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312
Paper 7
INTRODUCTION
Vol180 Pt 3-7
A standard orifice of given diameter is one whose dimensions, in particular the Ild ratio, arefixed by the British Standards Specification
on Flow Measurement, B.S.S. 1042: 1943.
Proc Instn Mech Engrs 1965-66
11
SETTLING
TANK
- 24"
1-
313
-1
TEST ORIFICE
VoZ 180 Pt 3J
314
Vol 180 Pt 3J
315
a Ild = 2.0; b
DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS
[(')
P -,
p' -,
T' -,
P'
-4
2~ 4, -k, R , y, My-y
M , Re'
d "0
D d d
P o P o To Po
where the prime (') denotes local properties at the upstream
face of the orifice. The characteristic length in the Reynolds number group is the diameter of the orifice. Under
suitably chosen experimental conditions some of these
groups will be eliminated. For example, if the velocity of
approach is made small enough, the area ratio, (d/D)2,and
the approach Mach number, M yare not significant. The
relative roughness, kid, may be regarded as being constant
if the orifices are carefully manufactured and afterwards
examined, under magnification, for quality of finish. The
local thermodynamic properties, viz. p', T', and p', and the
local Mach number, M y are functions of the overall pressure ratio, p / p o , since, in principle, it is always possible to
derive relationships between p i p o and each of the ratios
p'/po, T'/To,and M yrespectively, that will take account of
the internal losses in the expansion from the stagnation
pressure, p o , to the ambient pressure, p . Thus, the dimensionless groups corresponding to these local properties
may be represented by the single group p / p o .
The Reynolds number, Re', may also be reduced to a
more tractable form in the following manner. If the
temperature dependence of the viscosity is given by
316
Measured diameter, in
Ild = 2
lld = 1
Ild = 0.5
Sharp-edge
0.0983
0.1283
0.1595
0.1928
0.2220
0.2530
0.2854
0.3145
0-3487
0.3770
0.4168
04425
0.4738
0.5015
0.0983
0.1250
0.0930
0.1250
0.1596
0.1004
0.1247
0.1547
0.2220
0.2203
0.1928
-
0.2833
0.3488
0.4173
-
0.5015
0.5023
0.2530
0.3145
0.3770
04425
0.2827
0.3425
0.4085
0.4688
A- SETTLING TANK
6 - EXTENSION PIECE
C-TEST ORIFICE
D- EXPANSION CHAMBER
E-METERING ORIFICE
Vol180 Pr 3J
\PRESSURE
RELIEF DEVICE
317
7 iPRESSVRE
A-A
Fig. 7.6. Heating section and safety devices for high stagnation temperatures
REYNOLDS NUMBER x
1ii4
Fig. 7.7. Effect of Reynolds number on mass flow number for different pressure ratios, lid = 2.0
Strictly, the l/d ratios for standard sharp-edge orifices are
not constant for different diameters because of the tolerance allowed by the code. The orifices used in these experiments conformed to the upper limit of the tolerance of the
code for which lid = 0-05and can, therefore, be treated
validly as a single group.
Three further experiments were carried out with the
object of obtaining information about the effect of an
adjacent wall on the flow through an orifice. In these
experiments the orifice was located eccentrically so that
its periphery was tangential to the inside wall of the
cylinder. Three orifices were used of which two had a lld
ratio of 2.0 and diameters of 0.3790in and 0-2160in
while the third was a standard sharp-edge orifice of
0-4681 in diameter. Over the whole range of pressure
ratios that could be obtained with these orifices, no differences in the mass flow numbers were found within the
limits of error of the experimental measurements.
From the results of this and the two earlier experiments
it may be concluded that viscous effects are not important
318
REYNOLDS NUMBER x
REYNOLDS
a Mass flow number.
10"
e4
NUMBERX I
b Discharge coefficient.
Fig. 7.8. Effect of Reynolds number on mass flow number and on discharge
coeficient f o r different pressure ratios, sharp-edge
Before leaving the topic of the Reynolds number it is
pertinent to refer to the difficulty of obtaining low Reynolds numbers and compressibility effects simultaneously
in jets under steady conditions in the laboratory. I n the
authors' experiments an increase in the stagnation temperature from 85F to 480"F, resulted in a reduction in the
Reynolds number by about one-half its value at the lower
temperature, or from about 8 x 10" to 4 x lo4, in the middle
range of Reynolds numbers. With the smallest orifice used,
and at a pressure ratio of 0.95, a temperature of the order
of lOOO'F would be required to reduce the Reynolds
number to lo3. At a pressure ratio of 0.50, for which compressibility effects would be important, the required temperature is a little over 2500'F.
EFFECT O F T H E LENGTH-DIAMETER RATIO
A N D T H E P R E S S U R E RATIO
319
06
g0s
9
u
=
I
n
??
04
2 03
wu
Lr
It
Cn
In
k8
02
01
10
09
01)
07
06
05
04
PRESSURE RATIO
PRESSURE RATIO
PRESSURE RATIO
PRESSURE RATIO
03
02
01
00
Fig. 7.9. Effect of pressure ratio and length-diameter ratio on mass flow number and discharge cozficient
occurs outside the orifice (see Fig. 7.2), it is clear that
area choking cannot arise, except, probably, at very low
values of the ratio p / p o , although this does not exclude the
existence of the sonic velocity locally at the plane of
minimum pressure. When the stagnation temperature is
held constant and the stagnation pressure increased, the
density is also increased at that plane and may account for
the larger part of the increase in the mass flow. However,
an increase in the area of contraction has been predicted
theoretically (5) for decreasing values of the pressure ratio
between 1.0 and 0-5283, for air, and it is quite likely that
the area of maximum contraction continues to increase as
the pressure ratio is decreased further. It is also known
that this plane regresses towards the orifice as the stagnation pressure is increased (6). Therefore, it is probable that
the combination of the last two factors, namely, the increase in area and the regression of the plane of maximum
Vol 180 P t 3Y
320
in the flow, Fig. 7.9~.When the experimental measurements obtained in the usual manner were plotted, a scatter
was found in that region bounded by the two branches of
the hysteresis loop. Because the scatter was in the region
near the pressure ratio corresponding to the onset of choking and, also, because the minimum pressure in the jet
was known to occur close to the downstream plane of the
orifice, it was thought that a phenomenon such as hysteresis might arise. The orifices were, therefore, recalibrated
but care was taken to make only uni-directional changes in
the pressure ratio. The results obtained in this way gave
the well-defined branches of the hysteresis loop shown
in Fig. 7.9~. It is certain that a hysteresis phenomenon
exists for a lld ratio of 0.5. I n a separate series of experiments using only one orifice, a closed loop formed by a
large number of points over the same range of pressure
ratios has been obtained.
Although the behaviour observed in these orifices is
attributed to phenomena associated with attachment of
the jet to, and detachment from, the wall of the orifice, it
is not possible, at present, to give any precise details of the
processes involved. However, the following tentative
explanation is being used as a basis for further investigation into the behaviour of these orifices.
A comparison of Fig. 7 . 9 ~with Figs 7.9b and 7.9d
shows that the mass flow number, G, is well behaved up
to a value of the pressure ratio of about 0.65, the variation
in G with p/po being intermediate between that for a I/d
ratio of 1.0 and for a sharp-edge. When the pressure ratio
is reduced below the value of 0.65, it is possible that the
fringe of the jet attaches itself to the wall of the orifice so
that, at this stage, the attachment is sensitive to changes in
the upstream pressure, hence the need for uni-directional
changes in the pressure ratio. As the pressure ratio is decreased further, part of the jet apparently becomes firmly
attached to the wall thus isolating the remainder, or convergent part, of the jet from the ambient medium. Conditions within the orifice will now be much the same as those
obtaining in the orifices with I/d ratios of 1.0 and 2-0 and
the value of the mass flow number increases quickly to a
maximum, or choked value. However, it is not understood
why the maximum value of G is higher than that attained
in orifices with I/d ratios of 1.0 and 2.0, although it might
be attributed to pressure conditions within the orifice
when the jet first becomes firmly attached to the wall. The
hysteresis which is observed when the pressure ratio is
increased is a natural consequence of the viscosity of the
air, an effect which has been exploited in other fluid
applications. It is also difficult to explain satisfactorily the
existence of the sloping branches of the loop since it is
reasonable to expect discontinuous changes in the value
of the mass flow number G, if attachment, or detachment,
of the jet alone is responsible for the observed behaviour.
It is not definitely known for what other values of the Ild
ratio hysteresis effects will be encountered. Lichtarowicz,
Duggins, and Markland (3) suspect the occurrence of
hysteresis effects in incompressible flow through orifices
of Ild ratios between 0.5 and 1-5, although there does not
--- --- -
32 1
'BRAGG'S PREDICTION
0 0.5
mO.2
-0
n-. A
1.0
0.9
0.7
0.8
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.0
0.1
PRESSURE RATIO
------
BRAGG'S PREDICTION
FOR I sI.4
0.5
1.0
l / d = 2.0
P / d 1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
PRESSURE R A T I O
Estimate of accuracy
In this investigation about seven hundred measurements
of air flow have been made strictly in accordance with the
British Standards code. I n every case corrections were
made for the effects of the Reynolds number, the diameter
CONCLUSIONS
Vol 180 P t 33
322
PRESSURE RATIO
Fig. 7.12. Percentage deviation in mass flow number and discharge coejicient for
thick orifices from that for sharp-edge orzjices
discharge coefficient, C, = G/Gth,,, are independent of the
Reynolds number, Re = m/pod, when this is above lo4.
For gases of engineering interest this would be of the
order of the Reynolds number in most applications. Reynolds numbers of lo3 and compressibility effects will be
encountered simultaneously with small orifices (< 0.25 in
diameter) and at temperatures of the order of 2500F.
(2) The mass flow number and the discharge coefficient
are functions both of the Ild ratio and the pressure ratio
p/po. For orifices in which l/d is greater than 0.5, choking
occurs although a slight dependence on the lid ratio is
retained, both G and c d decreasing slightly as l/d increases.
For example, experiments with a single orifice for a I/d
ratio of 20 gave a value for C, of 0.850 compared with
0.860 for a l/d ratio of 2.0. The onset of choking also occurs
earlier than the theoretical pressure ratio.
(3) Choking of the flow through an orifice is related to
the extent of the expansion of the jet within the length of
the orifice. In orifices for which the I/d ratios are progressively smaller than 0.5, it is probable that choking will
also occur to a diminishing extent owing to the delay in the
onset of choking. There is some evidence that orifices with
l/d ratios of 0.25 will exhibit the behaviour characteristic
of sharp-edge orifices so that the range of pressure ratios
for which the flow is choked decreases rapidly between l/d
= 0.50 and l/d = 0.25.
(4) The l/d ratio is important because of the possible
effects of the attachment of the jet to the wall of the orifice.
A hysteresis phenomenon, attributed to these effects, has
been measured for orifices of Z/d = 0.5. Under choked
conditions the performance of these orifices is superior to
that of sharp-edge orifices, although choking is delayed
until a pressure ratio of 0.35 is attained. However, under
the right conditions this value of c d can be extended to a
pressure ratio of 0.55 which is nearly equal to the theoretical critical value. Although it has not been verified as yet,
WALLACE,
F. J. and MITCHELL,
R. W. S. Wave action following the sudden release of air through an engine port
system, Proc. Znstn mech. Engrs 1952-53 lB, 343.
VOIiao Pt 3 j
(2)
210.
(4) KAYE,G. W. C. and LABY,T. H. Tables of physical and
chemical constants, 12th edit. 1958,38 (Longmans, Green
and Co.).
(5) JOBSON, D. A.
323
(6) STANTON,
T. E. On the flow of gases at high speed, Proc. R.
SOC.1926 3,306.
( 8 ) BRACG,S.
(9) CALLAGHAN,
E. E. and BOWDEN,
D. T. Investigation of flow
coefficient of circular, square, and elliptical orifices at
high pressure ratios, N.A.C.A. tech. Note 1947, 1949.
Vol180 Pt 3-7