Human Respiration

[1]

Bautista, J.G. [2] Castro, D.L.S. [3] Licdan, H. [4] Nual, N.

Department of Biology, College of Science, University of the Philippines Baguio
Abstract
Through breathing, inhalation and exhalation, the system provides avenue
for the exchange of gases between the air and the blood, and between the blood
and the bodys cells. The lungs then act as the functional units of the respiratory
system by passing oxygen into the body through pulmonary ventilation, and
carbon dioxide out of the body. Normal breathing has a relatively constant rate
and inspiratory volume that together constitute normal respiratory rhythm. Such is
observed and described in this exercise. At normal conditions, the normal
breathing rate is 15-20 breaths per minute. Various respiratory patters can be
observed when the subjects were made to swallow, read aloud, laugh, cough,
yawn and exercise. Respiration and swallowing do not occur at the same time.
When subjects read aloud, the alveolar ventilation tend to increase by 25%. The
diaphragm tended to counteract the excess of pressure generated on the abdominal
site due to the act of laughing. During mental concentration, there is an increase in
sympathetic discharge that increases bronchiolar radius, thus decreasing the total
airway resistance. Coughing is a long-drawn and deep inhalation followed a
strong exhalation that suddenly pushes the rima glottides open. Yawning is a deep
inhalation through the widely opened mouth. During exercise, the respiratory
system seeks to maintain dynamic equilibrium, where deep allow more oxygen to
enter the body and exhale as much excess CO2.
Introduction
The human respiratory system is responsible for taking in oxygen for intracellular
processes, and expelling carbon dioxide which is a waste product that can be lethal if allowed to
accumulate. Through breathing, inhalation and exhalation, the system provides avenue for the
exchange of gases between the air and the blood, and between the blood and the bodys cells.
When breathing, air moves through the oral cavity, pharynx, trachea, bronchi, and bronchioles.
The smooth muscle along the walls of the bronchioles is very sensitive to the concentration of
carbon dioxide. The lungs then act as the functional units of the respiratory system by passing
oxygen into the body through pulmonary ventilation, and carbon dioxide out of the body. Red
blood cells in the capillaries collect the oxygen from the alveolus of the lungs through internal
respiration, and carry it to different parts of the body. Oxygen is exchanged for carbon dioxide
waste during external respiration. Finally, the muscles of respiration, including the diaphragm
and intercostal muscles, work together to act as a pump, pushing air into and out of the lungs
during breathing (Taylor, 2016).
The average rate of breathing in humans is dependent upon age. However, normal
breathing has a relatively constant rate and inspiratory volume that together constitute normal

respiratory rhythm. Recognizing this breathing patterns is the objective of this exercise.
Alterations in these factors is an important early clue of disease recognition (Braun, 1990).

Methodology
Two females with almost identical body sizes were asked to sit comfortably in a normal
room condition. Their number of breaths per minute (respiration rate) was recorded during sitting
and during when the subjects were holding tightly a paper bag over their their nose and mouth.
To note the breath holding time, the length of time the subjects were able to hold their breath
after inhalation was noted. Variations in depth of breathing was also recorded after the task. The
subjects were then instructed to breathe deeply with their mouth as long as they can so as to
hyperventilate. The activity was immediately cut the moment the subjects experienced difficulty
in breathing. The time the subjects were able to hyperventilate and temporarily cease to breathe
was recorded. In all activities of the two subjects, their depth of breathing was also recorded.
Respiratory patterns are observed in a male and female subject. After swallowing water,
reading aloud, genuinely laughing, mentally multiplying 789 by 234, coughing, yawning, and
immediately sitting after 15 deep knee bends, the respiratory movements of both subjects were
recorded. The time elapsed before respiration was increased, and the length of time during the
elevated state was recorded.

Results and Discussion

A. Normal Respiration Rate
Respiration rate by definition is the number of breaths a person takes per minute or, the
number of movements indicative of inhalation and exhalation per unit time. It is usually
determined by counting the number of times the chest rises or falls per minute and serves as a
marker for any pulmonary dysfunction. In the experiment, the respiration rate of a female
individual was observed. At normal conditions, the respiration rate is 18 breaths per minute
which lies within the normal breathing rate which is 15-20 breaths per minute. Also, the subject
exhibited moderate breathing which signifies that adequate ventilation in alveoli is achieved.
Adequate ventilation increases the volume of atmospheric air exchanged with the residual
volume (the volume of air still remaining in the lungs after the most forcible expiration possible)
which therefore raises alveolar partial pressure of oxygen and lowers alveolar partial pressure of
carbon dioxide thus, promoting efficient gas exchange.
On the other hand, the subject exhibited deep and slow breathing manner upon instruction
to breathe into a paper bag with an increased respiratory rate of 16 breaths per minute. This result
is known as hyperpnea, a situation wherein increased depth of breathing is observed to meet the
metabolic demand of body tissues or when the body is under hypoxia (lack of oxygen). The
subjects reaction is observed since the increased level of carbon dioxide within the bag served as

a stimulant in order for the brain to instruct the respiratory system to restore the normal
concentration of both gases within the system.
B. Breath-Holding Time
The physiology of breath holding is complex, and voluntary breath-hold duration is
affected by many factors, including practice, psychology, respiratory chemoreflexes, and lung
stretch (Skow, 2015).
In this experiment, the subject has a breath-holding time of 45 seconds. Upon break
point, the subject automatically took 8 deep breaths before the respiration normalized. This was
done to immediately fill in the oxygen needed by the body to function, while at the same time,
exhalation was also long to eject large amount of CO 2 produced in the body. During breathholding, the arterial or end tidal partial pressure of oxygen falls below its normal level while the
carbon dioxide reached beyond normal.
Break point is the moment during a held breath when it becomes impossible for the
breath holder to resist gasping for air. The voluntary, lengthy contraction of the diaphragm holds
the breath by keeping the chest inflated. The break point may depend very much on stimuli that
reach the brain from the diaphragm in this unusual contracted state. As the contraction is
prolonged, the brain might subconsciously detect the signals from the diaphragm as vaguely
uncomfortable at first but eventually become intolerable, thus, causing the break point. The
automatic rhythm then regains control.This hypothesis is not fully fleshed out, but supports
Fowlers observations (that any release of breath holding, necessarily by relaxing the diaphragm,
enabled another one) and with the effects of lung inflation and blood-gas manipulation on breathholding duration (Parkes, 2012).
Breath-hold duration can be increased by increasing lung inflation. It might be assumed
that lung volume stays the same throughout breath-holding when the extraction of oxygen from
the alveoli is counteracted by equal production of CO 2. In fact, the lungs gradually contract by
200500 ml min1 during breath-holding due to the failure to remove CO 2 from the alveoli that
abolishes the partial pressure gradient that drives CO2 from blood into alveolar gas, hence the
extracted O2 is not replaced by an equal volume of CO2 (Parkes, 2005).
Relaxing the diaphragm even a bit and exhaling slightly would delay break point by
relieving the signals from the stretch sensors in the diaphragm. Raising the oxygen level and
lowering the carbon dioxide level in the blood would also extend breath-holding capability by
reducing biochemical indicators of fatigue in the diaphragm. Anything that prevents the brain
from monitoring such informationfor example, by blocking the nerves between the diaphragm
and the brainwill extend duration. The tolerance of the brain to such unpleasant signals will
also depend on your mood, motivation and ability to be distracted by, say, mental arithmetic
(Parkes, 2012).

Though still not completely fleshed out, breath-holding capacity has two important
properties.First, The CNS continue to function throughout breath holding but can merely
expression of their central respiratory rhythm and voluntarily hold the chest at a chosen
volume.Second, breath-hold duration is prolonged by bilateral paralysis of the phrenic or vagus
nerves. Possibly the contribution to the breakpoint from stimulation of diaphragm muscle
chemoreceptors is greater than has previously been considered (Parkes, 2005).
C. Hyperventilation
Hyperventilation is defined as breathing in excess of the metabolic needs of the body.
During hyperventilation, the rate of removal of carbon dioxide from the blood is increased. As
the partial pressure of carbon dioxide in the blood decreases, respiratory alkalosis, characterized
by decreased acidity or increased alkalinity of the blood, occurs. Alkalosis causes constriction of
the small blood vessels that supply the brain causing dizziness or in worst cases, loss of
consciousness.
In the experiment, the subject exhibited slow deep breaths after the recovery period. This
result is observed because slow deep breaths allow the constriction of blood vessels to subside
making the respiration process back to normal.
D.Recording of Respiratory Patterns
In this part of the experiment, the subject performed several conditions and the breathing
patterns were observed.
Swallowi
ng

Reading
aloud

Laughi
ng

Mentall
y
multipli
ng

Coughi
ng

Yawning

Knee
bending
-M

Knee
BendingF

Breathing Decreased
Short
Decreased
A long
A deep
6 seconds 10 seconds
and
breathing
abrupt
breathing
drawninhalation
before
before
swallowing
Rate;
inhalation rate; Tend
deep
through the breathing breathing is
do not
Sharp,
From the
to hold
inhalation
widely
is
increased;
happen at
short
mouth
breath
followed
opened
increased; 75 seconds
the same inhalation;
by strong
mouth
60 seconds
before
time.
exhalation
exhalation producing
before
breathing
during
an
breathing normalized.
speaking
exaggerated normalized
(slowly)
depression
of the
mandible.
Table 1. Observations of Breathing Patterns from the different sets of conditions

Swallowing

The respiration and swallowing do not occur at the same time. After swallowing, the
subject follows a respiration through the nose. The pathways for air and food cross in the
pharynx. In breathing, air may flow through either the nose or the mouth, it always flows through
the pharynx. During swallowing, the pharynx changes from an airway to a food channel. The
pharynx is isolated from the nasal cavity and lower airway by velopharyngeal and laryngeal
closure during the pharyngeal swallow (Matsuo and Palmer, 2009).
Reading aloud
During pause, the subject tend to have short, sharp inhalation and as the subject reads,
exhalation happens slowly. When subjects read aloud, the alveolar ventilation tend to increase by
25% while carbon dioxide pressure falls thus, during speech, chemical drive is overwhelmed by
voluntary behavior. (Boron and Boulpaep, 2012).
Laughing
When the subjects were allowed to laugh, it was observed that the inhalation is short and
abrupt while the chest size became smaller. Laughter was characterized by small and consecutive
expiratory efforts which caused a systematic and consistent decrease in lung volume. Dynamic
events occurring in the chest wall during laughter were associated with a remarkable decrease in
lung volume due to sudden and sustained increase in esophageal and gastric. The latter
substantially exceeded critical pressure with few exceptions, thus generating expiratory flow
limitation and dynamic collapse in the airways downstream from the choke point. Higher
diaphragm pressure at the end of the consecutive expiratory efforts than during a slow expiratory
maneuver over the same absolute lung volumes suggests that the diaphragm tended to counteract
the excess of pressure generated on the abdominal site, thus protecting intrathoracic structures
from further mechanical stress and compression (Filippelli, 2001).
Mentally multiplying 789 by 234
During mental concentration, there is an increase in sympathetic discharge that increases
bronchiolar radius, thus decreasing the total airway resistance. During concentration there is a a
minor decrease in metabolic rate since the subject is in a relaxed state. This decrease in metabolic
rate will result in decrease CO2 pressure thus decreasing respiratory drive (SDN, 2007).
Coughing
A long-drawn and deep inhalation followed by a complete closure of the rima glottidis,
which results in a strong exhalation that suddenly pushes the rima glottidis open and sends a
blast of air through the upper respiratory passages. Stimulus for this reflex act may be a foreign
body lodged in the larynx, trachea, or epiglottis (Aibolita.com, n.d).
Yawning

A deep inhalation through the widely opened mouth producing an exaggerated depression
of the mandible is yawning. It may be stimulated by drowsiness, or someone elses yawning, but
the precise cause is unknown (Aibolita.com, n.d).
Knee Bending
The male and female subjected in knee bending were both non-athletes and novice
exercisers. Hence, the time it took for the subjects to regain normal breathing pattern were
almost the same, taking 60 seconds and 75 seconds for the male and female, respectively.
During exercise, several regulatory system, including the respiratory system, seek to maintain
dynamic equilibrium of important physiological variables even though these variables
increase(CO2) or decrease (pH) from the resting level. During exercise, the medullary controller
receives input from higher brain centers . The medulla in turn, signals respiratory muscles to
increase their contraction frequency (Brown, 2006). This contraction requires ATP and thus
means that increased in metabolism. This also means there is an increase in CO 2 production in
the body. After an exercise, subjects happens therefore tend to take deep breaths to increase in
pulmonary ventilation to allow more oxygen to enter the body and force to exhale as much as
CO2 that can be expelled in the body.

Conclusion
At normal conditions, the normal breathing rate is 15-20 breaths per minute. Moderate
breathing signifies that adequate ventilation in alveoli is achieved. Breathing into a paper bag
may lead to hyperpnoea, a situation wherein increased depth of breathing is observed to meet the
metabolic demand of body tissues or when the body is under hypoxia. During breath-holding, the
arterial or end tidal partial pressure of oxygen falls below its normal level while the carbon
dioxide reached beyond normal.
Hyperventilation is defined as breathing in excess of the metabolic needs of the body that
leads to alkalosis. In the experiment, the subject exhibited slow deep breaths after the recovery
period. This result is observed because slow deep breaths allow the constriction of blood vessels
to subside making the respiration process back to normal.
Various respiratory patters can be observed when the subjects were made to swallow, read
aloud, laugh, cough, yawn and exercise. Respiration and swallowing do not occur at the same
time. During swallowing, the pharynx changes from an airway to a food channel. When subjects
read aloud, the alveolar ventilation tend to increase by 25% while carbon dioxide pressure falls
thus, during speech, chemical drive is overwhelmed by voluntary behavior. Laughter is
characterized by small and consecutive expiratory efforts which caused a systematic and
consistent decrease in lung volume. The diaphragm tended to counteract the excess of pressure
generated on the abdominal site. During mental concentration, there is an increase in sympathetic
discharge that increases bronchiolar radius, thus decreasing the total airway resistance. Coughing

is a long-drawn and deep inhalation followed by a complete closure of the rima glottidis, which
results in a strong exhalation that suddenly pushes the rima glottidis open and sends a blast of air
through the upper respiratory passages. Yawning is a deep inhalation through the widely opened
mouth producing an exaggerated depression of the mandible. During exercise, the respiratory
system seeks to maintain dynamic equilibrium of important physiological variables. In such
strenuous activities, increase in metabolism means there is an increase in CO 2 production in the
body, leading to deep breaths to increase in pulmonary ventilation to allow more oxygen to enter
the body and force to exhale as much as CO2 that can be expelled in the body.
The breathing patterns in man were observed and described hence, the objective was
fulfilled.

Appendix
1. Discuss the respiratory center, its control of breathing and factors that may influence it.
The medullary respiratory center was considered the primary respiratory control center
consisting of two neuronal clusters: the dorsal and ventral respiratory group (Mateika, n.d). It is a
group of nerve cells in the pons and medulla of the brain that controls the rhythm of breathing in
response to changes in levels of oxygen, carbon dioxide, and hydrogen ions in the blood and
cerebrospinal fluid (Mosbys Medical Dictionary, 2009). The dorsal respiratory group is
comprised of inspiratory neurons while the ventral respiratory group is made-up of inspiratory
and expiratory neurons. The groups receive afferent information from respiratory related
mechanoreceptors and chemoreceptors via the ninth and tenth cranial nerves as well as the spinal
cord (Mateika, n.d). The pontine respiratory group (PRG) is comprised of expiratory neurons in
and inspiratory neurons. The group has reciprocal connections with the medulla. Several
respiratory neurons in the medulla have axons that travel down to the spinal cord then synapse
onto interneurons or motor neurons located at the cervical, thoracic or lumbar regions of the
spinal cord. The spinal neurons, then form nerves that exit the spinal cord and innervate the
muscles of inspiration and expiration. Once the inspiratory muscles, which is also excitable by
the lower portion of the pons, contract, a negative pressure is generated. This causes air to travel
from the atmosphere towards the lungs. Increased activity within the PRG shortens the activity
of inspiratory neurons in the medulla causing the inspiration process to be shortened and
expiration to be initiated earlier (Mateika, n.d). The absence of input from the pneumotaxic
center and from lung stretch receptors, and the absence of any influence from the pontine centers
cause disturbances in breathing pattern. These are affected by lung pressures and pressure
gradients, lung composition (arrangement of the collagen and elastin fibers), and surface tension.
Surface tension is generated by the interaction between the air-fluid interface in the alveoli that
can cause the alveoli to collapse to the smallest possible surface area. For example, an air
inflated lung requires large positive pressures and exhibits hysteresis, where the path followed
during expiration is different from that taken during inspiration (Mateika, n.d)

2. What is the average normal human respiration rate? What are the factors affecting respiration
rate in humans.
The respiratory rate averages 12 breaths per minute. The factors affecting respiration rate
in humans are anatomic dead space, alveolar ventilation, breathing patterns, and partial pressure
gradients. Not all the inspired air gets down to the site of gas exchange in the alveoli. Part
remains in the conducting airways, where it is not available for gas exchange. The volume of the
conducting passages in an adult averages about 150 ml. This volume is considered anatomic dead
space because air within these conducting airways is useless for exchange. Because the amount
of atmospheric air that reaches the alveoli and is actually available for exchange with blood is
more important than the total amount breathed in and out, alveolar ventilationthe volume of air
exchanged between the atmosphere and the alveoli per minuteis more important than
pulmonary ventilation. As needs vary, ventilation is normally adjusted to a tidal volume and
respiratory rate that meet those needs most efficiently in terms of energy cost. Lastly, gases move
down partial pressure gradients (Sherwood, 2012).
Also, respiration rate can be varied in case there are abnormalities like asthma, anxiety,
pneumonia, congestive heart failure, and lung disease. Other factors include the use of narcotics
and also, drug overdose (The Cleveland Clinic Foundation, 2014).
3. What is the effect of forced breathing on the length of time one can hold his breath?
Forced breathing is, to breathe deeply and slowly for certain duration of time voluntarily,
overcoming the autonomic or involuntary breathing drive (Joshi & Joshi, 1998). The length of
time that one can hold his or her breath can be substantially increased by hyperventilating
immediately prior to the period of breath-holding. When one takes a deep breath, the amount of
carbon dioxide in the body is lowered. It will then take more time to trigger the respiratory
centers (Science Knowledge, 2010).
The prolonged breath holding time could also be attributed to the increased endurance of
respiratory muscles resulting in delayed onset of fatigue. It increases the elastic properties of
lungs and chest, thus, improving some of the ventilatory functions of the lungs (Joshi & Joshi,
1998)
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