Basic of Stress Analysis

Rolta Academy: Engineering Design Automation
Chapter 9
BASIC OF STRESS ANALYSIS

9.1
INTRODUCTION
Stress Analysis is a subject, which is more talked about and less

understood. The objective of pipe stress analysis is to ensure safety against
failure of the Piping System by verifying the structural integrity against the
loading conditions, both external and internal stresses expected to occur during
the lifetime of the system in the plant. This is to be undertaken with the most
economic considerations. Hence the objectives of stress Analysis could be listed
as:
9.1.1 Objectives of stress Analysis are to
Ensure that the stresses in the piping components in the system are within
the allowable limits.
Solve dynamic problems developed due to mechanical vibration, acoustic

vibration, fluid hammer, pulsation, relief valves etc.
Solve the problems associated due to higher or lower operating temperature

such as
a) Displacement Stress range

b) Nozzle loading on the connected equipment
c) Pipe displacements
d) Loads and moments on the supporting structures
When piping is connected to strain sensitive equipment, the flexibility
required to satisfy the acceptable limits of nozzle loading on the connected
equipment (above) overrides all other considerations.
9.1.2 Classifications of piping systems

The piping systems are mainly classified into three main categories and
then again subcategories. The main categories are the
Hot Systems.
Cold Systems.
Piping
Cryogenic Systems.
The fundamental reason for this classification is that hot lines and
cryogenic lines must undergo Flexibility analysis to determine thermal forces,
displacements and stresses. These systems are further divided in to
Small bore lines
Large (Big) bore lines.
As a general practice those pipe lines with nominal diameters 40mm (l'/Q
NB and under are classified as small and 50mm (2") NB and above as large.
Further, piping systems could be classified based on the regulatory codes under
which the system is designed. Certain codes require more stringent analysis than
others.
Hence the steps involved in the stress analysis can be listed as:
1. Identify the potential loads that the piping system would encounter during the
life of the plant.
2. Relate each of these loads to the stresses and strains developed.
3. Get the cumulative effect of the potential loads in the system.
4. Decide the allowable limits, the system can withstand without failure.
5. After the system is designed, to ensure that the stresses are within the safe
limits.
9.2 Types of Loads

All the American code for Pressure Piping classifies the loads mainly into
three types:
1. Sustained Loads: Those due to forces
present
during
normal operation
2. Occasional Loads: Those present during rare intervals of operations

3. Displacement Loads: Those due to displacement of pipe
9.3 Conditions of Acceptability of Piping System

The Piping Engineer has the following choices to establish that the
required flexibility has been provided in the piping layout.
Piping
As per clause 119.7.1/319.4.1 of the code ASME B 31.1/B 31.3, no formal

analysis is required in systems which
a. Are duplicates of successfully operating installations or replacements.

b. Can readily be judged adequate by comparison with previously analyzed
systems.
c. Satisfy equation specified in clause 119.7.1(A3)/319.4.1(c)
Analyzing the layout by an approximate method.

Approximate method shall be applied only if they are used for the range of
configuration for which adequate accuracy has been demonstrated.
Carrying out a comprehensive analysis.
a. Analytical
b. Model test
c. Chart method
9.4 Code Compliance

Let us consider those aspects in the code, which are mandatory
requirements for the expansion and flexibility of metallic piping. The Piping
Specification nominates the code to be used for various aspects in the Piping
System. Let us consider those, which are of importance to the Piping Engineer to
carry out the flexibility analysis. Every such code will contain recommendations
and mandatory requirements on the following aspects.
Minimum flexibility requirements for thermal expansion
Allowable stresses for various piping materials
Reinforcement requirements of branch connections
Support criteria
It is the responsibility of the Piping Engineer to demonstrate the

compliance with these requirements and achieve the most economical, safe and
practical layout.
Let us consider each of the above in turn to see how they are dealt with by
a Piping Engineer.
9.4.1 Installed And Operating Temperature
Piping
Pipe is erected at ambient temperature and that depends on the climatic

conditions. 70F (21 C) is the figure commonly used for calculations. The same
piping when in operation in a Petrochemical Plant could achieve a temperature
in excess of 500 C if it were in a reactor piping system or it could be of the
order of -120C, if it were associated with ethylene refrigeration system.
9.4.1.1 Displacement stresses
A piping system will undergo dimensional changes with any change in
temperature. If it is constrained from free expansion or contraction, it will be
displaced from it unrestrained position causing strain and stresses. The system
could behave either balanced or unbalanced under such conditions.
a. Balanced System
Displacement strains are well distributed and not excessive at any point.
Layout of the system should aim at such condition, which is assumed in flexibility
analysis methods provided in the code.
b. Unbalanced System
In an unbalanced system, stress cannot be considered proportional to
displacement strains through out a piping system in which an excessive amount
of strain may occur in a localized portion of the system. Unbalance may result
from
i) Highly stressed small pipe run in series with large or relatively stiff pipe runs.
ii) Local reduction in size or wall thickness.
iii) Line configuration in a system of uniform size in which the expansion or
contraction must be absorbed largely in short offset.
Unbalance must be avoided by design and layout of piping system. If
unbalance cannot be avoided the designer shall use appropriate analytical
methods as specified in the code to assure adequate flexibility.
Each material has its own coefficient of thermal expansion. These values
are given in Appendix C of the code ASME B 31.3 and Appendix B of the code
ASME B 31.1. If the pipe is of carbon steel or of low alloy steel, it will expand at
the rate of 6 to 7 mm every meter length as the temperature rises to 500C. This
means that the pipe running between two equipments 10m apart may well want
to expand by 60 to 70 mm or more as it heats up. The increased length can be
accommodated only by straining the pipe as the ends are not free to move. This
straining, if not freely allowed, induces stresses in the pipe as well as load at the
support points. However, when the line is cooled during shutdown to ambient
temperature the expansion returns to zero, the straining is no longer required
Piping
and hence the load and stress also disappears. This can be demonstrated as
below.
9.4.2 Thermal Load

A pipe line held between two anchors, when heated up, tries to expand
against its restraints resulting in forces, moments and stresses.
L
Fig. 9.1 Pipe line held between anchors
L
Fig. 9.2 Free expansion of Pipe
If the pipe in figure 9.1 is allowed to expand freely due to rise in its
temperature, it would expand by L as shown in figure 9.2. The free expansion
will take place when one of the anchors is released. L would depend upon the
pipe length (L), temperature rise (difference between the temperature under hot
condition and initial cold condition and also the length of the pipe). L can be
calculated if the coefficient of thermal expansion, an important physical property
of any material, is known. The axial force generated in the above configuration
can be estimated to be the axial force required to compress the pipe back to its
original position from its expanded position.
Coefficient of linear thermal expansion is defined as the increase in length
of a specimen of unit length, if it is subjected to a temperature rise of 1 0C and is
often designated as . If a pipe of length L is heated to a temperature which is
TC above its installed temperature, the increase in length would then be
L = .T.L
(9.1)
In the codes and many reported calculations, however, is used as

inclusive of T (i.e. T in above equation) and is called coefficient of thermal
expansion from installed/ambient to operating temperature.
Piping
The expansion is then written as

L = .L
(9.2)
This difference in meaning of a used in equations 1 and 2 should be taken note

of.
Table 9.1 Total Linear Expansion Between 700F & indicated Temperature
Temp
Material
0
F
Carbon Steel Austenitic Stainless Steel Copper and Cu Alloys
25
-0.32
-0.46
-0.50
50
-0.14
-0.21
-0.22
70
0
0
0
100
0.23
0.34
0.34
125
0.42
0.62
0.63
9.4.3 Self Springing

The piping system can absorb large displacement without returning
exactly to previous configuration. Relaxation to the sustaining level of material
will tend to establish a condition of stability in few cycles, each lowering the upper
limit of hot stress until a state of equilibrium is reached in which the system is
completely relaxed and capable of maintaining constant level of stress. The
stress at which the material is relieved due to relaxation appears as stress in the
opposite temperature state, with equal intensity but of opposite sign. Thus the
system, which originally was stress, could within a few cycles accumulate stress
in the cold condition and spring itself without the application of external load. This
phenomenon is called Self Springing.
9.5 Selection of Support

The type and location of supports in a piping system cannot be divorced
from the flexibility calculation. The selection and design of pipe supports is an
important part of the Piping Engineering of any modern Chemical/ Petrochemical
process plant. The problems related with the high pressure/ high temperature
piping are critical to the point that the concentrated load imposed by the piping
on the building structure and/ or on the equipment nozzles are to be taken into
consideration at the early stages of the design. The various stages involved in
the design and engineering of pipe supports are presented here in their proper
sequence to serve as a good reference document for the Piping Engineer.
The first step is to collect the necessary amount of basic information. These
include
1. A complete set of piping general arrangement drawings.
Piping
2. A complete set of steel and structural drawings including the equipment

foundation.
3. A complete set of drawings showing the location of ventilating ducts, electrical
trays, instrument trays etc.
4. A complete set of piping specification and line list, which includes pipe sizes,
material of construction, thickness of insulation, operating temperatures etc.
5. A copy of insulation specification with densities.
6. A copy of valve and specialty list indicating weights.
7. The movement of all critical equipment connections such as turbines,
compressors, boilers, etc.
On collection of the above data, the steps in which the engineer will apply
this basic information are as follows:
a. The determination of support location.
b. The determination of thermal movement of the piping at each support
location.
c. The calculation of load at each support location.
d. The selection of the type of support i.e.Anchor, Guide, Rest, Constant or
e. Variable spring etc.
f. Checking the physical interference of the support with structures, trays, ducts
equipments etc.
The final step does not need discussion to a great extent. This will be
governed solely by the requirement of the individual layout. Steps 1 to 4 will be
general and hold good for any installation the following explanation will serve as
a guide to any pipe support problem.
The term "Supports" or "Supporting Elements" encompasses the entire
range of various methods of carrying the weight of the pipeline and the contents.
It therefore includes "hangers" which generally carry the weight from above, with
the supporting members being mainly in tension. Likewise, it includes "supports"
which on occasion are delineated as those which carry weight from below, with
supporting member being in compression.
The code ASME B 31.3 specifies under clause 321.1.1, the objective of
the support design as The layout and the design of the piping and its supporting
elements shall be directed towards preventing the following.
1. Piping stresses in excess of those permitted in the code.
1. Leakage at joints
2. Excessive thrust and moments on connected equipment (such as pumps and
turbines)
3. Excessive stresses in the supporting (or restraining) elements.
4. Resonance with imposed fluid induced vibrations.
5. Excessive interference with thermal expansion and contraction in a piping
system, which is otherwise adequately flexible.
6. Unintentional disengagement of piping from its supports
Piping
7. Excessive piping sag in systems requiring drainage slope.

8. Excessive distortion or rag of piping (e.g. thermo plastics) subject to creep
under conditions of repeated thermal cycling.
9. Excessive heat flow, exposing supporting elements to temperature extremes
outside their design limits.
ASME B 31.1 deals with the design of supporting elements under clause 121.
It was indicated in Stress Analysis that when the piping is connected to strain
sensitive equipments, the allowable forces and moments govern the analysis. In
practice the magnitude of these forces and moments is controlled by the use of
Anchors
Line stops
Guides
Rests
In addition to the weight effects, consideration shall be given for other
load effects induced by service pressure, wind, earthquake etc. Where the
resonance with imposed vibration and for shock occurs during operation, suitable
dampners, restraints, anchors etc shall be added to remove these effects.
Anchors are provided to secure the desired points of piping whereas
guides are provided to direct or absorb the same. They shall permit the piping to
expand and contract freely away from the fixed points. Sliding or Rest supports
permit free movement of piping and shall be designed to include friction
resistance along with the dead weight of the piping. Resilient supports are those
which support the dead weight throughout the expansion / contraction of the
piping.
The primary support' is the supporting element, which is attached, or in
contact with the piping and the 'secondary support' is the supplementary steel
provided to carry the load on to the structures.
9.5.1 Anchors
At an anchor, a pipe is assumed to be completely restrained against any
displacement or rotation, relative to the structure to which it is attached. This is a
point where all the six degrees of freedom are arrested.
It is possible for an anchor to have a displacement or rotation imposed
upon it by influences external to the piping system and which it then transmits on
to the piping system. For example, consider one end of a pipe, which ends at a
nozzle near the 'sliding' end of a shell, and tube heat exchanger. The Piping
Engineer would regard that nozzle as "anchor" for the purposes of calculation,
but it will move by an amount determined by the thermal expansion of the
exchanger shell and it will impose this movement on the piping
Piping
9.5.2 Line Stops
A line stop is a restraint, which prevents any axial movements of the pipe
to which it is fitted but at the same time allows unrestricted travel in any direction
at right angles to the axis of the pipe. It also permits rotation, freely, in any
plane.
In many instances where the requirement is for an axial restraint only, a
"Line stop" can be substituted for a 'full' anchor. Situations do arise where the
ability of the 'stop' to permit lateral movement makes its use imperative.
9.5.3 Guides
A guide is a restraint, which precludes lateral movement of the pipe in one or both
of the planes at right angles to the pipe centerline. It leaves the pipe completely
free.
9.6 The Selection of Flexible Supports

When vertical displacement occurs as a result of thermal expansion, it is
necessary to provide a flexible support, which applies supporting force
throughout the contraction and expansion cycle of the system
Flexible hangers are of two types: Constant Spring and Variable Spring
9.6.1 Constant Spring

Constant spring hangers are selected where absolutely necessary, when the
percentage variation of load from cold to hot should be less than 6% for critical
pipelines and less than 25% for non critical pipe lines and when it cannot be
obtained by the type of variable spring hangers, which give the lowest %, load
variation. The geometry and kinematics of these constant spring hangers is such
that theoretically a constant supporting force can be achieved throughout its full
range of expansion and contraction.
9.6.2 Snubbers
Rigid restraints are usually necessary when the pipe is strong to survive
loads such as earthquake or high winds or other dynamic loads such as fluid
hammer. But when these restraints are used in high temperature piping at
some location it may develop elevated stress levels. In these cases snubbers
are used. Snubbers resemble rigid struts, except that they contain a mechanism,
which permits movement in presence of static or slowly applied loads; but which
locks up during rapidly applied loads. Snubber will resist dynamic loads while
permitting the natural and slower thermal growth of pipe a snubber will not act
as a weight support. When both weight and vertical dynamic restraint are
Piping
required at a point of large vertical movement, both spring and snubber are
required. The spring will carry weight load while the snubber will restrain
dynamic loads, with both supports permitting the required thermal movements.
There are two types of snubbers available, hydraulic and mechanical. The
hydraulic snubber is made up of a piston and a double chamber filled with
viscous fluid. The sealing of this fluid is the main problem associated with it. The
mechanical snubbers operate purely on mechanical basis, Mechanical snubbers
are also prone to inadvertent locking giving rise to additional pipe stresses.
9.6.3 Sway Braces

Sway braces are used to limit the effect of pipe vibration. These are little
more than variable springs acting in horizontal plane. When sway brace is
installed, the spring preload is adjusted to be zero when pipe is in the operating
position. Sway braces, like variable springs, do add some expansion stresses in
the pipe.
9.7 Expansion Joints

When piping lacks inherent flexibility due to routing and/or develops large
reactions or detrimental overstrain on the strain sensitive equipments, the Piping
Engineer considers provision of expansion joints to overcome the same.
Expansion joints are also provided to isolate the vibrating equipment from piping
and also to facilitate free movement of the equipment mounted on load cells.
The expansion joints can be slip type or the bellows type.
9.7.1 Slip Type of Expansion Joint
In slip type of expansion joint one pipe slides into another and the
assembly is sealed by means of packing between the sliding pipes. This device
has the limitation that it permits only axial_ movement in the direction of pipe axis.
Small amount of lateral and/ or angular movement will cause binding and
eventually leakage. It is extremely difficult to seal it off completely. The limitations
on packing makes it suitable only for very low temperature and low pressure
services.
9.7.2 Bellow Type Expansion Joint
The bellow type expansion joint is extensively used as the most efficient
and functionally reliable elongation compensator and/ or vibration isolator. These
are capable of compensating for large amounts of axial and/ or lateral and/ or
angular movements as a single unit. It lends itself to piping configurations that are
much more compact than those using bends or loops to provide flexibility.
Piping
10
Usage & Restrictions

Based on the above, the point of usage could be i de n ti fi e d as below.
At the suction and discharge nozzles of vibrating equipments such as pumps,
blowers etc., On large diameter pipes and ducts operating at high temperatures
but at lower pressures.
In piping where the space is inadequate for conventional arrangement for
providing flexibilities.
It is not advisable to use the expansion joint in all piping systems.
The major areas of applications where its use is not advisable are following
piping systems.
where hazardous chemicals are handled.

where the service is high pressure.
in which slurry or suspended solids are handled.
9.7.3 MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION

Based on the service for which the expansion joint is selected/used, the
material of construction of the same is selected. Expansion joints are available in
the following materials of construction.
Rubber, Canvas, Metal
Except for the metallic expansions joints, all others are used to isolate the
vibrating equipment from the ducting/piping. The selection is limited by pressure,
temperature and the compatibility with the service fluid.
The rubber expansion joints are available with single convolution or multiple
convolutions. Metallic split flanges are provided as retaining lugs to ensure
pressure tight seal. These are provided with tie rods which restrict the lateral
movements. To ensure that no damage is done to the expansion joint, pipes
should be anchored at change in pipe direction, branching of pipe, change in
pipe size and end of pipe run.
The PTFE expansion joints are mainly used in glass piping to ensure that no
strain is transmitted to the pipeline. Such joints are provided at all equipment
connections and change in direction on piping.
Piping
11
Expansion joints made from canvas are not suitable for liquid service. These are
used in very low pressure systems and can be used in services where operating
temperatures are moderate. These are mainly used in ducting to isolate the
vibrating equipment.
Rubber, PTFE, Canvas expansion joints are designed and manufactured as per
manufacturers* standard. The metallic expansion joint is manufactured from
austenitic stainless steel of required grade depending upon the service
conditions. These are designed and manufactured as per EJMA (Expansion
joint Manufacturers Association) standard.
9.7.4 Types of Expansion Joint Movements

It has been indicated that the expansion joint is used to absorb the
movement in the pipeline. Let us consider the various possible movements to be
absorbed by an expansion joint.
Axial Movement: The dimensional lengthening or shortening of a bellow parallel
to its longitudinal axis is termed as the axial movement.
Lateral Deflection: The displacement of one end of the bellow expansion joint
relative to the other end, perpendicular to the longitudinal axis is termed as
lateral deflection.
Angular Movement: The rotation of one of the component relative to other.
There are different types of expansion joints manufactured to take care of
various requirements of the industry. The various types available are as follows:9.7.4.1 Axial Expansion Joint
This is the simplest form of expansion joint of single bellows construction.
It absorbs all of the movement of the pipe section into which it is installed. These
bellows are capable of absorbing only small amounts of lateral or angular
movement.
A double expansion joint consists of two bellows jointed by a common
connector which is anchored to some rigid part of the installation by means of an
anchor base. The anchor base may be attached to the common connector either
at installation or at the time of manufacturing. Each bellow of a double expansion
joint functions independently as a single unit. Double bellow expansion joints
should not be confused with universal expansion joints.
9.7.4.2 Universal Expansion Joint
Piping
12
A universal expansion joint is one containing two

bellows joined by a
common connector for the purpose of absorbing any combination of three (3)
basic movements. A universal expansion joint is used in cases where it is
necessary to accommodate greater amounts of lateral movement than can be
absorbed by a single expansion joint.
9.7.4.3 Swing Expansion Joint
A swing expansion joint is designed to absorb lateral deflection and/or
angular rotation in one plane only by the use of swing bars, each of which is
pinned at or near the ends of the unit
9.7.4.4 Hinged Expansion Joint
A hinged expansion joint contains one bellow and is designed to permit
angular rotation in one plane only by the use of a pair of pins running through
plates attached to the expansion joint's ends. This is the simplest form of
expansion joint of single bellows construction. It absorbs all of the movement of
the pipe section into which it is installed. These bellows are capable of absorbing
only small amounts of lateral or angular movement.
9.7.4.5 Gimbal Universal Expansion Joint
A gimbal expansion joint is designed to permit angular rotation in any
plane by the use of two pairs of hinges affixed to a common floating gimbal ring.
9.7.4.6 Pressure Balanced Joint
A pressure balanced expansion joint is designed to absorb axial
movement and/or lateral deflection while restraining the bellows pressure thrust
force by means of the devices interconnecting the flow bellow with an opposed
bellow also subjected to line pressure. This type of joint is installed where a
change of direction occurs in a run of pipe, where it is not possible to provide
suitable anchors.
9.7.4.7 Tied Expansion Joint
These are bellows provided with tie rods to restrict axial movement, while
the bellow is subjected to high pressure services. Tie rods can be provided on
single, universal or pressure balanced type of expansion joints.
Piping
13

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Rolta Academy: Engineering Design Automation