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Several different types of tissues made of specialised cells work together to form
a functional unit whose purpose is to deliver air to and remove air from the gas
exchange surface of the alveoli
Airway
Number Approximate
diameter
Cartilage
Goblet
cells
Smooth
muscles
Trachea
1.8cm
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
Bronchus
1.2cm
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
Terminal
bronchiole
48 000
1.0mm
No
No
Yes
Yes
No
Respiratory
bronchiole
300000
0.5mm
No
No
No
Yes
No
Alveolar
duct
9 x 106
400m
No
No
No
No
Yes
Alveoli
9 x 109
250m
No
No
No
No
Yes
Cells:
Ciliated cells - the most numerous of the cell types, extend through the full thickness
of the epithelium. The epithelium is pseudostratified. The base of every cell actually
rests on the basement membrane, therefore it is simple, not stratified. However, the
epithelial cells are of different heights, there are short basal cells and tall columnar
cells, and their nuclei are seen at different levels. This gives the epithelium a stratified
appearance. Because it contains tall cells, it is called a pseudostratified, columnar
epithelium.
Function: provide a coordinated sweeping motion of the mucus coat - "ciliary
escalator" to the pharynx - that serves as an important protective mechanism for
removing small inhaled particles
Mucus (goblet) cells - are interspersed among the ciliated cells and also extend
through the full thickness of the epithelium. Goblet cells are interspersed among the
ciliated cells and also extend the full length of the epithelium. The mucinogen granules
are found in the cytoplasm at the apical end. The thick mucus extends the apical end,
rendering the cell wineglass-shaped (hence its name). The nucleus is flattened at the
base of the mucus cup.
Function: unicellular mucin-secreting
Brush cells - you will not be able to distinguish in standard preparations. Columnar
cells that bear microvilli. The basal surface is in synaptic contact with the
afferent nerve endings that penetrate the basal lamina.
Function: receptor cells of general sensation
Cartilage
Ciliated epithelium
Smooth Muscle
Longitudinal Muscle
Elastic Tissue
Goblet Cells
Pseudostratified ciliated
columnar epithelium
Pseudostratified ciliated
columnar epithelium
Submucosa
- serous and mucous glands in the submucosa of the
trachea.
- The serous glands secrete a watery proteinaceous product,
while the mucous glands secrete a viscous, heavier product
called mucus.
- The ducts of the glands pass through the layer(submucosa)
and epithelium to empty into the lumen (surface)
- The lumen is obscured as it approaches the epithelium.
(This is a frequent phenomenon of sectioning.)
Cartilage
- The matrix of cartilage typically stains a purplish color
(depending on the preparation).
- Staining is most intense around the cartilage cells, which are
called chondrocytes and sit in spaces called lacunae.
- Chondrocytes are often found in clusters.
- The chondrocytes occupy the whole lacuna, but they
frequently shrink during preparation, and the lacunae appear
as spaces around cells.
- Function: provide flexibility to the tracheal pipe and maintain
the lumen of being opened.
- The trachealis muscle is smooth muscle. Its functions to
narrow the tracheal lumen so when you cough, the narrower
the trachea, the faster the air moves and can propel
whatever is making you cough out of the trachea.
Hyaline cartilage
Smooth muscle
- One of three types of muscle
found in the body (cardiac and
skeletal being the other two). The
muscle is involuntary, which means
that it is controlled by the
autonomic nervous system.
Movement alters size of the
bronchial lumen
Elastic fibre
- Found in connective tissue, the
fibre can stretch up to 1.5 times its
normal size and springs back. It
works in conjunction with smooth
muscle to maintain a stressed
airway. It is said to give the
structure recoil ability to return
back to its usual shape and size.
Bronchus
Bronchiole
Respiratory Bronchioles
Respiratory Bronchioles
Alveoli
Alveoli have a very thin epithelial lining
surrounded by many blood capillaries that
carry deoxygenated blood.
They provide a short distance and a large surface
area over which oxygen and carbon dioxide can be
exchanged.
They also contain elastic fibres which expand to
allow air in and snap back to help force out air.
Lung disease
Lung cancer
Emphysema
Chronic bronchitis
COPD
Cardiovascular
Diseases
Atherosclerosis
Strokes
Coronary Heart
Disease
Angina
Heart failure
Heart attack
Tobacco smoke
There are three main components that are
hazardous to health.
(i) Nicotine
(ii) Carbon monoxide
(iii)Tar
Lung Cancer
tar in tobacco smoke contains several
carcinogens.
These can make DNA in epithelial cells lining
the lungs mutate, which is the first step
towards a malignant tumour.
(b) Emphysema
Inflammation of the constantly infected lungs
causes phagocytes to leave blood and line the
airways.
To reach the lining of the lungs from the
capillaries, phagocytes release elastase
This enzyme destroys elastin in the walls of
the alveoli
Elastin is responsible for the recoil of the
alveoli when we breathe out
Cardiovascular Disease
Cardiovascular diseases are degenerative
diseases of the heart and circulatory system
And are caused by many factor multifactorial
Atherosclerosis
Starts with accumulation of fatty materials in
artery walls.
Reduces flow of blood to tissues and may also
increase the chance of blood clots forming
within the artery, obstructing the flow of
blood entirely.
Build up which contains cholesterol, fibres,
dead muscle cells and platelets is called
atheroma.
Normal
cross
section
of the
artery
wall.
Fatty
material is
deposited in
vessel wall.
Atheroma
deposits in
the inner
wall and
roughening
the artery
Damage to
artery wall
possibly by
high blood
pressure,
CO or
nicotine
Narrowed
artery
becomes
blocked by
a blood clot
Stroke
A stroke occurs when an artery in the brain
(a) Bursts so that blood leaks into brain tissues
(brain haemorrhage)
(b) Is blocked due to artherosclerosis or a
thrombus.
Stroke
The brain tissue in the area supplied by the
artery is starved of oxygen and dies (cerebral
infarction)
A stroke may be fatal or cause mild or severe
disability.
Depending on how large the area of brain
infected.
Angina pectoris
Severe chest pain brought on by exertion (e.g.
exercise)
Pain is caused by severe shortage of blood to the
heart muscle, but there is no death to the heart
tissue.
Heart Attack
Heart failure
Due to blockage of a main coronary artery
Result in gradual damage of heart muscle
The heart weakens and fails to pump
efficiently.
Drugs.
Coronary artery by-pass surgery.
Heart Transplant.
Angioplasty.
Drugs
Used to lower blood pressure, decrease risk of blood clotting,
prevent abnormal heart rhythms, reduce retention of fluids and
decrease the cholesterol
ACE (angiotensin-converting enzyme) inhibitors. ACE inhibitors
are commonly used to treat high blood pressure. Examples
include captopril and enalapril.
If you have a high blood cholesterol level, cholesterol-lowering
medicine called statins may be prescribed. Examples include
simvastatin, pravastatin and atorvastatin. They work by blocking
the formation of cholesterol and increasing the number of LDL
receptors in the liver, which help to remove the LDL cholesterol
from your blood
Heart Transplant
Angioplasty
Less invasive procedure.
Involves stretching the coronary arteries
by inserting a deflated balloon in the
femoral artery in the leg, positioning it in
the narrowed coronary artery and
expanding the balloon several times.
Prevention of CHD
Prevention is more cost effective than
treatment.
Two major ways;
Screen for population at risk
Adopting healthy lifestyle