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the stream crossing is wide with multiple concentrations of flow, a multiple opening facility
may be in order.
At many locations, either a bridge or a culvert will fulfill both the structural and hydraulic
requirements for the stream crossing. The roadway designer should choose the appropriate
structure based on the following criteria:
risk of failure
traffic safety
construction expedience.
Although the cost of an individual bridge is usually relatively small, the total cost of bridge
construction constitutes a substantial share of the total cost of highway construction.
Similarly, bridge maintenance may account for a large share of the total cost of maintaining
highway hydraulic features. The roadway designer can achieve improved traffic service and
reduced cost by judicious choice of design criteria and careful attention to the hydraulic
design of each bridge.
Highway-Stream Crossing Analysis
The hydraulic analysis of a highway-stream crossing for a particular flood frequency involves
the following:
determination of the backwater associated with each alternative profile and waterway
opening(s)
The hydraulic design of a bridge over a waterway involves the following such that the risks
associated with backwater and increased velocities are not excessive:
establishing a location
bridge length
orientation
A hydrologic and hydraulic analysis is required for designing all new bridges over waterways,
bridge widening, bridge replacement, and roadway profile modifications that may adversely
affect the floodplain even if no structural modifications are necessary. Typically, this should
include the following:
existing and proposed condition water surface profiles for design and check flood
conditions
consideration of the potential for stream stability problems and scour potential.
See the Documentation Reference Tables in Chapter 3 for a complete list of requirements.
Flow through Bridges
When flood flows encounter a restriction in the natural stream, adjustments take place in the
vicinity of the restriction. The portion of flow not directly approaching the bridge opening is
redirected towards the opening by the embankment. The flow contracts as it enters the
bridge and then expands as it exits the bridge. Maintaining the contraction and expansion of
flow and overcoming friction and disturbances associated with piers and abutments requires
an exchange of energy. An increase in the depth of flow upstream of the encroachment,
termed backwater, reflects this energy exchange, as shown in Figure 9-1.
avoid concentrating flow areas that were not subjected to concentrated flow prior to
construction of the highway facility
Generally, the disturbance of flow distribution can be minimized by locating bridge openings
at the areas of high conveyance.
For many situations, one-dimensional analysis techniques suffice for determining optimum
bridge locations. When analyzing complex sites, such as those at a bend (Figure 9-4), and at
skewed crossings (Figure 9-9), a great deal of intuition, experience, and engineering
judgment are needed to supplement the one-dimensional analysis. Unfortunately, complex
sites are frequently encountered in stream crossing design. The development of twodimensional techniques of analysis greatly enhances the capabilities of hydraulics designers
to deal with these complex sites. However, two-dimensional models required a great deal
more data, intuition, experience and time than a one-dimensional model.
The through-bridge velocity is the basic sizing criterion used for span-type bridges. The
average through-bridge velocity is described by the Continuity Equation (see Equation 9-1).
Equation 9-1.
where:
Figure 9-5. Velocity Profile Through Bridge Opening (heavier lines = higher velocity)
In general, waterway velocities should replicate the velocity of the natural channel. Higher
velocities may be acceptable in certain cases where the streambed is rocky or the bridge
headers are sufficiently removed from the erosive effects of floodwaters.
Bridge Scour and Stream Degradation
A scour analysis is required for new bridges, replacements, and widenings. Where a scour
analysis indicates high depths of potential contraction scour, a structure larger than that
required by the basic velocity and backwater criteria may be more cost effective than to
designing foundations and armoring to withstand the scour. The potential for deep local
scour can be reduced by enlarging the structure, but designing foundations and armoring to
withstand local scour depths may be more cost-effective. Generally, a multi-disciplined team
should assess the validity of calculated scour depths.
Stream stability issues such as potential vertical and horizontal degradation may warrant
accommodations in the bridge design. If the channel is vertically degrading, it is likely that, as
the channel deepens, the banks will slough resulting in a widening. Also, where significant
meandering is occurring, meanders tend to migrate downstream and increase in amplitude.
Structural options to accommodate either of these cases can include longer structures with
deep enough foundations to accommodate anticipated degradation or deep enough
foundations with abutment foundations designed to act as interior bents to allow future
lengthening of the bridge.
Refer to the Geotechnical Manual and the Bridge Division Geotechnical Section for further
information on bridge scour calculations and protection and for stream stability issues.
Freeboard
Navigational clearance and other reasons notwithstanding, the low chord elevation is
established as the sum of the design normal water surface elevation (high water) and a
freeboard.
For on-system bridges, the department recommends a suitable freeboard based on the
flowing criteria:
Higher freeboards may be appropriate for bridges over streams that are prone to heavy
debris loads, such as large tree limbs, and to accommodate other clearance needs.
Generally, for off-system bridge replacement structures, the low chord should approximate
that of the structure to be replaced unless the results of a risk assessment indicate a different
structure is the most beneficial option.
Roadway/Bridge Profile
The bridge is integrated into both the stream and the roadway and must be fully compatible
with both. Therefore, the alignment of the roadway and the bridge are the same between
the ends of the bridge. Hydraulically, the complete bridge profile includes any part of the
structure that stream flow can strike or impact in its movement downstream. If the stream
rises high enough to inundate the structure, then the bridge and all parts of the roadway
become the complete bridge profile.
It is not allowable for the design AEP flow to impinge on the bridge low chord or to inundate
the roadway because it violates the definition of design frequency. However, flows exceeding
the design AEP flow, including the 1% AEP flow, may inundate the structure and roadway.
Unless the route is an emergency escape route, it is often desirable to allow floods in excess
of the design flood to overtop the road. This helps minimize both the backwater and the
required length of structure.
Several vertical alignment alternatives are available for consideration, depending on site
topography, traffic requirements, and flood damage potential. The alternatives range from
crossings that are designed to overtop frequently to crossings that are designed to rarely or
to never overtop.
In Figure 9-6, the bridge is at the low point in a sag-vertical curve profile. An extreme
example of this configuration is a bridge in rolling terrain on a low-traffic road which
frequently overtop. Another example is a high bridge in rugged terrain that probably will
never be threatened by floods. A distinctive feature of the sag-vertical profile is the certainty
that the bridge structure will be submerged when any overflow of the roadway occurs.
When a skewed structure is necessary, such as appears in Figure 9-9, the substructure
fixtures such as foundations, columns, piers, and bent caps must be designed to offer
minimum resistance to the stream flow .at flood stage. The channel may meander within the
floodplain and cross under the roadway at an angle different from the floodplain. The bents
and headers should be aligned to the stream flow at flood stage because most damage to the
bridge happens at flood stage. Flood stage flows also carry the most amount of debris. Bents
not aligned with the flood flow will become an obstruction to the flood flow and increase the
risk of scour or other failure. The standard skew angles, 15, 30, and 45 should be used
unless the flow volume or some other problem renders them impractical.
In spite of the flood flow orientation, bents should not be located in the low flow channel if
at all possible. As the flow is most concentrated in the channel, the piers would be subject to
the highest hydraulic forces. The placement would also increase risk of scour by creating
eddies and turbulence, and may encourage drift buildup.
Additionally, relief openings should be provided at the approximate location of point A in
Figure 9-9 to reduce the likelihood of trapped flow and to minimize the amount of flow that
would have to travel up against the general direction of flow along the embankment.
With the configuration shown in Figure 9-9, the difference in water surface on either side of
the embankment at points A and B will be higher than water surface differential through the
opening. Relief openings at A and B will help minimize the differential.
The roadway alignment is at a skew to the streambed, and normalizing the alignment
would require unsafe or undesirable curves on the approaches to the bridge.
Embankments may be limited to a certain location due to local soil instability or permitting
requirements.
These and other aspects are valid considerations that affect bridge waterway openings.
However, hydraulic computations are necessary to predict the performance and operation of
the waterway opening at flood stages. Do not neglect hydraulic design. The design decisions,
including the reasons for any excess opening, must be documented.