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Most air heat fabricators and some water heat manufacturers have a completely ooded absorber consisting
of two sheets of metal which the uid passes between.
Because the heat exchange area is greater they may be
Solar collectors are either non-concentrating or concen- marginally more ecient than traditional absorbers.[3]
trating. In the non-concentrating type, the collector area Sunlight passes through the glazing and strikes the ab(i.e., the area that intercepts the solar radiation) is the sorber plate, which heats up, changing solar energy into
1
matte black coated rather than selectively coated to reduce the stagnation temperature to 150 C (302 F) or
less.
In areas where freezing is a possibility, freeze-tolerance
(the capability to freeze repeatedly without cracking) can
be achieved by the use of exible polymers. Silicone rubber pipes have been used for this purpose in UK since
1999. Conventional metal collectors are vulnerable to
damage from freezing, so if they are water lled they must
be carefully plumbed so they completely drain using gravity before freezing is expected, so that they do not crack.
Many metal collectors are installed as part of a sealed heat
exchanger system. Rather than having potable water ow
directly through the collectors, a mixture of water and antifreeze such as propylene glycol is used. A heat exchange
uid protects against freeze damage down to a locally determined risk temperature that depends on the proportion
of propylene glycol in the mixture. The use of glycol lowers the waters heat carrying capacity marginally, while
the addition of an extra heat exchanger may lower system
performance at low light levels.
A pool or unglazed collector is a simple form of atplate collector without a transparent cover. Typically
polypropylene or EPDM rubber or silicone rubber is used
as an absorber. Used for pool heating it can work quite
well when the desired output temperature is near the ambient temperature (that is, when it is warm outside). As
the ambient temperature gets cooler, these collectors become less eective. Most at plate collectors have a life
expectancy of over 25 years.
1.1.1 Applications
The main use of this technology is in residential buildings
where the demand for hot water has a large impact on energy bills. This generally means a situation with a large
family, or a situation in which the hot water demand is excessive due to frequent laundry washing. Commercial applications include laundromats, car washes, military laundry facilities and eating establishments. The technology
can also be used for space heating if the building is located o-grid or if utility power is subject to frequent
outages. Solar water heating systems are most likely to
be cost eective for facilities with water heating systems
that are expensive to operate, or with operations such as
laundries or kitchens that require large quantities of hot
water. Unglazed liquid collectors are commonly used to
heat water for swimming pools but can also be applied
to large scale water pre-heating. When loads are large
relative to available collector area the bulk of the water heating can be done at low temperature, lower than
at swimming pool temperatures where unglazed collectors are well established in the marketplace as the right
choice. Because these collectors need not withstand high
temperatures, they can use less expensive materials such
as plastic or rubber. Many unglazed collectors are made
of polypropylene and must be drained fully to avoid freeze
1.2
The gaps between the tubes may allow for snow to fall
through the collector, minimizing the loss of production
in some snowy conditions, though the lack of radiated
heat from the tubes can also prevent eective shedding
of accumulated snow.[10][11]
1.3
5
top. Tubes can be replaced individually without stopping the entire system. There is no condensation or corrosion within the tubes. One hurdle to wider adoption
of evacuated tube collectors in some markets is their inability to pass internal thermal shock tests where ISO
9806-2 section 9 class b is a requirement for durability
certication.[16] This means that if unprotected evacuated
tube collectors are exposed to full sun for too long prior
to being lled with cold water the tubes may shatter due
to the rapid temperature shift. There is also the question of vacuum leakage. Flat panels have been around
much longer and are less expensive. They may be easier
to clean. Other properties, such as appearance and ease
of installation are more subjective.
The solar bowl design resulted from a project of the Electrical Engineering Department of the Texas Technical
University, headed by Edwin O'Hair, to develop a 5 MWe
power plant. A solar bowl was built for the town of
Crosbyton, Texas as a pilot facility.[17] The bowl had a
diameter of 65 ft (20 m), tilted at a 15 angle to optimize the cost/yield relation (33 would have maximized
1.4 Bowl
yield). The rim of the hemisphere was trimmed to 60,
creating a maximum aperture of 3,318 square feet (308.3
A solar bowl is a type of solar thermal collector that op- m2 ). This pilot bowl produced electricity at a rate of 10
erates similarly to a parabolic dish, but instead of using kW peak.
a tracking parabolic mirror with a xed receiver, it has a
A 15-meter diameter Auroville solar bowl was developed
xed spherical mirror with a tracking receiver. This refrom an earlier test of a 3.5-meter bowl in 19791982
duces eciency, but makes it cheaper to build and operby the Tata Energy Research Institute. That test showed
ate. Designers call it a xed mirror distributed focus solar
the use of the solar bowl in the production of steam for
power system. The main reason for its development was
cooking. The full-scale project to build a solar bowl and
to eliminate the cost of moving a large mirror to track the
kitchen ran from 1996, and was fully operational by 2001.
sun as with parabolic dish systems.[17]
A xed parabolic mirror creates a variously shaped image of the sun as it moves across the sky. Only when the
mirror is pointed directly at the sun does the light focus
on one point. That is why parabolic dish systems track
the sun. A xed spherical mirror focuses the light in the
same place independent of the suns position. The light,
however, is not directed to one point but is distributed on
a line from the surface of the mirror to one half radius
(along a line that runs through the sphere center and the
sun).
Typical energy density along the 1/2 radius length focal line of
a spherical reector
As the sun moves across the sky, the aperture of any xed
collector changes. This causes changes in the amount of
captured sunlight, producing what is called the sinus effect of power output. Proponents of the solar bowl design
claim the reduction in overall power output compared
In back-pass, front-pass, and combination type congurations the air is directed on either the back, the front, or
on both sides of the absorber to be heated from the return to the supply ducting headers. Although passing the
air on both sides of the absorber will provide a greater
surface area for conductive heat transfer, issues with dust
(fouling) can arise from passing air on the front side of
the absorber which reduces absorber eciency by limiting the amount of sunlight received. In cold climates, air
4 Process heating
passing next to the glazing will additionally cause greater
heat loss, resulting in lower overall performance of the
Solar air heat is also used in process applications such as collector.
drying laundry, crops (i.e. tea, corn, coee) and other
drying applications. Air heated through a solar collector
and then passed over a medium to be dried can provide an 5.1.2 Glazed systems
ecient means by which to reduce the moisture content
of the material.
Glazed systems usually have a transparent top sheet and
insulated side and back panels to minimize heat loss to
ambient air. The absorber plates in modern panels can
5 Solar air heating collector types have absorptivity of more than 93%. Glazed Solar Collectors (recirculating types that are usually used for space
heating). Air typically passes along the front or back of
Collectors are commonly classied by their air-ducting the absorber plate while scrubbing heat directly from it.
methods as one of three types:
Heated air can then be distributed directly for applications such as space heating and drying or may be stored
for later use. Payback for glazed solar air heating panels
through-pass collectors
can be less than 915 years depending on the fuel being
replaced.
front-pass
back pass
combination front and back pass collectors
Collectors can also be classied by their outer surface:
glazed
unglazed
5.2
to the elements, are often not transparent and not her- in heating climates, which is space heating and industrial
metically sealed.
process heating. They are either glazed or unglazed.
5.2
5.2.1
The term unglazed air collector refers to a solar air heating system that consists of a metal absorber without any
glass or glazing over top. The most common type of
unglazed collector on the market is the transpired solar
collector. The technology has been extensively monitored
by these government agencies, and Natural Resources
Canada developed the feasibility tool RETScreen to
model the energy savings from transpired solar collectors. Since that time, several thousand transpired solar
collector systems have been installed in a variety of commercial, industrial, institutional, agricultural, and process
applications in countries around the world. The technology was originally used primarily in industrial applications such as manufacturing and assembly plants where
there were high ventilation requirements, stratied ceiling
heat, and often negative pressure in the building. With the
increasing drive to install renewable energy systems on
buildings, transpired solar collectors are now used across
the entire building stock because of high energy production (up to 750 peak thermal Watts/square metre), high
solar conversion (up to 90%) and lower capital costs when
compared against solar photovoltaic and solar water heating.
Absorber
Tube
Reector
6.1
Solar Field
Piping
Focal
Point
Parabolic trough
6.2
Parabolic dish
With a parabolic dish collector, one or more parabolic Solar Parabolic dish
dishes concentrate solar energy at a single focal point,
similar to the way a reecting telescope focuses starlight,
or a dish antenna focuses radio waves. This geometry which are parallel to the dishs axis will be reected tomay be used in solar furnaces and solar power plants.
ward the focus, no matter where on the dish they arrive.
The shape of a parabola means that incoming light rays Light from the sun arrives at the Earths surface almost
9
completely parallel. So the dish is aligned with its axis
pointing at the sun, allowing almost all incoming radiation to be reected towards the focal point of the dish.
Most losses in such collectors are due to imperfections in
the parabolic shape and imperfect reection.
Losses due to atmospheric scattering are generally minimal. However, on a hazy or foggy day, light is diused in
all directions through the atmosphere, which reduces the
eciency of a parabolic dish signicantly.
Solar Keymark:[25] Thermal solar systems and components. Higher level EN 1297X series certication
which includes factory visits.
In dish stirling power plant designs, a stirling engine coupled to a dynamo, is placed at the focus of the dish. This
absorbs the energy focused onto it and converts it into
electricity.
9 See also
Concentrated solar power
Cross-linked polyethylene PEX-AL-PEX
6.3
Power tower
Insulated glazing
List of solar thermal power stations
List of thermal conductivities
7
8
Appendix
Standards
ISO test methods for solar collectors.[24]
EN 12975: Thermal solar systems and components.
Solar collectors.
10 References
[1] Norton, Brian (2013). Harnessing Solar Heat. Springer.
ISBN 978-94-007-7275-5.
[2] https://www.google.com/patents/US4098260
[3] rise.org.au. Domestic Hot Water Systems. Archived
from the original on 9 March 2011. Retrieved 2008-1029.
[4] Polymeric absorbers for at-plate collectors : Can venting provide adequate overheat protection?". Cat.inist.fr.
Retrieved 2013-08-20.
[5] Solar Thermal Collectors in Polymeric Materials: A
Novel Approach Towards Higher Operating Temperatures - Springer. Springerlink.com. Retrieved 2013-0820.
[6] Tom Lane, Solar Hot Water Systems, Lessons Learned
1977 to Today p7
[7] http://www.h2otsun.com/hotwater/minflyer.pdf
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EXTERNAL LINKS
11 External links
Canadian government ratings of solar collectors
Crosbyton Inventory of Records
[12] ISO 9806-2:1995. Test methods for solar collectors -Part 2: Qualication test procedures. International Organization for Standardization, Geneva, Switzerland
[13]
[14] Tom Lane. Solar Hot Water Systems: Lessons Learned,
1977 to Today. p. 5.
[15] Flatplate vs. EHTP Archived December 3, 2010, at the
Wayback Machine.
[16] FSEC test standard 102-10 section 5.6.
[17] Calhoun, Fryor "Duel for the Sun" Texas Monthly
November 1983
[18] Chaves, Julio (2015). Introduction to Nonimaging Optics,
Second Edition. CRC Press. ISBN 978-1482206739.
[19] Roland Winston et al., Nonimaging Optics, Academic
Press, 2004 [ISBN 978-0127597515]
[20] Mojiri (2013). Spectral beam splitting for ecient
conversion of solar energy A review. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. 28: 654663.
doi:10.1016/j.rser.2013.08.026.
[21] Taylor, R.A. (2012). Nanouid-based optical lter optimization for PV/T systems. Light: Science & Applications. 1: e34. doi:10.1038/lsa.2012.34.
[22] Woody, Todd. Secret Ingredient To Making Solar Energy Work: Salt. Forbes magazine. Retrieved 13 March
2013.
[23] Boerema (2012). Liquid sodium versus Hitec as
a heat transfer uid in solar thermal central receiver
Solar Energy.
86 (9): 22932305.
systems.
doi:10.1016/j.solener.2012.05.001.
[24] ISO 9806-1:1994 - Test methods for solar collectors -Part 1: Thermal performance of glazed liquid heating collectors including pressure drop. iso.org. 2012. Retrieved
September 17, 2012.
[25] The Solar Keymark, The main quality label for solar thermal. estif.org. 2012. Retrieved September 17, 2012.
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