Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
DOI: 10.2478/v10161-012-0024-9
INTRODUCTION
Oil is currently the only significant energy source for deep sea and
international shipping. A significant driving force would be needed to change
this; hence oil-derived fuels are considered the default choice in all scenarios.
Taking the revised MARPOL Annex VI into account, oil-derived marine fuels
can be classified as global distillates and ECA distillates. The principal
difference between these fuels is the difference in sulphur limits. The carbon
content of these fuels would not be very different when measured on an energy
basis.
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In the distillation processing (boiling off) of crude oil, there are four broad
product fractions or categories generated: refinery gas (primarily methane,
ethane and hydrogen), liquefied petroleum gas, (primarily propane and butane),
gasoline, and distillate fuels. Each of these fuel categories boils at higher
temperature ranges, until the oil will not boil without thermally decomposing.
The fraction that does not boil is called residium or residual oil.
There are two basic types of marine fuels: distillate and residual oil. A third
type of marine fuel is a mixture of these two basic types, commonly called
"intermediate." Distillate fuel, as the name implies, is composed of petroleum
fractions of crude oil that are separated in a refinery by a boiling process, called
distillation. Residual fuel or "residium" is the fraction that does not boil,
sometimes referred to as "tar" or "petroleum pitch". Marine fuel use has the
following types and grades shown in Table 1.
Table 1. Fuel types for marine use
Fuel type
Distillate
Fuel grades
DMX, DMA,
DMZ, DMB
Intermediate
Residual
RMA-RMK
Gas fuels
Efforts to reduce costs and to achieve maximum profits in sea transport
business are carried out to counter steady increase of oil and petrochemical
product prices. One of the tools in that process is aimed at R&D, to introduce
new technologies in shipbuilding and related maritime industries. In general,
development is directed on:
- high efficiency propulsion and maneuvering systems,
- advanced hull shapes,
- hybrid propulsion,
- gas propulsion.
According to the widely known international safety regulation contained in
SOLAS Convention, the nature of LNG does not comply with regulations which
prohibit fuel with flash point of less than 60 C, i.e. methane has a flash point
of 188 C).
The following historical and technical reasons point our attention to
commercial application of gas fuels in shipping:
LNG has been used as a marine fuel for over 40 years in LNG carriers;
LPG/VOC have been used as boiler fuel for a number of years;
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2010
BLG-13
BLG-14
MSC-86
MSC-87
IMO
Res.
MSC.285(86)
2011
MSC88
2012
2013
BLG15
BLG16
DE-56
BLG17
MSC89
MSC90
MSC91
MSC92
SOLAS
2010
FP-55
2014
2015
BLG-17
BLG18
MSC-93
MSC94
SOLAS
2014
MARPOL
Annex VI
Reg.14
0.1% Sulphur
Interim Guidelines
IGF Code Finalized before BLG-17
Due to the increase of oil and petrochemical product prices, the shipping
industry started searching for alternative fuels that are also price competitive,
compared to typical marine fuels like MDO. After over 20 years of preparatory
steps, LNG can be used as an alternative fuel in the shipping industry.
LNG-propelled ships will be particularly attractive in case these vessels will
enter emission control areas (ECA), since they can meet Tier III emission levels
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and the SOX requirements without any treatment of the exhaust gas. Almost
70% of the world fleet is estimated to be entering ECA areas. In addition, the
availability of LNG fuels in bunkering ports is a challenge, which needs to be
solved before LNG becomes a practical alternative. In summary, the present
potential for reduction of CO2 emissions from ships through the use of LNG is
somewhat limited, since it is mainly relevant for newly constructed ships and
because, at present, LNG bunkering options are limited.
The forthcoming NOX and SOX ECAs will provide significant additional
incentives for the use of LNG propulsion in short range sea operations, since
ECA requirements can easily be met by LNG-propelled ships. The price of
LNG is presently significantly lower (2530%) than that of distillate fuels,
making an economic incentive for a move to LNG.
LNG is a cryogenic fuel that is maintained at approximately 260 oF
(162 oC) at atmospheric pressure. The advantage of cooling and liquefying the
fuel is that the volume is decreased approximately 600 times as compared to the
gas. This advantage improves the energy density significantly for LNG. As
a result, when compared to diesel fuel, LNG has about 2/3 as much energy on
a volume basis and almost 90% as much energy on a weight basis. Unfortunately,
storing cryogenic (very cold) fuels requires special insulated tanks that
significantly erode much of the volume and weight advantages of LNG.
Natural gas consists primarily of methane, and typical composition is presented in the Table 3.
Table 3. Typical composition of natural gas, %
Methane
Ethane
Propane
Butane
Nitrogen
94
4.7
0.8
0.2
0.3
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the mixture is between 5 and 15%, and an ignition source is present. As with
any flammable substance, proper design, regulations, and personnel training are
needed to maintain a safe environment.
Conversion from diesel to LNG propulsion is possible, but the LNG is
mainly relevant for newly constructed ships, since substantial modification of
engines, the related piping and allocation of extra storage capacity is required.
MARITIME STANDARDS FOR NATURAL GAS
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Fire safety system should be equipped with: Water spray systems, dry
powder systems, gas detection systems, temperature detection systems, and
consideration for hazardous areas and vent locations.
Design considerations should be taken into account: Regulations and Standards to Apply Design a system under IGC Code rules, Location of Fuel
Tank(s), Arrangements (No LNG tank under accommodation), Machinery
Arrangements, Ventilation (From engine to hazardous area), Hazardous zoning
in accordance with IEC60092-401 (No ESD Principle), Safety system as per
IGC (Shut down, firefighting etc.), Bunkering, Fire and Safety.
Bunkering considerations should be taken into account: Cool down, Inerting
and Gas venting, LNG Composition, Spill protection, Bunkering time and
Bunkering location.
BIOFUELS
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suitable for use on ships. Currently, biofuels are significantly more expensive
than oil-derived fuels.
Table 4. Comparison of the properties of different fuels
Density/15 C,
kg/m3
Viscosity at
40 C/50 C,
cSt
Flashpoint,
C
Cetane no.
Ash content,
%
Water content,
ppm
Acid no (TAN)
Sulphur content,
ppm
Calorific value,
MJ/kg
Vegetable
oil treated,
nontransetherified
Bio Diesel
EN 14214
Automotive
dieselEN 590
Marine
diesel ISO
8217DMB
Heavy Fuel
OilISO
8217
RM.
920 960
860 900
820 845
< 900
975 1010
30 40
3.5 5
2 4.5
< 11
< 700
> 60
> 120
> 55
> 60
> 60
> 40
< 0.01
> 51
< 0.01
> 51
< 0.01
> 35
< 0.01
> 20
< 0.2
< 500
< 500
< 200
< 300
< 5000
<4
< 10
< 0.5
< 10
< 350
< 20 000
< 50 000
ca 37
ca 37.5
ca 43
ca 42
ca 40
This would have to change if there is an incentive to use these fuels on board
ships. Moreover, as discussed in the future scenarios, as long as there is a
demand, driven by legislation, for biofuels to be used and for carbon reductions
on shore, it will be natural to use biofuels preferentially on land, where this is
credited, rather than on ships.
Present-day biofuels (often referred to as first generation biofuels) are
produced from sugar, starch, vegetable oil, or animal fats. Many of these fuels
can readily be used for ship diesels with no (or minor) adaptation of the engine.
Biofuel produced from residual non-food crops, non-food parts of current
crops (leaves, stems), and also industry waste such as wood chips, skins and
pulp from the fruit pressing is sometimes referred to as second generation
biofuels. These fuels are considered more sustainable. The conversion process
that is needed to facilitate production of second generation biofuel on an
industrial scale and in an economically viable way is still in development.
Biofuels based on using algae are sometimes referred to as third generation biofuels. This technology is presently at an early stage of development.
Depending on source, there are certain technical issues, such as stability
during the storage, acidity, lack of water-shedding (potentially resulting in
increased biological growth in the fuel tank), plugging of filters, formation of
waxes, increased engine deposits, etc., which suggest that care must be
exercised in selecting the fuel and adapting the engine. Care must be exercised
to avoid contamination with water, since biofuels are particularly susceptible to
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biofouling. Blending bio-derived fuel fractions into diesel fuel or heavy fuel oil
is also feasible from the technical perspective; however, compatibility must be
checked, as with bunker fuels. There are a lot of research reports published on
biofuels properties and technology of production, but there are only few references available describing practical applications for ship propulsion or energy
generation.
Table 5. European biodiesel standard EN 14214
Properties
Units
3
Min.
Max.
Density at 15 C
kg/m
860
900
Cetane number
Kinematic viscosity at 40 C
Flash point
Carbon residue
(on 10% distillation residue)
Oxidation stability at 110 C
Copper strip corrosion (3 h at 50 C)
Esters
Water
Sulphated ash
Sulphur
Acid value
Iodine value
Methyl linolenate
Polyunsaturated methyl esters
Methanol
Glycerides
Monoglycerides
Diglycerides
Triglycerides
Free glycerol
Total glycerol
Alkaline metals (Na, K)
mm2/s
C
wt.%
51.00
3.50
101
5.00
0.30
hrs
rating
wt.%
mg/kg
wt.%
mg/kg
mg OH/g
wt.%
wt.%
wt.%
6
Class 1
96,50
500
0.02
10
0.50
120
12.00
1.00
0.20
wt.%
wt.%
wt.%
wt.%
wt.%
mg/kg
0.80
0.20
0.20
0.20
0.20
5
mg/kg
mg/kg
10
24
Phosphorus
Total contamination
Test methods
EN ISO 3675,
EN ISO12185
EN ISO 5165
EN ISO 3104
ISO / CD 3679
EN ISO 10370
pr EN 14112
EN ISO 2160
EN 14103
EN ISO 12937
ISO 3987
pr 14104
pr 14111
pr 14103
pr 14110
pr EN 14105
pr EN 14108,
pr EN 14109
pr EN 14107
EN 12662
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CONCLUSIONS
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