lt-wiki-bot, SFGiants, Nikkimaria, Chase me ladies, I'm the Cavalry,
Closedmouth, Jwissick, Banana04131, Jogers, JuJube, Fram, Scoutersig, Curpsbot-unicodify, Jamesdterry, Thomasdelbert, Katieh5584, Kungfuadam, Ief, Jonathan.s.kt, Roke, Elliskev, Nick-D, Tom Morris, Brentt, Langano~enwiki, West Virginian, SmackBot, Unschool, David Kernow,
KnowledgeOfSelf, Olorin28, Deon Steyn, Jacek Kendysz, Kahuzi, KocjoBot~enwiki, Big Adamsky, Jab843, Kintetsubualo, Hbackman, Onebravemonkey, GraemeMcRae, Ridan, Yamaguchi , Gilliam, Jdfoote, Ohnoitsjamie, Hmains, Willem Tijssen, Skizzik, Polaron, Marc Kupper,
Chris the speller, Ottawakismet, Rakela, NCurse, Jprg1966, Elagatis, Liamdaly620, MalafayaBot, Hibernian, Deli nk, Akanemoto, Aleutia,
Colonies Chris, Arsonal, Oatmeal batman, Mikker, Herodoto, Royboycrashfan, Zsinj, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Tim Pierce, OOODDD,
MJCdetroit, Addshore, Rarelibra, Jmnbatista, Khoikhoi, Completesentence, Pw2374, Cybercobra, Khukri, Nibuod, Nakon, RaCha'ar, Bansp,
Cordless Larry, Thegraham, Mini-Geek, Georgl, Hammer1980, Kschwerdt514, Aaker, Salamurai, Where, Sayden, Margetts, Bidabadi~enwiki,
Ronaz, Kukini, Ceoil, Ohconfucius, Will Beback, Birdman1, SashatoBot, Nishkid64, Ser Amantio di Nicolao, Harryboyles, HiTman77, Soap,
Kuru, Fanx, AmiDaniel, Crackllacka, J 1982, DivineIntervention, Gobonobo, Calum Macisdean, Xakaxunknownx, Perfectblue97, JoshuaZ,
Edwy, Green Giant, Vanished user 56po34it12ke, Osbus, Scetoaux, NongBot~enwiki, IronGargoyle, Ckatz, Shangrilaista, Beetstra, Noah Salzman, SQGibbon, Mr Stephen, Waggers, SandyGeorgia, Aotearoa, Peter Horn, Jose77, Dl2000, Andreworkney, Istanbuljohnm, DwightKingsbury, Norm mit, Brandizzi, LeyteWolfer, Thebignile, JoeBot, Tmangray, Shoeofdeath, Llydawr, ArchonMeld, Inisheer, Rnb, Amakuru, Octane,
Ageoo, Shubhox, Courcelles, Gilabrand, Kkkdc, Esn, Danlev, Thricecube, Clay, Tawkerbot2, Dlohcierekim, Jafet, Cryptic C62, Jontintinjordan, Donald Hosek, JForget, Dohtem, CmdrObot, Wafulz, Dycedarg, Makeemlighter, KyraVixen, Mika1h, R9tgokunks, Moegreen, WeggeBot,
Smoove Z, Joneshrs, Jeronimomomo2, Cydebot, Korky Day, Comar4, Future Perfect at Sunrise, Loopla, Bthomson, Achangeisasgoodasa, Gogo
Dodo, Adrian Glamorgan, Bazzargh, Whiskey Pete, Schrodingers Mongoose, DumbBOT, Chrislk02, Jensonmorton, Brad101, Vanished User
jdksfajlasd, Gimmetrow, Casliber, EnglishEfternamn, Epbr123, Lord Hawk, Gabbo8, Bethan 182, EricSRodrigues154, Headbomb, Edgbeatles, Marek69, John254, Frank, Tapir Terric, Sasplayer1, James086, Dmitri Lytov, NigelR, Philippe, Therequiembellishere, The Fat Man
Who Never Came Back, MinnesotanConfederacy, Dawnseeker2000, Natalie Erin, SvenAERTS, AlefZet, Escarbot, Mentisto, AntiVandalBot,
RobotG, Luna Santin, Obiwankenobi, QuiteUnusual, Dav24873, EarthPerson, Quintote, Prolog, Itsjustajoy, Jaske, Johnian144, Vanjagenije,
Danger, Zebedeezbd, Credema, Spencer, Alphachimpbot, Myanw, Sluzzelin, JAnDbot, Deective, Husond, T L Miles, The Transhumanist,
Lifthrasir1, Arch dude, Taospark, Morza, Hello32020, Joseph luther, Andonic, Hut 8.5, Anthonyd3ca, Rothorpe, Simon Burchell, Joshua,
Titaniumlegs, .anacondabot, Fornost, Magioladitis, Connormah, WolfmanSF, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, MJD86, JNW, Alexander Domanda,
TehKeg, Jim Douglas, Baba Tabita, Starsimon, Mi6agent00g o, Giggy, Jackal irl, Animum, Shame On You, Oyst1, 28421u2232nfenfcenc,
Elinruby, Allstarecho, Vssun, Just James, Glen, Talon Artaine, DerHexer, JaGa, Weiande, GhostofSuperslum, Esanchez7587, Jahangard, Wiking, InvertRect, TheRanger, Mschier, Raknarf44, Rickard Vogelberg, 508blackhawkdrive, FisherQueen, Hdt83, MartinBot, NAHID, ARCG,
Juansidious, Bennybobw, AlexiusHoratius, Johnpacklambert, Ben10withapen, Lilac Soul, Ugonline, J.delanoy, Pharaoh of the Wizards, DrKay,
Trusilver, DandyDan2007, The Ruckle, JamesR, Numbo3, Silverxxx, Uncle Dick, Maurice Carbonaro, VAcharon, Adtran, KingBob1, Tokyogirl79, Shawn in Montreal, Katalaveno, Johnbod, MarcoLittel, Dylansamoron, AnommasPooter7, Belovedfreak, NewEnglandYankee, SJP,
Flatterworld, Joe snail, Dubhe.sk, MetsFan76, Vailky, RB972, Mrmuk, Qinael, Bonadea, Vsuarezp, Andy Marchbanks, Cobenobo, Conte di
Cavour, Delete34, Idioma-bot, Funandtrvl, Burlywood, Coolerkman~enwiki, Lights, Meiskam, Malik Shabazz, Deor, VolkovBot, ABF, Indubitably, Vlma111, Butwhatdoiknow, AlnoktaBOT, Barneca, Maxtremus, Philip Trueman, Fsmatovu, Rkt2312, Blendus, TXiKiBoT, GimmeBot,
Lewarcher1, Fist of Glory, KevinTR, Cesardelgado, Vipinhari, Patrizio2, Miranda, Rei-bot, Arnon Chan, Aymatth2, Someguy1221, Bix56,
Clarince63, MINGESELLE299, Martin451, JhsBot, Leafyplant, Jackfork, Seb az86556, Bentley4, Sam-atra, Lexande, Hutumasta, BigDunc,
Libertyleading, EphraimL, Adam.J.W.C., Synthebot, VSerrata, Falcon8765, Enviroboy, Ntahiraja, AgentCDE, Giorgio 151, Hugstrees, Tito-

30

14 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

son, Omnitrix17, Brianga, Truthanado, Monty845, AlleborgoBot, Blood sliver, Munci, Jimvanm, EmxBot, Andersbruce, D. Recorder, Ivan
Bogdanov, Tojimaru, The Random Editor, SPQRobin, AngChenrui, SieBot, Tresiden, Tiddly Tom, dipus sic, Graham Beards, BotMultichill,
Dawn Bard, Caltas, Colacchb, Triwbe, Mangostar, VovanA, GlassCobra, Fishtron, JimmyDodger, Wi&Hoos, Dthibo, Rachelle857, Dans,
Lemurbaby, Redmarkviolinist, Sjwells53, Oxymoron83, Antonio Lopez, Goustien, Bagatelle, Steven Crossin, Lightmouse, RW Marloe, SH84,
Techman224, Mbabane, Diego Grez-Caete, Mphil31, Dillard421, Mitch1981, Dear Reader, Vice regent, StaticGull, RudolfSimon, Hamiltondaniel, Mr. Stradivarius, CSHunt68, Carminasteve, Boghopper, Isoper, Ruramaguru, Connor baillie, Angelo De La Paz, Iya young, J Hassid,
Atif.t2, YSSYguy, Sfan00 IMG, Elassint, ClueBot, Kezpipa, Death mageck for adepts, Timeineurope, PipepBot, Nielspeterqm, Snigbrook, Salom Khalitun, Kotniski, Mobartz, LondonBVE2, The Thing That Should Not Be, Nipatrick~enwiki, Rjd0060, Wimberley, Jan1nad, Paul K.,
Hansi667, Nnemo, Firham74, Drmies, Der Golem, Kijordan, Shinpah1, FractalFusion, Niceguyedc, Nofrillz, Blanchardb, Parkwells, Piledhigheranddeeper, Neverquick, Arunsingh16, Puchiko, ElSaxo, SupaPally, Cadoom, DragonBot, Detroiterbot, Stepshep, Excirial, Balls123454321,
Tdyen, Anonymous101, Quercus basaseachicensis, Jusdafax, Tomeasy, Wikitumnus, Asmaybe, Vivio Testarossa, Lartoven, Sun Creator, NuclearWarfare, Oliviermw, Arjayay, Jotterbot, Piotrek987, Iohannes Animosus, Edwards48, Razorame, Xuuluk, SchreiberBike, Ottawa4ever,
John1284, Geo0910, Cmacauley, Thingg, Siniestra, Aitias, Samantha555, Versus22, Jimofbentley, SoxBot III, DumZiBoT, Darkicebot, Devon88, Pellis93, Yun-Yuuzhan, BarretB, Sfjdfga144, XLinkBot, Hairloop27, RW Schol, Shadowmask, Dthomsen8, Little Mountain 5, Avoided,
Rreagan007, Noctibus, WikiDao, Good Olfactory, Wavej4, Gggh, Tec091214, FischX, Jhendin, Addbot, Narayansg, Willking1979, Some
jerk on the Internet, Sudirclu, Hirschtick3, Betterusername, Otisjimmy1, Morphmotionpictures, Ronhjones, Fieldday-sunday, Leszek Jaczuk,
Download, LaaknorBot, Chamal N, Sillyfolkboy, Mutali, Jimi gospel, Glane23, Tpbsp, Mordoom, Iogjioiofgiofjgio, Tyw7, Illegal canadian,
Numbo3-bot, Ovidi, Birminator50, Grr rawr666, Torresfranklin, Apalomita, Tide rolls, Lightbot, OlEnglish, Krano, QuadrivialMind, Zorrobot,
HerculeBot, WikiHendrik, Ozaily, Wikiexpert4u, Middayexpress, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Dr tsuki, 2D, Tohd8BohaithuGh1, Fraggle81, Manofedit2,
DisillusionedBitterAndKnackered, Saswan, JakeSturm, Anradt,
, Againme, Gaius Claudius Nero, Bility, Wmiguel, Backslash Forwardslash, AnomieBOT, Ichwan Palongengi, IRP, Galoubet, Royote, Bshams, Umupasitori, Wikiamante, Kdunb2, Omg a llama, Materialscientist,
MalinShielder, Ruby2010, Nebraska3, Dewan357, Frankenpuppy, ArthurBot, Richk03, LilHelpa, Xqbot, NatePwnsAll, Ulog, Mudson08, Capricorn42, Nickipediaguy, Stars4change, Davshul, RobertKa, 661kts, Jmundo, Brad101AWB, BritishWatcher, JoeNomi 1961, JonC0001, J04n,
GrouchoBot, Mvp0141, Wdcrawford, RibotBOT, SuperBraulio13, Stratogan, CHJL, Doulos Christos, Tokiohotelover, MLauba, Wowzers33,
GhalyBot, Woody001100, Shadowjams, ~enwiki, Umurundi, Matricuria, Frozenevolution, FreeKnowledgeCreator, FrescoBot,
Paine Ellsworth, Tobby72, Pepper, Samdietrich, Mistakender, JMS Old Al, Adrianbrodal, Rufus Total, A Werewolf, VoodooIsland, Aordictator, Citation bot 1, Jomster100, Pinethicket, Nyrangers599, I dream of horses, ColMcJoepants, Hariboneagle927, HRoestBot, Jonesey95,
Unnachamois, RaeRaeX, EmoCows, Hamtechperson, SpaceFlight89, Fixer88, BGRWANDA, Meaghan, Reichstage, Cid Campeador3, Curdem,
JosiahHenderson, Flosssock1, FoxBot, TobeBot, Trappist the monk, Sil and bil, Oleron, Jonkerz, Dogsloveme, Sumone10154, Xanderliptak,
RoadTrain, Vrenator, Extra999, Davish Krail, Gold Five, Hoobthedestroyer3.14, Bbiswalo, Diannaa, Stephen MUFC, WikiTome, Underlying
lk, Tbhotch, Fry1989, Minimac, Thiago CA Leal, Ugly Ketchup, Stephreef, Gamedaemen106, RjwilmsiBot, Chipmunkdavis, Bhawani Gautam,
Kunichu, Drock221, Sportchick55, Jimtaip, BotdeSki, EmausBot, John of Reading, Orphan Wiki, WikitanvirBot, Gfoley4, Justinjustinnitsuj, BillyPreset, Mustardketchuprelish, Mushy33, Dylankincaid, Mesgul82, Elbasan101, Jim Michael, Tommy2010, Winner 42, Nailer111,
Wikipelli, Dcirovic, Kmoksy, Markk01, Edspd, Mz7, RNAlonto, ZroBot, Sundostund, Josve05a, Davykamanzi, Nmskowron, Abu Shawka,
Boomer44, H3llBot, Pl2241, SporkBot, Jarodalien, Gz33, Wayne Slam, Retro 2010, Jay-Sebastos, Donner60, Pun, SteveRwanda, Hazard-Bot,
ChuispastonBot, GermanJoe, NTox, LikeLakers2, Llightex, Mitchekk, Helpsome, ClueBot NG, Kingroyos, Gareth Grith-Jones, MelbourneStar, This lousy T-shirt, Neb4me123, Linker12, Bulldog73, Movses-bot, Turn685, Oakley77, Frietjes, Alphasinus, Golden Eagle224, Monsoon Waves, O.Koslowski, ScottSteiner, Rezabot, Widr, Santacloud, Karl 334, Bone1234, Matt111111, Tylorisgay, North Atlanticist Usonian,
Mightymights, Alexandru M., Beatlesfan1195, Iste Praetor, Strike Eagle, WNYY98, Lowercase sigmabot, BG19bot, Patriot523, Dodedo123,
Juro2351, George Ponderevo, ISTB351, NatalieF25, Hallows AG, HIDECCHI001, ElphiBot, MusikAnimal, AvocatoBot, Claptonish, Snow
Rise, Midnight Green, Joef25, Compfreak7, Cncmaster, Mbarute, Carlopezbarrio, Zooks512, Mike22r, Snow Blizzard, Ngabonzima, Ernio48,
Alarbus, TBrandley, Anbu121, Editednpovaddition, BattyBot, Factsearch, Laodah, Lucasp1158, AP2B1R, HueSatLum, ChrisGualtieri, Iddndns, Arcandam, EuroCarGT, Harshhussey, Emmarut, Treemapper, BrightStarSky, Delotrooladoo, Mikedu76, Dexbot, Kagabo2, Chickenbob123, OfTheGreen, Br'er Rabbit, Charles Essie, TwoTwoHello, Frosty, Ballad100, Ltinney1997, Gisarev, Cnoly, Epicgenius, CsDix, HelpRwanda, Squidgoof, Raki250, POOOS, AmaryllisGardener, Jodosma, EvergreenFir, Chinese Cheese, Pappenheim2, Davidt N2, Kharkiv07,
Tico15, Polokinae, George8211, Paul2520, Climate123, Ben Tuckett, Blondeguynative, DudeWithAFeud, ThecentreCZ, Meteor sandwich yum,
1982vdven, JaconaFrere, Skr15081997, Kimouna, Andajara120000, Monkbot, Lilylizy, Eastafricancommunity2050, Wwikix, Luigiatl, Vieque,
Asdfghjkl1995, Monopoly31121993, JoeyNeubs, Ambroseya, Boss4422, Idzubamithra, PureGenius42, TranquilHope, Unocha.visual, Jacob
711, Crystallizedcarbon, DangerousJXD, WP45jojo, Morrism1, Underthecove, Ruganzuprince, Skanamugire, Po Kadzieli, Holacomoesta10,
GeneralizationsAreBad, KasparBot, Zacher2wilson, SheillahShadia, Aidancoey6, Sro23, The Quixotic Potato, Cecilthescientist, ElleMegan,
GrebniewNeb, Irenee Yabisso, Bigdrr, Johnsmith10760, Mawaba Institution of Advanced Genetics, Huntant2001, Omni Flames, Vbhjhvds,
Saidy Ibo, Paulisd19, Notdylanfb1231, Bender the Bot, YeahCourse, CollinsTheRock and Anonymous: 1591

14.2

Images

File:Africa_(orthographic_projection).svg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/86/Africa_%28orthographic_
projection%29.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Martin23230
File:African_Union_(orthographic_projection).svg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8d/African_Union_
%28orthographic_projection%29.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: This vector image was created with Inkscape. Original artist: <a
href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:Heraldry' title='User:Heraldry'>Heraldry</a>
File:Akagera_1980_1_Topi.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/21/Akagera_1980_1_Topi.jpg License: CC
BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Braunov
File:Butaro_Hospital.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1d/Butaro_Hospital.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors: Flickr: Butaro Hospital Original artist: Franois Terrier
File:Coat_of_arms_of_Rwanda.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/17/Coat_of_arms_of_Rwanda.svg License:
Public domain Contributors: eigene Arbeit, own work Original artist: FischX and Zscout370

14.2

Images

31

File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Original

artist: ?
File:Flag_of_La_Francophonie.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/27/Flag_of_La_Francophonie.svg License:
Public domain Contributors: Based on Image:Francophonie 1987.png. Original artist: Denelson83
File:Flag_of_Rwanda.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/17/Flag_of_Rwanda.svg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.primature.gov.rw/component/option,com_docman/task,doc_download/gid,859/Itemid,95/ Original artist: This vector
image was created with Inkscape by Zscout370, and then manually edited.
File:Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg License: Cc-by-sa-3.0
Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Gorilla_mother_and_baby_at_Volcans_National_Park.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5f/Gorilla_
mother_and_baby_at_Volcans_National_Park.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Hymne_National_du_Rwanda.ogg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0e/Hymne_National_du_Rwanda.ogg
License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.navyband.navy.mil/anthems/national_anthems.htm Original artist: United States Navy Band
File:Igiseke.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f0/Igiseke.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work
Original artist: Fanny Schertzer
File:Juvnal_Habyarimana_(1980).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e1/Juv%C3%A9nal_Habyarimana_
%281980%29.jpg License: Public domain Contributors:
DF-SC-83-02204.jpg Original artist: DF-SC-83-02204.jpg: Templeton
File:KageraRuvubu.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5a/KageraRuvubu.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: SteveRwanda aka Amakuru
File:Location_Rwanda_AU_Africa.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/60/Location_Rwanda_AU_Africa.svg
License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Alvaro1984 18
File:Loudspeaker.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8a/Loudspeaker.svg License: Public domain Contributors:
New version of Image:Loudspeaker.png, by AzaToth and compressed by Hautala Original artist: Nethac DIU, waves corrected by Zoid
File:MTB_cycling_2012_Olympics_M_cross-country_RWA_Adrien_Niyonshuti.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/f/fe/MTB_cycling_2012_Olympics_M_cross-country_RWA_Adrien_Niyonshuti.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors: IMG_4373
Original artist: Tim Regan from Cambridge, UK
File:MarabaCoffeeDryingRacks.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/df/MarabaCoffeeDryingRacks.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: No machine-readable source provided. Own work assumed (based on copyright claims). Original artist: No
machine-readable author provided. Amakuru assumed (based on copyright claims).
File:Nyamata_Memorial_Site_13.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f2/Nyamata_Memorial_Site_13.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Fanny Schertzer
File:OLPC_classroom_teaching.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/10/OLPC_classroom_teaching.JPG License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: RudolfSimon
File:Office-book.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a8/Office-book.svg License: Public domain Contributors:
This and myself. Original artist: Chris Down/Tango project
File:Paul_Kagame_2014.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fe/Paul_Kagame_2014.jpg License: CC BY-SA
4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: | Veni Markovski
File:Reichskolonialflagge.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cd/Reichskolonialflagge.svg License: Attribution
Contributors: Own work Original artist: Drawing created by David Liuzzo
File:RwamaganaChurch.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b0/RwamaganaChurch.jpg License: CC-BY-SA3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: SteveRwanda
File:RwandaGeoProvinces.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e5/RwandaGeoProvinces.png License: Public
domain Contributors:
Rw-map.png Original artist: File:Rw-map.png: CIA
File:RwandaParliament.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d3/RwandaParliament.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0
Contributors: Own work Original artist: Amakuru
File:RwandaVolcanoAndLake_cropped2.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e9/RwandaVolcanoAndLake_
cropped2.jpg License: Public domain Contributors:
RwandaVolcanoAndLake.jpg Original artist: RwandaVolcanoAndLake.jpg: CIAT
File:Rwanda_IntoreDancers.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/00/Rwanda_IntoreDancers.jpg License: CC
BY 2.0 Contributors: Rwandan Dancers Original artist: congmanager from Greenbelt, MD
File:Rwanda_Nyanza_Mwami_Palace.jpg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ab/Rwanda_Nyanza_Mwami_
Palace.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Amakuru
File:Rwandan_children_at_Volcans_National_Park.jpg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b5/Rwandan_
children_at_Volcans_National_Park.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

32

14 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

File:Speaker_Icon.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg License: Public domain Contributors: No machine-readable source provided. Own work assumed (based on copyright claims). Original artist: No machine-readable author
provided. Mobius assumed (based on copyright claims).
File:Steady2.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/96/Steady2.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work
Original artist: Tomchen1989
File:WaterPumpRwanda.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ef/WaterPumpRwanda.jpg License: CC BY 2.0
Contributors: Flickr: Water Pump in Rwanda Original artist: Jon Gos
File:Wikibooks-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: User:Bastique, User:Ramac et al.
File:Wikinews-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: This is a cropped version of Image:Wikinews-logo-en.png. Original artist: Vectorized by Simon 01:05, 2 August 2006 (UTC) Updated
by Time3000 17 April 2007 to use ocial Wikinews colours and appear correctly on dark backgrounds. Originally uploaded by Simon.
File:Wikiquote-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Rei-artur
File:Wikisource-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Rei-artur Original artist: Nicholas Moreau
File:Wikiversity-logo-Snorky.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1b/Wikiversity-logo-en.svg License: CC BYSA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Snorky
File:Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg License:
CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: AleXXw
File:Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg License: CC BY-SA
4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Dan Polansky based on work currently attributed to Wikimedia Foundation but originally created by
Smurrayinchester

14.3

Content license

Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0