Semiconductors and Integrated Circuits:

Applied Chemistry and Engineering Final Report

Abstract
In this paper, I will first explore the historical background of semiconductors, and the reasons it
has become so important in modern society. I will then discuss current and improved methods of
semiconductor production, as well as the many chemical and physical properties of
semiconductors. In particular, light emitting diodes, heterojunctions, and the doping process wil
be discussed as they are among the most useful properties of semiconducting materials.

Next, the paper will discuss the current economic impact of semiconductors, including its
significance in our society and its volume of production. Finally, the paper will discuss the
environmental impact of semiconductor production, as well as the energy costs needed to
produce these chips. I will also discuss the methods and efforts that have been implemented to
curb the environmental and energy issues caused by semiconductor production.
History

Scientists began noticing the properties we associate with semiconductors today in the early 19th
century. In 1833, Michael Faraday discovered that the resistance of silver sulfide decreases when
heated, in direct contrast with most metallic substances. In 1839, A.E. Becquerel observed an
electric potential between a solid and liquid electrolyte when struck by light, an effect we would
later come to know as the photovoltaic effect. In 1873, Willoughby Smith found that resistors
made of selenium decreased in resistivity when exposed to light. These observations would not
have a unified explanation until the formation of solid-state physics in the early 20th century.

Although our understanding of semiconductors was not fully fleshed out until much later,
engineers began utilizing them as early 1880. For example, Alexander Graham Bell used the
light-sensitive properties of selenium to transmit sound while developing the telephone.
Additionally, the first working solar cell was constructed by Charles Fritts in 1883 using a metal
plate coated with selenium and gold.

The fundamental building block of todays computing devices, the transistor, was developed in
1947 by John Bardeen and William Shockley, after first being conceptualized by Julius
Lilienfeld. A transistor is a semiconductor device that can be used to amplify or switch electronic
signals and electrical power. Today, it is ubiquitous in all advanced electronic devices.

After winning the Nobel Prize in Physics for his work on transistors, Shockley founded Shockley
Semiconductor Laboratory in what is today Silicon Valley, and hired eight young PhD graduates
to develop and produce new semiconductor devices. This group of eight included such names as
Gordon Moore, Robert Noyce, Julius Blank, and Eugene Kleiner, all of whom would go on to
become critical to the growth of the integrated circuit industry.

Due to the harsh working conditions created by Shockleys management, the group left his
laboratory for Fairchild Semiconductor, which would eventually lead to the creations of dozens
of corporations such as AMD and Intel. Robert Noyce and Gordon Moore (who is also known
for Moores Law, considering transistor density on microchips) would go on to found Intel, while
Eugene Kleiner would become a venture capitalist who played a role in the founding of both
Amazon and Google.

The traitorous eight who left Shockley Lab, and would go on to pioneer the semiconductor
industry

Intel, a portmanteau of Integrated Electronics, would go on to create the worlds first commercial
microprocessor chip in 1971, after initially focusing on memory chips. With the eventual success
of the Personal Computer, or PC, Intel would invest heavily in its new microprocessor designs,
becoming the dominant supplier of CPUs for PCs and becoming an enormous company. Intels
8086 processor was used in the original IBM PC design, and helped form the conception behind
the modern PC design.

Properties

A semiconductor is defined as a crystalline or amorphous solid that is of far higher resistance

than typical resistors, but still of much lower resistance than insulators. Interestingly, their

resistance drops as temperature increases, which is behavior opposite to what metallic substances
usually exhibit. Although there are many semiconductors available, each with many different
characteristics, they almost all share the following properties:
Variable conductivity

Semiconductors are not full conductors due to the fact that their valance bands are completely
filled. In order for a current (a flow of electrons) to occur, there must be available or empty
spaces through which the electrons pass. Over time, scientists have found ways to increase the
conductivity of various semiconducting materials. The first such method is called doping, and
can be performed in either n-type or p-type.

In n-type doping, an element with five outer electrons (typically phosphorous or arsenic) is
inserted into the silicon lattice. Because said element has five electrons, and silicon can only
form four bonds, the extra electron is free to move about. Adding enough of the extra element,
and creating enough free electrons, soon turns the semiconductor into a full-blown conductor.

In p-type doping, an element with three outer electrons, typically boron or gallium, is inserted
into the silicon lattice. Since these elements can only form three bonds, a hole is formed in the
silicon lattice, which effectively acts as a positive charge. Electrons held on the other silicon
atoms are happy to jump into this hole, and thus are effectively free to flow. As before, adding
enough of the extra element, or dopant, soon turns the semiconductor into a full-blown
conductor.

In both types of doping, only a minute amount of dopant turns a silicon crystal from a material
with low conductivity into a viable conductor. However, even when doped, silicon is still not as
effective a conductor as most true conductors, and thus is called a semiconductor.

Heterojunctions

Heterojunctions are interfaces formed between two layers of different crystalline

semiconductors. The difference in the two types of semiconductors means that discontinuities
occur between the two conduction and valence band (which can be thought of as energy levels
that determine the electrical conductivity of a solid). These discontinuities, or essentially
differences in conductivity, make heterojunctions extremely useful. These formations have been
applied to lasers, bipolar transistors, and field effect transistors.

Sensitivity to Light

In certain semiconductors, excited electrons will lose their energy by emitting light instead of
producing heat. These semiconductors are used in the construction of light emitting diodes,
which have become increasingly important in our efforts to conserve energy.

Light Emitting Diodes are p-n junction diodes. That is, a p-type doped semiconductor is
connected to an n-type doped semiconductor. When a voltage is applied, electrons in the n-type
semiconductor fill the holes in the p-type semiconductors. As the excited electrons lose their
energy, light is emitted.

Sensitivity to Heat

When exposed to heat, the electrical conductivity of a semiconductor increases exponentially.

This effect occurs do the fact that electrons exposed to heat gain energy and reach the higher
energy levels of the conduction band, allowing them to become charge carriers. Due to the
distribution of electrons in metals, said process cannot occur and makes this property unique to
semiconductors.
Can Produce Lasers

In a process similar to the science behind Light Emitting Diodes, semiconductors can also be
used to create laser diodes, which provide the backbone of most lasers we use in our daily lives
(the laser found in a compact printer that have replaced most inkjet printers, for example). Like

light-emitting diodes, Laser Diodes rely on p-n junctions, and the method in which electrons
expel their excess energy. However, they have much higher efficiencies at higher input power
densities, allowing them to create the much more cohesive laser beam.

Production Methods

The general process, or series of steps used in the production of integrated circuits has remained
roughly the same throughout history. However, a major difference now is that, due to both the
complexity and ever-smaller size of circuit features, the process to produce such circuits must be
cleaner. Great care is taken by semiconductor companies to ensure that production facilities are
not contaminated, as even microscopic dust particles can ruin an entire chip.
Wafer Production-

The first step in the manufacture of semiconductors is the production of wafers. Wafers are thin,
circular slices of the desired semiconductor element, generally silicon. Semiconductor companies

acquire the material from a variety of sources. As silicon is one of the most abundant elements in
the Earths crust, it is not difficult to acquire.

Purified silicon, extracted from sand, is heated until it melts. A tiny piece of solid silicon is then
lowered into the liquid silicon, and is then slowly lifted from the pot. As the solid silicon is lifted,
liquid silicon sticks to it through surface tension and cools to form more solid silicon. This
process creates a crystal ingot, which is then ground to a uniform radius to form wafers.
The wafers are then sent through a purification process, where they are polished and smoothed
until they are highly reflective.

Wafer Fabrication-

The main step in semiconductor production is wafer fabrication, which much occur in a
cleanroom. As mentioned before, even the smallest dust particles can entirely ruin an integrated
circuit. Given the ever-increasing density of transistors on chips due to Moores Law, the
importance of maintaining contamination-free zones has become much greater. Cleanrooms only
have one exit and entrance, and all that enter must be clothed in protective gear that ensures that

their body will not contaminate the chips. Furthermore, air purifiers are put into place on both the
ceiling and ground, ensuring that all air in the room is recycled every 10 seconds. This reduces
the amount of dust in the room to 1 particle per cubic meter, which is still enough to occasionally
ruin some chips.
During this fabrication, photolithography takes place. In photolithography, sometimes also called
UV lithography, light is used to transfer a geometric pattern from a photomask to a lightsensitive resist on the substrate. Wafers go through the photolithographic cycle up to 50 times.
Thermal Oxidation or Deposition

As mentioned before, wafers must be pre-cleaned using various chemicals first. The wafers are
heated while exposed to extra-pure oxygen in diffusion furnaces, forming a thin, uniform silicon
dioxide film on the surface of the wafer.

Masking
When one portion of the wafer is being worked on, it is crucial to protect the other pieces. This
can be accomplished by covering the wafer with a photoresist, which effectively shields a
wafer from the light being used to etch patterns on the other part of the wafer.

Etching
When the wafer is ready to be processed, the photoresist is removed. The wafer is then baked to
harden any remaining patterns from the photoresist. It is exposed to plasma so that areas not
covered by photoresist are etched away. The wafer is then inspected to be sure that image
transfer was performed accurately and precisely.

Doping
Doping, discussed earlier, which comes in either n-type or p-type is applied to an exposed area
during the etching process.

These processes, oxidation, masking, etching, and doping are repeated until the entire wafer has
been completed. Following the completion of this process, the individual units on the chip are
connected using various metal deposition and patterning steps from insulators.

Once the entire chip has been completed and patterned, a final layer of dielectric (effectively, an
insulator) is laid down on the surface of the circuit to protect it from damage and contamination.
An electrical test that is directed by a computer is then applied to ensure that each wafer is in fact
functional. Wafers that do not pass the test are rejected, and never make it to the open market.
A diamond saw then slices apart the wafer into single chips. The chips that did not pass are
discarded, and the others are assembled into packaging for sale.

In the 1980s, chip makers were able to survive with yields of 10-30% of all the chips produced.
However, in order to remain competitive in todays market, most chip makers must average
around 80-90% yield, requiring extremely expensive manufacturing processes.

Economic Data
The semiconductor industry has become increasingly important to the American economy. From
1987 to 2011, the industry grew an astonishing 265 percent, easily outgaining any other sector of
the manufacturing industry. According to the Census Bureau, more than $65 billion a year are
contributed by semiconductor industry to the American economy, the third most of any
manufacturing industry.

Furthermore, the industry is expected to continue to grow, despite recent economic slowdowns.
Although overall economic growth has hovered in the one to two percent range over the past few
years since the 2008 recession, the semiconductor industry in the United States of America has
grown by 5.2 percent annually, almost like clockwork. If that rate of growth continues, and it is
highly expected that it will, the entire semiconductor industry in this country could double by the
year 2024.

Global Semiconductor Sales have also increased rapidly

The semiconductor industry is also a major employer. Semiconductor and related device
manufacturing employed more than 90,000 workers according to the Census Bureau in 2012,
although that dropped from a peak of 146,512 in 2007. This drop occurred again most likely due
to the Great Recession of 2008. The total value of industry shipments was $72.2 billion.

The semiconductor industry is also one of the most rapidly advancing markets, with new
technologies being implemented every year. In fact, the industry is second only to the software
industry in terms of innovation. A creed held by most in the industry is smaller, faster, and
cheaper. Moores Law, developed by the same Moore who co-founded Intel, states that
transistor density on microchips is expected to double every couple of years.

Traditionally, the entire production process was controlled by a single company. However,
division of labor has taken root in the industry, and chip makers are delegating more and more
productions responsibilities to other companies in the market. Foundry companies, specialized

designer, and chip testers are popping up everywhere. Massive semiconductor companies have
learned to become more efficient, as their work becomes increasingly complex and microscopic
Semiconductor companies generally produce four different types of products: memory,
microprocessors, commodity integrated circuits, and complex SOC. Memory chips are
temporary storehouses of data for computers to utilize. Production of such devices is very
expensive, and only a few companies like Toshiba, Samsung, SanDisk, and Micron can afford to
remain competitive.

Microprocessors function as the brain of a computer, and are also known as Central Processing
Units. This market has been dominated by Intel ever since the release of their 8086 processor.
Advanced Micro Devices is the only true competitor to Intel in the market, and only maintain a
small market share. However, due to the recent rise of smartphones, many new players to the
microprocessor market have arisen, using a revolutionary ARM architecture. Such players
include companies like nVidia and Qualcomm.

Commodity Integrated Circuits are sometimes known as standard chips, and are the processors
found in common appliances like microwaves, or even in your car. This industry is dominated by
enormous Asian chip manufacturers.

Complex SOC, or System on a Chip, sees integrated circuit chips embedded with the
capability of an entire system on it. This is the most diverse semiconductor market available, and
has seen a recent rise due to the ever increasing importance of smartphones.

As a whole, the semiconductor industry is highly cyclical. There are some times in which
semiconductor companies can scarcely keep up with demand, but also times when PC sales slow,
and the industry is sent into a tailspin. Another issue for many semiconductor companies is the
fact that there is a significant lead time. In other words, it takes an enormous period of time for
a company to see a return on its investment. A company can spend years developing a chip, or
building a new production plant before making a profit.

To summarize, the semiconductor industry can be characterized by rapid growth, breakneck

speeds of innovation, cyclical profit margins, and dominance by a few massive and old
companies.

Environmental and Energy Issues

There is growing concern over the environmental impact of the tedious process used to produce
semiconductor chips. These issues were brought up as early as the 1980s, when Fairchild
Semiconductor and IBM were blamed for contaminating the water supply with various organic
solvents. Similar incidents have occurred in Japan and Taiwan, provoking serious public
backlash. In each of the listed cases, the companies denied that they had any role to play in the
situation, and governments refused to release results of testing.

Furthermore, various occupational health and safety issues have been raised since the 1980s.
Many retired workers have filed lawsuits against their former employers, saying that their work
has led to increased incidences of cancer, birth defect, and other long term illnesses. Although no

direct scientific or medical diagnosis has been reached, 47% of the reported cases were directly
linked to systemic poisoning, indicating a poor quality of work environment.
The root of the environmental trouble is in the wafer fabrication process. The fab process is
actually an umbrella for hundreds of sub-processes. To create the complex designs found on
modern circuity, many chemicals, and an enormous amount of energy must be utilized.
Maintenance workers, who generally do not wear the same protective gear that other employees
do when in clean rooms, are often exposed to many of the dangerous chemicals utilized in wafer
fabrication. Disposal of these dangerous chemicals is also a significant problem, and many
semiconductor companies have often been irresponsible in the manner in which they get rid of
said waste. Moreover, the fab process requires over ten thousand gallons of water a day, and an
enormous amount of energy, greatly increasing the environmental impact of the production
process.

Semiconductor companies have generally not been very cooperative in the effort to decrease
their environmental footprint. They generally attempt to produce data showing that there is not
sufficient evidence to prove a causal relationship between illnesses and working at their plants.
They also run various epidemiological studies, but often block the publication of reports that are
unfavorable to their profit margins.

In order to reduce these toxic effects, experts have suggested better protective clothing for
workers. Also mentioned are more sophisticated preventive controls, enabling companies to keep
track of toxic chemicals, and how they are disposed of. Recently, perhaps due to increasing
public pressure, semiconductor companies have moved to address this problem. The

International Semiconductor Environment, Safety, and Health, or ESH Conference, has been
meeting since 1998. More than 150 environmental, safety, and health experts meet to discuss
what can be done to alleviate the problems due to the use of dangerous chemicals in
semiconductor industry. Also being discussed are ways of making the process more efficient.
Reducing the amount of water and energy required in the production process would go a long
ways towards making the semiconductor industry are more green industry.

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