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    Self-mummified Buddhas in Japan by Ichiro Hori, 1962

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    136 Ansichten24 Seiten

    Self Mumified Buddhas in Japan

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    Self-mummified Buddhas in Japan by Ichiro Hori, 1962

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    Self-Mummified Buddhas in Japan. An Aspect of the Shugen-Do ("Mountain Asceticism") Sect Ichiro Hori History of Religions, Vol. 1, No. 2 (Winter, 1962), 222-242. Stable URL: bhtp:flinks,jstor-org/sici?sici~0018-27 10%28196224%291%3A2%3C222%3ASBUAA%3E2.0,CO%3B2-0 History of Religions is currently published by The University of Chicago Press. ‘Your use of the ISTOR archive indicates your acceptance of ISTOR’s Terms and Conditions of Use, available at htp:sseww jstor org/aboutiterms.html. ISTOR’s Terms and Conditions of Use provides, in part, that unless you hhave obtained prior permission, you may aot download an entie issue of a journal or multiple copies of articles, and ‘you may use content in the ISTOR archive only for your personal, non-commercial use Please contact the publisher eegarding any futher use ofthis work, Publisher contact information ray he abained at ftps tor. oraournalucpress. hm Each copy of any part ofa JSTOR transenission must contain the same copyright tice that appears on the screen or printed page of such transtnission, ISTOR isan independent not-for-profit organization dedicated to creating and preserving a digital archive ot scholarly journals. For more information regarding ISTOR, please contact suppom@jstor org. hup:thrww.jstor.orgy “Thu Aug 11 08:27:27 2005 Ichiro Hori | SELF-MUMMIFIED BUDDHAS IN JAPAN+ AN ASPECT OF THE SHUGEN-DO (CMOTN TAIN ASCRTICISM") SEOT nermonceTioN I should like in this paper to report. on the recent discovery of self- ‘mummified Buddhas in tho Shugen-dd sect of the Shingon school and to diseuss in. more general terms the characteristics of Japanese Shu- ‘gen-d0 mysticism together with its theoretical, institutional, and re- Tigious background. “ti aie rn GM rag ndrten yt wi on tha uuuel llaus possesion apace it end kegs te putas aaa aa ne Atubject to fnd celations with other similar phenomena, as, ¢g., in Tibet. Never- ISIE, Stace spp this t o prtent he ees of te wees Reece Uae PBR as fe nt “Sika an th rfng a thls paper wre fctated by the Investing Compan oF So asa She Mahl Sn We i Hema Ha Hela Ee Bt tes Elladan ier et leagues at the University of Chicago for their encouragement. We ore grateful to rar ins na Se Chat Wie fr eling the Sal et and LePage tngr oll sags eat Gi treba rece bok, Nippon no Mira Mummies Kren Bsc Rowe ala ath aaa, ‘Seated cml i tent pt ye a SiTBoTe Gy taderaating sors only tod ensayo core Feligous stunimifetion inthe Far Mest, schading fapan, China, and Tibe, Last year, self-mummified Buddhas were discovered by chance at five Shugon-d6 temples in Yamagata Prefecture. These Buddhas have since become the scene of research by our special investigating com- mittee. This was a miraculous discovery, for the only other known example of mummification in Japan was that af four members of the Fajiwara. family, the ruling family of northeast Honsho in the twelfth century. Because of Janan's exceeding'y humid climate, furthermore, mummification is an extremely ineppropriste way of disposing of the dead, Thus, although it was known by many historians of religion and folklorists that legends surrounding the gyndx-suka mounds in Japan tell that at such places a certain gyénin had been buried alive, it wae not known whether these legends contained 2. kernel of histori~ cal truth, The six newly discovered mummified Buddhas, however, ‘were found in their own specist hall at an altar within « temple and were worshiped by a small group of believers, ‘Asa result of the field studies which have been made on these newly found mummies, several important and hitherto unknown facte con- cerning the history of the Shugen-d0 sect have been made clear, Im- portant emong these are the charscteristies of the gydnin, & certain type of ascetic in the Yudano sect (a subdivision of the Shugen-dd} vwho was quite different from asceties in the other ssets of the Shugen- dé as wel! as from those in the sume sect, such as the shugen-ska, the head of a seminary on or atound the saered mountain, or the senda, 4 guide or conduetor, The status and functions of each of these types ‘will be explained in detait in the following sectione of this paper. 1. BRIG HISTORY OF THE 80x MUnAMIFtED nUDDHAS Before entering; upon a discussion of the specific characteristic of the Shugen-d0 sect, and in particular those of the Yudono, T would like to describe briefly the history of the six newly discovered Buddhas 1, Honmy$-kai Shonin (enshrined at Honmyé-j in Higashi-Twamo- to of Asahi-mura). Born of the Togushi family, a retainer of the feudal lord Sakai at Teuruoka, Honmyt-kai became a gynin in the Yudoxo sect in onder to pray for hislord’s recovery fram a serious illness. Hav- ing left his wife and children behind, he entered the Churen-ji Semi- nary, a member of one of the four main groups of seminaries in the ‘Yudouo sect, and guined a knowledge of some of their primary doc- trines, prayers, and rules of disvipline. After this he led s secluded life ina special place named Sennin-2asva (literally, “Swamp of Wizards”) between Churen-ji and the Shrine of Mount: Yudono, holy af holies for the Yudono sect, and there practiced a severely aszetie regimen for several years, It is said that after 1673 he began abstention from 223 Self-mummified Buddhas in Japan cereals (moknjiki-gué) for about eight years, sustaining his life by the consumption of onty the bark of pine trees. Fis lord, Sekai, having become his supporter beeause of the virtue and superhuman powers of Honrayé-kai, instituted a drive to raise a temple for him, Mean- while, Honmyé-Kai had determined ‘to become s Buddba in his very own body as his hody was” (cokushin-jébutsu), and in 1688 he entered into a stone chamber under the ground and died e peaceful death while cbanting a prayer to Amitabha Buddha (Amida-bulsu). His corpse was exhumed from the chamber immediately after his death, ‘made to assume a sitting posture with crossed legs like a Buddha, and dried up with a chareoal fire and incense fumes. After that the corpse ‘was buried again in the underground chaanber for about three years. When it was again recovered, the corpse had become cornpletely mummified. It was enshrined by the followers and disciples of Hon myé-kai ag an abject of worship in a speciat hall in Honmyd-ii called soku-buteu-2 (hall dedicated to the person who became a Buddha it his very own body}. Hanmyé-kai’s lifelong desire was to free his people from suffering and illness, Even today he is worshiped as a Buddha and supplicated by the peasanta near a tempte for the relief of eye diseases. 2. Chi-kai Shdnin (ensbrined at Kaik6-it in Sakata City), Born of the Toxashi family, Chi-kai was a nephew of Houmyé-kei Shénin, He deeply admired his uncte’s virtues and superhuman power, and he wished to model himself upon his deeds. He adopted s severe aserti- cist at Churen-ji Seminary as well as at Sennin-rayea. on Mount, Yu- dono, one feature of which was the practice of eating only chestnuts or torreya nuts for a period of a thousand days. Through his own efforts he then built. temple named Kaisé-ji in Sakata City in which his mummy is now contained. Determined to become a mummified Buddha as his uncle had, Chi-kai Shonin entered into a wooden coffin in 1758 at the age of fifty-eight. and was buried slive. The body of Cht-kai was dug up three years later, and following the same meth- od previously outlined, was dried through the use of candle fires and incense fumes at. the main temple of Churen-ji. His mummy was en- shrined at the eoku-bulsu-dd hall at Kaik6-i. 3. Shinnyo-kai Shénin (enshrined at Dainichi-bo in Osmi-mura). A member of the Shindo family, and a farmer in Higashi-mura near ‘Tsuruokea City, formerly the feude! espital of Saki Fief, Shinayo-kai Killed a samurai (warrior) accidentally following a false accusation. He escaped to Dainichi-bd Seminary, « member of another important seminary group of the Vudoro sectan the west side of Mount Yudono. ‘The chief abbot of Dainichi-bé suecceded in sheltering him from the 204 Tis I.—Mismmified Buddhs of Chked Shans dreseed in the este guanen's official costurse £6 Kaiké-i Temple in Sakata City, Yamagata Prelectare Fic, 2—Iete-gydnin performing the agriewtursl vite called Onerk-menteart on Fehrusry 18 at Kaiki Temple in Sakats City. The one at lef, with a symbot tnd wearinga white robe ard special ascetic Load, i falling it a teanogin onder te annaunes the divination Pro. 3 —Fose-gyinin in a uiform for the religions susterties in the eold seasoa, ith the spacial symbol named banden and ofertory box. pursuing officials of the fef’s government, for even at that time some Buddhist temples were protected by the principle of extraterritoriali- ty. Both for the salvation of the deceased samurai’s soul and in order to become 2 mummified Buddha, Shinnyo-kai became an ascetic guénin of the Yudono sect and practiced a severe discipline, Leading, a seoluded life at Sennin-zawa, he took up the exercise of abstaining, from oerea’s for about three thousand days, Finally in 1788 he dug a pit on the hilltop near Dainichi-bé, and stepping into a wooden coffin ‘with a breathing hole made of bamboo, ordered Gat he be lowered into it, He diod at the age of ninety-six on the fourteenth day of the eighth month, chanting the name of Amitabha Buddha and ringing a bell. 4, Tetsumon-kai Shénin (ensbrined at Churen-ji). Born in 1768 of a farmer's family named Sunada in a suburb of Tsuruoka City, Tetsu- ‘mon-kai Shénin carried timber and gravel on the riverside. One day when the banks of the river were about to break because of the long, heavy rains, Tetsumon-kai saw that two eamuras in charge of the flood eontrol were drunk, and be charged them with negligence. They struck angrily at him, and Tetsumon-kai killed them with a fre hook He then escaped to Churen-i, where ie was sheltered by the chief abbot and became a diseiple at the seminary, performing the austeri- ties of the Shugen-d0, He also engaged in public works and in medical care with the use of herbs, He left his inark not only in northeast Honshi but also in the Kanto erea centering around Yedo (Tokyo). Monuments of his virtuous deeds are to he found in many places, even in Niigata and Chiba. prefectures. It. is said that Tetsumon-kai dedicated his eyes to the deity of Mount, Yudono in order to save the people from the sufferings of eye disease. Consequently, the ‘Tet- summon-kai Buddha is worshiped and prayed to as a guardian of the ‘eyes, In 1829 when he was sixty-one years ald, Tetsumon-kai entered niéredna after baving performed a fast at the main hall of Churen-j, according (o the precedent of Kobd Daishi (Kokai, the founder of the. ‘Shingon sehool ia Japan, 774-835 4.0.). Afterward, his corpse be- came a mummy, that is, s Buddha in his very own hody, and was en- shrined af a epecial sanctuary in Churen-ji Temple. 5. Enmyé-kai Shonin (enshrined at Kaik6-ji in Sakata City). Born ina suburb of Tsurvoka City as a former's eon, Enmyd-kai was con- verted in his youth to the Haguro sect of Shugen-d6, a rival of the Yudono sect centering around the sacred mountains of Gassan, Yu- dono, and Hazuro. He became an ascotie within this group, but was afterward strongly influenced by ‘Tetsumon-kai’s virtuous deeds and became his disciple, a convert to the Yudono seet. As the heir of his ‘master Tetsumon-kai, Enmyé-kai sucoeeded the chief abbot of Kaikd- 25 Self-mummified Buddhas in Japan ji in Sakata. He then practiced abstaining from cereals for several years, and he entered naresna alive in 1822 preceding his master. He was fifty-taree years old at the time. His corpse became « mummy, although the place and manner of his death are not yet clear. 6, Tetsuryuckai Shonin (enshrined at Nangaku-ji in Tsuruoks, City). Born in Akita Prefecture, Tofsurya-kai became an ascetic of the Yudona sect, following Tetsamon-kai, Until 1862 he engaged in sbsiaining from cereale; thereafter, he became a chief abbot of Nan- gaku-ii, In 1868 (according to another report, 1881} he was voluntarily buried alive in the precincts of Nangaku-ji, Unfortunately, his corpse luad not yet mummified naturally when it was dug up. His disciples extracted the visoera from the corpse and cartied the corpse to Churen- Ji, where it was dried. T¢ has been observed that tite body eavity of this mummy has been filled with lime powder up to ite neck, This is the newest mummified Buddha and is the only instance in which mummification was due to an operation, ‘Two more examples should. be added here from the Tokugawa pe- riod. One is Kéchi Hoin, who wasenshrined st Saisho-jiin Teradomati- machi, and the other is Jun-kai Shénin, who was enshrined at, Gyoku- ser-ji in Tsugawa~mura, both in Niigata Prefecture, Kachi Héin’s mummy remains in its original resting place and was investigated by ur committee: members. It is said that-he was from Chiba Prefecture, was trained in the Shingon school af Mount: Koya, and then eaine bbaok to his native land to reside in a temple. Later in his life be made preaching tour, and he settled down finally at. small hermitage near Saishd-ii, where he died in 1363. The details of this biography are now obscure, but as far as we know, he is the oldest mummified Buddha. Jun-kai was also a mountain ascetic belonging to the Yudono sect, and he died aroand 1630 at Gyokusen-j. 1, COMMON CHARACTERISTICS OF THR MUMAMTEIRD aUDDHEAS ‘The relationship between the two musntnies previously discovered and the six new mummified Buddhas cannot be traced historically. How- ever, looking aver the brief biographies of the eight mummified Bud- has, we might point out certain common characteristies, 1. First ofall, [would like to suggest that all eight of these mummi- fed persons were during their lifetime very rigorous asceties of the type peculiar to the Yudano sect and known as tseeqydnin 2. They all practiced abstention from cereals (raokujthi-ay6). The food staple was buckwheat flour, while the subsidiary foods were pine bark, chestnuts, torreya nuts, grass roots, and so forth. Abstention lasted from one thousand to several thousand days, and it was under- 226 gone while in seclusion at Sennin-aawa, a spot reserved exclusively for the ascetic practices of the tasegydmin. Nearby was the holy of holies on Mount. Yudano, the Yudono Shrine, and here the ieaegyérin. came to worship three times a day after cold-water ablutions. ‘The deity of the Yudono Shrine is believed to have been an incarnation of the Dainichi-nyorat (Mahfnaivocanasatathigata), symbolically repre= sented as a hot spring emerging from a huge, round rook, 3. All of them resolved ta became mummified Buddhas hecause they believed in the doctrine peculiar to the Shingon school of the sokushin-yébutsw (becoming a Buddha in his very own body}. The lat ter is one of the fundamental points of difference between the Shingon ‘and the other Buddhist schools such as the ‘Tendai (T'ien-t’ai), the ‘Jodo (Pure Land), the Niehiren, the Zen (dyéna), and others. ‘The pioneer Great, Master of the tree-gyénin ascetios, Kikai (KOb6 Daishi), was the model of their religious faith and practice, eepeeially in the matter of self-mmumreifieation, for it was helieved that he became ‘2 Buddha in his very own body ina stone cave on top of Mount Koya and that he is still awaiting there the advent of Maitreya. Buddha, who is supposed to appear 5,670,0(K,000 years after the death of Sakya- muni. Tt was thought that he spent his time in meditation, although periodically he would wander all over Japan to save people from suffer- ing and misfortime, Onoe a year the ccremony for changing Kab6 ‘Daishi’s robe toois place in accordance with this legend. “The beainning of the legend of Kflkai’s deeds is to be found in book supposedly compiled in about the twelfth century, the Konfaku- ‘monogatari (“Stories, Ancient. and Modern”). Here we are told that Kangen Sojo (d. 925}, who had entered his stone eave to worship the still-tiving Great Master (Kéb6 Daishi), changed Daishi's robe, ton- sured his hair, and repaired his rasary which had been seattered about. ‘The same legend is found in the Heike-monagataré (“Historie Romance, of the Taira Family”), compiled eupposedly in about the thirteenth or fourteenth century, and in other books. From this we may surmise that the legend waa generally believed to be facttial in substance. The legend which inspired the isse-gyénén to abstain from cereals in order to hecome a. mummified Buddha is that of the Kkai’s “Last Injunction” (1-96), in which Kitkai, looking beek upon bis past, writes that his chief pleasure was in the practice of meditation, and that he disliked taking cereals as his food from the twelfth day af the eleventh month of the ninth year of Tench (832 4.0.). Though this “Last Injunction” is of dubious authenticity, it sooms at least to testify that abstention from cereals was an important training exercise for Shingon ascetics both during and after the Heian Period. ar Self-mummified Buddhas in Japan 4. [ believe that the reason why seven of the eight mummified Buddhas (1e., with the exception of Kéchi Hin) had the suffix kat appended to their Buddhist nasmes is that their Great Master was named in this way: Ka-kai. Yet, why was the special Buddhist name with the koi suffix conferced only upon the isse-gydnin group in the Yudotio sect? In order to understand this, we must first clarify the history of the Shugen-dé sect and, in particular, that of its subdivi- sion, the Yudono sect, together with the structure of the latter dure ing the Tokugawa Period. THE SHORT MISTORY OF THE SHUGEN-D6 IN TAPAN ‘As Thave already pointed out in my paper in Numen (Vol. V, Fase 2-8 [1958)}, the Shugen-dé seems to have originated in an ancient mountain worship and in the belief in magicians and shamans in sacred mountains, ‘The sacred mountain was recognized as the resi- dence of a deity or deities, and of spirits of the dead who bestowed rain and fertility upon the peasants of the plain at the foot of the mountain, ‘The legendary founder of the Shugen-J6 was the famous magician and ascetic saint named En-no-Shékaku (or E-no-Ozunu), who is supposed to have lived as an updsaka (Jap. wasoky) on Mount Kat- surmgi and to have been the chief of a priestly faraily which from generation to generation served the deity of the mountain, Hitokoto- nushi (iterally, “Lord of One Word”}. This deity was well known as fan oracle, beeause his name as was derived from the deslaration at his first advent, that is, the Ruler of the Word, ‘This legend should be understood to mean, therefore, that (he En ot E family had a special horeditary gift for speaking oracles, and that the Shugen-dO in its origin had a close relation with shmanism, ‘Daring the Heian Period (781-1185), Mantrayns, Buddhism was widely favored among the people. It bad been introduced by Saichd (Dengyé Daishi, 767-822), the founder of the Tendai schoal, as well as by Kakai (K0b6 Daishi) of the Shingon school. The Mantrayna clement within the Tendai was called the Tai-mitsu (Tendai Sfikkyé), ‘while the Shingon Mikkyé was ealled 7é-métew (an esoterie doctrine based upon the training program ai, T6-ii in Kyoto, a center of the Shingon school). In addition to Mantrayina Buddhism, Chinese Yin- yang magic and divination (Onmydud6), and Taoistie thought en- joyed a great voaue, particularly among the upper classes. Thus, the heterogencous formulas of ancient shamanism were revived, and be- came strongly influenced by, and involved with, Mantrayéna and ‘Yin-yang theory and practice. 28 ‘A most significant. phenomenon in this process of eyneretization ‘was the belief in the goryé, a belief which rapidly swept over all of Japan and was prevalent especially among the royalty and the upper classes. The gory6 (rhom I have deserihed in my paper mentioned above) was « malevolent or angry spirit af ¢ dead nobleman who had perished in a political tragedy or intrigue, Unusual events, such as a violent political change, civil war, epidemic, famine, drought, earch- quake, thunderbolt, typhoon, or any ather extraordinary phenomenon, in heaven or earth, and events involving pain, disease, or death—all these were believed to be the revenge and punishment of the goryé. ‘To pratect themselves against the goryé, people employed the services of Buddhist aseetios, Mantrayiina magicians, and Yin-yang priests, paid great respect especially to the ascetics trained in the mountains (yama-no-kensa}. ‘The latter, by virtue of their religious austerities, were helieved to possess superhuman magical powers and were ealled either yama-buské (an ascetic who lies down in the mountain”) or skugen-sha (a person who practices religious austerities and attains supethuman powers through his penances). A significant role in the exorcism of the goryé was played by the subetitute or female shaman, known a8 a miko, kaji-dai, nori-wara, or yoré-mashi. ‘These female shamans, through the use of magical spells and the chanting of & attra or AMdranz, fell into a trance in whick they were possessed by unseen spirits who employed them as & moutiipiece for theit grievances and prophecies. ‘As the belief in the goryé and the demand for the mountain shugen- sha or Renae increased all over Japan, there emerged many ehugen-eha ‘who took up permanent residence on the local saered mountain, and spent. their time building temples, seminaries, and Shinto shrines dedicated to their own mouniain deity, as well as priests’ ladges and habitations for pilgrims. ‘The earliest and most famous of such settle- ments were ai, Mount: Yoshino (Kinpu); Mount, Ohmine and Mount ‘Kumano in Middle Honshd (Kinki area); Mount, Hiko in Kyushu; ‘Mount Tshisuchi in Shiki; Mount Tai-sen, Mount Kojima in West Honshd; Mount Ontake, Mount Tateyama, Mount Haku-san in Middle Honsha; Mount, Haguro, Mount, Gaesan, and Mount. Yudono in Northesst Honsht. The last three mountains are ealled Dewa-sar- 2an, thatis, Three Sacred Mountains in Dews Provinee (present Yama- gala Prefecture). These were the main centers of Shugen-d6 from ‘medieval to medern times. ‘The present form of Shugen-d6 is said to have been instituted by Shob6 (852-009), a higher priest of the Shingoa school who practiced religiovs austerities on Mounts Yoshino and Ohmine, following the 29 Self-mummified Buddhas in Japan ‘model of the legendary En-no-Shékaky, He built a Shingon temple named Daigo-jiin Kyoto which became very powerful; it lies in a tri- angular position with T8-ji in Kyoto and Kongé-bu-{i on Mount ‘Koya. It should be observed that the headquarters of the Shugen-d6 is Sanbé-in Seminary within the precincts of Daigo-i. ‘As the practice of austerities in the mountains was held in bigh repute by both priests and laymen, pilarimages to such sacred moun- tains were flourishing. The Mitake-ndde (Pilgrimage to Mount, Kinpa} and the Kumano-wAde (Pilgrimage to Mount Kumaso) began to be ‘very popiilar among both upper and lower classes, These pilgrimages ‘were performed in order to receive divine favors and to attain to spiritual estightenment and peace. The custom gave rise in the first place to the prosperity of the mountains’ inhabitants, and the appearance of professional conductors named sendatsu who guided the pilgrims ta their mountain from Kyoto and other places while teach- ing them the rules of religious purification and abstinence; in addi tion, there came into being many permanent, leader-priests called shugen-sha, shito, ot oehi who taught, prayed for, and guided the tem porary ley-ascetics and pilgrims on the eacred mountain, They built their own seminary and lodge around the main teraple to shelter their adherents and pilgrims, ‘At the end of the Heian Period, Mount Kumano was at the peak of its prosperity. This was due mainly to two retired emperors, Shirakawa, who made nine pilgrimages to Mount, Kumano, and Goshirazawa, who made thirty-four. The popularity of this mountain is indicated by the old and well-known proverb speaking af “the pilgrimage of ants to Mount Kumano’” (Ari-no-Kwmano-mide). ‘The skugen-sha on Mount, Kumano subsequently came under the. control of the Tendai and Shingon schools as theresultof the effors of the servdatew who served on the emperors’ pilgrimages 25 eanduetors and guides, The institutionaltzed Shugen-d6 was gradually established around Mounts Kurnano and Kinpu (Yoshino) under the doctrinal influence and management of both the Tendati and Shingon schools. Roughly speaking, the Shugen-dé of Mount Kumano was ruled thereafter by the Tendai school (Honsan-ha), while tbat of Mount, Kinpu and Mount Ohmine was guided by the Shingon school (ozan-ha). Before the Tokugawa Shogunate established its fendat hegemony ‘over Japan, the Shugenaid centers in several local areas {excepts those at Mounts Ohmine and Kumano} had escaped direct. control by the Kamakura or Ashikaga shogunates, and the feudal and manor lords, as well as by the Buddhist schools themselves. This is not to 230 deny, however, as I bave explained above, that they were strongly influenced by Mantrayina Buddhism as found in the Tendai and Shingon esotericism and ritualism, and by heterogenous Shintoism and the way of Vinyang (Onmyd-dd). From these various sources they accepted and combined elements of various doctrines and prac- tices, eapecially Buddhist prayers end magic according to the Man- ‘traydaa edtras and dhdrnei, Nevertheless, they maintained their own uniforms, religious teachings, and mode of life; their suecession was hereditary, and they did not shave their heads or marry. They dis regarded the disciplinary rules (Vinaya} of the Buddhist priesthood (hitsu), because they were not bkiksu but only updsaka, Sometimes, as substitutes for Shinto priests, they celebrated Shinto services for thelr mountain deities, as well as agricultural festivals. “The religious policy of the Tokugawa government (akufu) de- manded a strong conitol over religious instititions, The Buddhist community was especially the victim of high-handed procedures, be- cause the many daimyé (feudal lords) in the age of the Civil War (about the fifteenth to sixteenth centuries) had been harassed by the monk-soldiers (ef-hei) from such powerful Buddhist temples as Baryaku-ji and Onjd-ji of the Tondai sebool, KOfuku-ji and Todai-i in Nara, Negoro-dera and Kong6bu-ii of the Shingon sebool, as well as by the Zbké-ikki (agrarian disturbances against manor lords which hhad been instigated in severat areas mainly by followers of the Shin sect). Indeed the political, eeonomie, and military strength held by the powerful temples was the largest hindrance to the establishments of the feudal system. Accordingly, Oda Nobunaga (1534-82) and ‘Toyotomi Hideyoshi (1935-98), who preceded the establishment of the Tokugawa feudal system, made a mighty attack against Enrysku-ii (in 1571), Negoro- dera (in 1585}, and Hongan-ji at Ishiyama (now Osaka City) of the ‘Shin sect (in 1576-80). In the meantime he formed a counterorganiza- tion against it from the ranks of the newly arriving Christian mis- sionaties (Kériehifan), utilizing such men as L. Frois (4. 1597), G. Coelho (, 1590), and A. Valignani (A, 1605), although the Kirishitan iission was subject to severe pressure in Fideyashi’s last years (1506— 98). Tokugawa Iyeyasu (1542-1616), founder of the Tokugawa Sho- kunate, aud his suceessors completed the desituction of the power of Buddhist temples and incorporated them into the framewari of the Bakufe system, An idea of the religious poliey of the Bakufu may be gathered from the Jiin-hatto (ordinanees for Buddhist temples issued by the Bakufu), along with various other lews and ordinances con cerning the regulation of Buddhist temples and monks. 23 Self-mummified Buddhas in Japan Among stich measures I should like in partienlar to note the fol- lowing: (I) the enforcement of the perishioner system (davdka-syster) after 1638 for the purpose of w strict probibition of the Kirishitan mission, thatis, every Japanese person and family, regardless of social status and occupation, had to register at 2. specific Buddhist. temple, while the temple (danna-dera) had to keep a record af its patishioners; 2) the establishment of @ system of main and stordinate temples (Hon-mateu system), that js, every temple had to become subordinare to a central temple and obey the laws and orders of that temple; (3) the fixing of the status of each Buddhist monk and temple, as well as the regulation of the religious practiess and dissipline of each Buddhist school and sect; (4) the dircetion of the vemple estate that hhad been authorized by the Shogunate (go-xhwinchi) or by exch daimyé (yokenchi) in order to guard against the possible enlargement ‘of the economic and military power of Buddhist. temples. The head- quarters of each Buddhist school and sect was placed under the strict control af the Jéskassugyé (commissioner of Shinta shrines and Bud~ dist. temples), composed of five dainiyé in hereditary vassalage to the. Tokugawa after 1635, under which were the Fure-qashira (chief off- cials for proclamation), the representatives of the leading temples of each sect. The latter were obtiged to deliver the cormmands of the Bakuju to the subordinate temples and to report petitions from the temples to the office of the Jésha-bugyd. ‘As a result of these restrictive procedures, the Shugen-dé temples and the shugon-sha or yamabushi became subordinate to either the ‘Tendai or the Shingon school, Nevertheless, the shugen-sha or shiita ‘uf the Dewa-sarean retained some measure of independence. Here the shugen-sha had aceupied only two of the three mountains in the range, ‘Mounts Heguro and Yudono, while the last and highest of the three, Mount Gassan (literally, Mount, Moor), although employed for wor- ship by both groups, had not yet been permanently settled. Subse- quently, however, it beeame the center of two Shugen-d6 groups, oe called the Haguro sect and the other the Yudono sect ‘The history of the Shuxen-d6 at Dewa-san-zan priot to the Toku- awa Period is not yet clear. However, at the beginning of the Toku- gawa Period, there appeared a poliieslly astute priest named Tenytt who had been appointed a superintendent (betié) to the Haguro sect in 1630, ‘Tenydi had been deeply attached ta the famous Tenkai $0] of the Tendai school, an aide-de-eamp to Tokugawa Iyeyaet, eom- monly known as the “Premier in the Black Robe.” Aecordingly, ‘Tenyd soon declared openly to the subordinates of Kan’ei-ji in Yedo, which had been built and occupied by ‘Tenksi, that. he and his semi- 2a aries at Mount Haguro had been converted to the Tendai school. ‘Tenyé’s ambition seems to have been to use the politcal influence of ‘Tenkai to consolidate under his own leadership the doctrines and prac- tices, as well as the poliey and economy, of the seminaries on the ‘Three Sacred Mountains, and the whole shugen-tha. Originally, there were seven pilgrimage routes to the shrine on the top of Mount Gassan, Bach of these proceeded from a group of semi- naties and sendatsu's dwellings centering around @ main temple, Two of these settlements acceded to the wish of Teayd, but four of the rest-—Dainichi-bé and Churen-ii an the western foot of Mount Gas- san, and Dainichiii and Hond6-si om its eastern foot—set themselves to oppose it, for they had long been at odds with the Haguro sect. ‘These four had traditionally been closely united, and all shared allegiance to the deity of Mount Yudono, an incarnation of Danichi- inyirai (Marheairocanasatathdgata) and a supreme Buddha of the Shin~ gon school. It was their desire, therefore, that the whole ekugen-sha and eendatsu be converted to the Shingon sehool, the adversary of the ‘Tendai. The chief abbots of these four centers declared that sinee, in ancient times Mount Yudono had been discovered and developed by Kikai (Kobd Daishi), they should be restored to the Skingon school and be subject to the authority of Kongdbu-ji on Mount Kéya, After three long series (1630-1791) of legal proceedings initiated by ‘Tenyd against the four centers of the Yudono seat in arder to convert them to the Tendai school, the judgment of the Jésha-bupyé was at last given in favor of the defendants, As s result, the Haguro sect ‘and the Yudono sect operated independently of each other in such matters as doetrine, poliey, and economy, Quarrols and conflicts eon- tinued to break out between the two, hawever, and even today there is a disorepaney between them, not only in institutional and doctrinal aspects but in emotional anes as well. 1¥, DOCTRINAL AND INSITTDTIONAL PECULIARITIES OF THE XXDO- 180 SECT DURING THE TOKUGAWA PERIOD According to the theories of the Yudono sect concerning the “Honji- suijaku” (the reality behind the phenomenal appearance) of the Three Sacred Mountains, the deity of Mount Gassan was an incarnation of Amitabha Buddhe and the peak of the mountain one of his terrestrial pltre lands, white the deity of Mount Yudono was an incarnation of Mahavairooana Buddha and ruled over the Garbhakosedhatu (Taizd- ai}, & counterpart to Mabdvairocana's rule over the Vajra-dhita (Kongd-kai) in the Great Mandala, a supreme iconographic symbol of the Shingon school. 3 Self-mummified Buddhas in Jopan Some very complicated and mysterious developments have taken place in the religious thought of the Shingon echool, one of whioh seems to have been fhe evolution of the Mahivairacana, who rules over the Garbhakosedhtin from a primitive goddess of the Great ‘Mother variety. As I have pointed out above, a huge rock from whieh hot mineral waters flow is worshiped at. the Yudono Shrine, and it is said that this rook symbolizes a female body. At: the same time, this shrine was believed to be a place for the practice of austerities, as ‘well as for heeoming 4 Buddha in one’s own body. ‘The shugen-sha of the ¥udono see’ chose to bypass the deity named Hararo-gogen, who was native to Mount Haguro and supposed to rive divine favors in this world, preferring instead the Pure Land of Amitabha Buddha and the promise of Mahavairocana that, each be- liever can heoome Buddha in his own body. Though the last two ideas might, be thought to be inconsistent, the asceties of the Yudono sect practiced their austerities in order to become Buddha or enter néredna as in their own bodies, while praying Amitabka Buddha to complete their invocation. believe that the above historical background may explain in part why the six mummified Buddhas have come only from among the ascetios of the Yudono sect, those specifically who are called isse- yinin, are permitted to hear the kae-sulfix on their religious name, ‘and practice abstention from coreals (makvfiki-gyd). I must now give 4 detailed explanation of the structure. of the Yudono sect of the ‘Shugen-<6 to clarify the charaeterietics of self-mummified Buddhas, The Shugen-d6 priests and asceties consisted in general of three ranks: the frst was composed of the seis shugen (authorized Buddhist monks) who were appointed as chief abbot or priest: at the main temple or in their own seminary (in), and presided over the lower ranks of hereditary sendatrs (or shia, shugen-sha) and their dwvell- ings (bf). They formed tho very heart of the Shugen-

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