College of the Social Sciences and Development

Department of Sociology and Anthropology

Introduction to Sociology
Key Sociological Perspectives

Key Sociological Perspectives

Conflict Theory

Conflict theory is a perspective in social science that emphasize the social, political or
material inequality of a social group, that critique the broad socio-political system, or
that otherwise detract from structural functionalism and ideological conservativism.
Conflict theories draw attention to power differentials, such as class conflict, and
generally contrast historically dominant ideologies. It is therefore a macro level
analysis of society.

Society is divided in different social classes. The antagonism between these social
classes has been the driving force in every historical epoch.

The disadvantaged in the social system will counter the existing status quo, which will
lead to social change. They are viewed as agents of change.

Human potential (e.g., capacity for creativity) is suppressed by conditions of

exploitation and oppression, however, it is always assumed that creativity is the engine
for economic development and change.

The role of theory is in realizing human potential and transforming society, rather than
maintaining the power structure. (praxis) The opposite aim of theory would be the
objectivity and detachment associated with positivism, where theory is a neutral,
explanatory tool.

Consensus is a euphemism for ideology. Genuine consensus is not achieved, rather the
more powerful in societies are able to impose their conceptions on others and have
them accept their discourses. Consensus does not preserve social order, it entrenches
and prolongs stratification. e.g., the American dream.

The state serves as a tool to reproduce the power of dominant groups.

Charles Wright Mills (1916 - 1962)
Considered as the founder of modern conflict theory.

Social structures are created through conflict between people of differing interests and
resources

The Power Elite (1957)

Mills examined those political, economic, and military circles, which has an
intricate set of overlapping small but dominant groups that share decisions
which has the capacity to create societal consequences.
Some types of Conflict Theory
o

Critical theory
Feminist theory
Postmodern theory
Post - structural theory
Queer theory
Race Conflict theory

Structural Functionalism

Structural functionalist theory sees society as a complex system whose parts work
together to promote solidarity and stability. This approach looks at society through a
macro-level orientation, which is a broad focus on the social structures that shape

College of the Social Sciences and Development

Department of Sociology and Anthropology

Introduction to Sociology
Key Sociological Perspectives

society as a whole. This approach looks at both social structure and social functions.
Functionalism addresses society as a whole in terms of the function of its constituent
elements; namely norms, customs, traditions and institutions.

Influenced by the philosophy of August Comte (positivism) and Herbert Spencer

(organic analogy)

Structural Functionalist perspective attempts to explain how certain social conditions

exist through their function.

The backbone of social equilibrium is consensus.

Social institutions would either change its form within the existing system or it would
create dysfunction or would cease to exist. (adaptation)

Each unit in society strive to maintain balance and order to create social equilibrium.
Talcott Parsons (1902 - 1979)
o Social systems are made up of actions of individuals.
AGIL paradigm
A systematic depiction of certain societal functions, which every society must meet to
be able to maintain stable social life.
Adaptation
Capacity of society to interact with the environment. These include gathering
resources and producing commodities to social redistribution. (ECONOMIC)
Goal attainment
Capacity to set goals for future and make decisions accordingly. It is comprised by
political resolutions that aims to materialize societal objectives. (POLITICAL)
Integration
The reproduction of values and norms are maintained by certain social structures. The
aim is to maintain societal harmony by ensuring that norms and values are constantly
imposed. (e.g. Religious systems, mass media) (CULTURE)
Latency
Latent pattern maintenance, challenges society to maintain integrative elements of the
integration required above. (e.g. Family and education) (CULTURE)

Robert K. Merton (1910 - 2003)

Manifest and Latent functions (and dysfunctions)

o

Manifest Functions

Consequence that people observe or expect.

Latent Functions

Consequences that are neither recognized nor intended.

College of the Social Sciences and Development

Department of Sociology and Anthropology

Introduction to Sociology
Key Sociological Perspectives

Symbolic Interactionism

Reality is seen as social, developed interaction with others. Most symbolic

interactionists believe a physical reality does indeed exist by an individual's social
definitions, and that social definitions do develop in part or relation to something real.
People do not respond to this reality directly, but rather one may define the situation
as it exists.

Humans therefore exist in three realities: a physical objective reality, a social reality,
and a unique.
a.
b.
c.

Physical reality
Social reality
Unique reality (A reality derived from social reality. A private interpretation of
reality that is shown to persons by others.)

Herbert Blumer (1969) set out three basic premises of the perspective:

"Humans act toward things on the basis of the meanings they ascribe to those things.

"The meaning of such things is derived from, or arises out of, the social interaction that
one has with others and the society.

"These meanings are handled in, and modified through, an interpretative process used by
the person in dealing with the things he/she encounters."

Basic prepositions of Symbolic Interactionism

The human being is understood as a social person. Interaction is the basic unit of
study. Individuals are created by interaction and so is society.

The human being is a thinking being. We are not simply conditioned, we are not
simply beings who are influenced by those around us, we are not simply products of
society.

Humans do not sense their environment directly, instead, humans define the situation
they are in. An environment may actually exist, but it is our definition of it that is
important.

Human beings are described as active beings in relation to their environment. Words
such as conditioning, responding, controlled, imprisoned, and formed are not used to
describe the human being in symbolic interaction.