Panama

This article is about the country. For other uses, see that the name means many butteries in an indigenous
Panama (disambiguation). language.
The best-known version is that a shing village and its
Coordinates: 9N 80W / 9N 80W nearby beach bore the name Panam", which meant an
Panama ( i /pnm/ PAN--mah; Spanish: Panam abundance of sh. Captain Antonio Tello de Guzmn,
[panama]), ocially called the Republic of Panama while exploring the Pacic side in 1515, stopped in the
(Spanish: Repblica de Panam), is a country usually small indigenous shing town. In 1517 Don Gaspar De
considered to be entirely in North America or Central Espinosa, a Spanish lieutenant, decided to settle a post
America.[8] It is bordered by Costa Rica to the west, there. In 1519 Pedrarias Dvila decided to establish the
Colombia (in South America) to the southeast, the Empires Pacic city in this site. The new settlement re-
Caribbean Sea to the north and the Pacic Ocean to the placed Santa Mara La Antigua del Darin, which had
south. The capital and largest city is Panama City, whose lost its function within the Crowns global plan after the
metropolitan area is home to nearly half of the countrys beginning of the Spanish exploitation of the riches in the
3.9 million people. Pacic.

Panama was inhabited by several indigenous tribes prior Blending all of the above together, Panamanians believe
in general that the word Panama means abundance of
to settlement by the Spanish in the 16th century. Panama
broke away from Spain in 1821 and joined a union of sh, trees and butteries. This is the ocial denition
given in social studies textbooks approved by the Min-
Nueva Granada, Ecuador, and Venezuela named the Re-
public of Gran Colombia. When Gran Colombia dis- istry of Education in Panama. However, others believe
the word Panama comes from the Kuna word bannaba
solved in 1831, Panama and Nueva Granada remained
joined, eventually becoming the Republic of Colombia. which means distant or far away.[12]
With the backing of the United States, Panama seceded
from Colombia in 1903, allowing the Panama Canal to be
built by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers between 1904 2 History
and 1914. In 1977 an agreement was signed for the total
transfer of the Canal from the United States to Panama Main article: History of Panama
by the end of the 20th century, which culminated on 31
December 1999.[9]
At the time of the arrival of the Spanish in the 16th
Revenue from canal tolls continues to represent a sig- century, the known inhabitants of Panama included the
nicant portion of Panamas GDP, although commerce, Cuevas and the Cocl tribes. These people have nearly
banking, and tourism are major and growing sectors. In disappeared, as they had no immunity from European in-
2015 Panama ranked 60th in the world in terms of the fectious diseases.[13]
Human Development Index.[10] Since 2010, Panama re-
mains the second most competitive economy in Latin
America, according to the World Economic Forum's
2.1 Pre-Colombian period
Global Competitiveness Index. Covering around 40 per-
cent of its land area, Panamas jungles are home to an
The Isthmus of Panama was formed about three million
abundance of tropical plants and animals some of them
years ago when the land bridge between North and South
to be found nowhere else on the planet.[11]
America nally became complete, and plants and animals
gradually crossed it in both directions. The existence of
the isthmus aected the dispersal of people, agriculture
1 Etymology and technology throughout the American continent from
the appearance of the rst hunters and collectors to the
[14][15]
There are several theories about the origin of the name era of villages and cities.
Panama. Some believe that the country was named af- The earliest discovered artifacts of indigenous peoples
ter a commonly found species of tree (Sterculia apetala, in Panama include Paleo-Indian projectile points. Later
the Panama tree). Others believe that the rst settlers ar- central Panama was home to some of the rst pottery-
rived in Panama in August, when butteries abound, and making in the Americas, for example the cultures at

1
2 2 HISTORY

Embera girl dressed for a dance

Monagrillo, which date back to 25001700 BC. These

evolved into signicant populations best known through
their spectacular burials (dating to c. 500900 AD) at
the Monagrillo archaeological site, and their beautiful
Gran Cocl style polychrome pottery. The monumental
monolithic sculptures at the Barriles (Chiriqui) site are
also important traces of these ancient isthmian cultures.
Before Europeans arrived Panama was widely settled by
Chibchan, Chocoan, and Cueva peoples. The largest
group were the Cueva (whose specic language alia-
tion is poorly documented). The size of the indigenous
population of the isthmus at the time of European colo- Vasco Nez de Balboa, a recognized and popular gure of
nization is uncertain. Estimates range as high as two mil- Panamanian history
lion people, but more recent studies place that number
closer to 200,000. Archaeological nds and testimoni-
als by early European explorers describe diverse native
isthmian groups exhibiting cultural variety and suggest-
ing people with developedned by regular regional routes
of commerce.
When Panama was colonized, the indigenous peoples ed
into the forest and nearby islands. Scholars believe that
infectious disease was the primary cause of the population
decline of American natives. The indigenous peoples had
no acquired immunity to diseases which had been chronic
in Eurasian populations for centuries.[16]

2.2 Conquest to 1799

Rodrigo de Bastidas sailed westward from Venezuela in

1501 in search of gold, and became the rst European to
explore the isthmus of Panama. A year later, Christopher
Columbus visited the isthmus, and established a short-
lived settlement in the Darien. Vasco Nez de Balboa's
tortuous trek from the Atlantic to the Pacic in 1513
demonstrated that the isthmus was, indeed, the path be-
tween the seas, and Panama quickly became the cross- New Caledonia, the ill-fated Scottish Darien scheme colony in
roads and marketplace of Spains empire in the New the Bay of Caledonia, west of the Gulf of Darien
World. Gold and silver were brought by ship from South
America, hauled across the isthmus, and loaded aboard
ships for Spain. The route became known as the Camino known as Camino de Cruces (Road of Crosses) because
Real, or Royal Road, although it was more commonly of the number of gravesites along the way.
2.2 Conquest to 1799 3

Panama was under Spanish rule for almost 300 years independence can be indirectly attributed to the abolition
(15381821), and became part of the Viceroyalty of of the encomienda system in the Azuero Peninsula, set
Peru, along with all other Spanish possessions in South forth by the Spanish Crown, in 1558 because of repeated
America. From the outset, Panamanian identity was protests by locals against the mistreatment of the native
based on a sense of geographic destiny, and Panama- population. In its stead, a system of medium and smaller-
nian fortunes uctuated with the geopolitical importance sized landownership was promoted, thus taking away the
of the isthmus. The colonial experience also spawned power from the large landowners and into the hands of
Panamanian nationalism as well as a racially complex and medium and small-sized proprietors.
highly stratied society, the source of internal conicts
Panama was the site of the ill-fated Darien scheme, which
that ran counter to the unifying force of nationalism. set up a Scottish colony in the region in 1698. This failed
In 1538 the Real Audiencia de Panama was established, for a number of reasons, and the ensuing debt contributed
initially with jurisdiction from Nicaragua to Cape Horn to the union of England and Scotland in 1707.[18]
before the conquest of Peru. A Real Audiencia (royal In 1671, the privateer Henry Morgan, licensed by the En-
audiencia) was a judicial district that functioned as an glish government, sacked and burned the city of Panama
appeals court. Each audiencia had an oidor (Spanish: the second most important city in the Spanish New
hearer, a judge). World at the time. In 1717 the viceroyalty of New
Spanish authorities had little control over much of the ter- Granada (northern South America) was created in re-
ritory of Panama. Large sections managed to resist con- sponse to other Europeans trying to take Spanish territory
quest and missionization until very late in the colonial era. in the Caribbean region. The Isthmus of Panama was
Because of this, indigenous people of the area were of- placed under its jurisdiction. However, the remoteness
ten referred to as indios de guerra (war Indians) and of New Granadas capital, Santa Fe de Bogot (the mod-
resisted Spanish attempts to conquer them or missionize ern capital of Colombia) proved a greater obstacle than
them. However, Panama was enormously important to the Spanish crown anticipated as the authority of New
Spain strategically because it was the easiest way to trans- Granada was contested by the seniority, closer proxim-
ship silver mined in Peru to Europe. Silver cargoes were ity, and previous ties to the viceroyalty of Lima and even
landed at Panama and then taken overland to Portobello by Panamas own initiative. This uneasy relationship be-
or Nombre de Dios on the Caribbean side of the isthmus tween Panama and Bogot would persist for centuries.
for further shipment.
In 1744 Bishop Francisco Javier de Luna Victoria De-
Because of the incomplete Spanish control, the Panama Castro established the College of San Ignacio de Loyola
route was vulnerable to attack from pirates (mostly Dutch and on June 3, 1749, founded La Real y Ponticia Uni-
and English), and from 'new world' Africans called versidad de San Javier. By this time, however, Panamas
cimarrons who had freed themselves from enslavement importance and inuence had become insignicant as
and lived in communes or palenques around the Camino Spains power dwindled in Europe and advances in nav-
Real in Panamas Interior, and on some of the islands igation technique increasingly permitted to round Cape
o Panamas Pacic coast. One such famous commu- Horn in order to reach the Pacic. While the Panama
nity amounted to a small kingdom under Bayano, which route was short it was also labor-intensive and expensive
emerged in the 1552 to 1558. Sir Francis Drake's fa- because of the loading and unloading and laden-down
mous raids on Panama in 157273 were aided by Panama trek required to get from the one coast to the other.
cimarrons, and Spanish authorities were only able to bring During the last half of the 18th century and the rst half
them under control by making an alliance with them that of the 19th century, migrations to the countryside de-
guaranteed their freedom in exchange for military sup- creased Panama Citys population and the isthmus econ-
port in 1582.[17] omy shifted from the tertiary to the primary sector.
The prosperity enjoyed during the rst two centuries
(15401740) while contributing to colonial growth; the
placing of extensive regional judicial authority (Real Au- 2.2.1 1800s
diencia) as part of its jurisdiction; and the pivotal role
it played at the height of the Spanish Empire the rst As the Spanish American wars of independence were
modern global empire helped dene a distinctive sense heating up all across Latin America, Panama City was
of autonomy and of regional or national identity within preparing for independence; however, their plans were
Panama well before the rest of the colonies. accelerated by the unilateral Grito de La Villa de Los
Santos (Cry From the Town of Saints), issued on Novem-
The end of the encomienda system in Azuero, however,
ber 10, 1821, by the residents of Azuero without backing
sparked the conquest of Veraguas in that same year. Un-
from Panama City to declare their separation from the
der the leadership of Francisco Vzquez, the region of
Spanish Empire. In both Veraguas and the capital this
Veraguas passed into Castilian rule in 1558. In the newly
act was met with disdain, although on diering levels. To
conquered region, the old system of encomienda was im-
Veraguas, it was the ultimate act of treason, while to the
posed. On the other hand, the Panamanian movement for
capital, it was seen as inecient and irregular, and fur-
4 2 HISTORY

Santo Domingo Church

thermore forced them to accelerate their plans.

Nevertheless, the Grito was an event that shook the isth-
mus to its very core. It was a sign, on the part of the
residents of Azuero, of their antagonism toward the in-
dependence movement in the capital.Those in the capital
region in turn regarded the Azueran movement with con- U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt sitting on a steam shovel at
tempt, since the separatists in Panama City believed that the Panama Canal, 1906
their counterparts in Azuero were ghting not only for in-
dependence from Spain, but also for their right to self-rule
apart from Panama City once the Spaniards were gone. cess in 1831, and again during the Thousand Days War of
18991902. When the Senate of Colombia rejected the
It was an incredibly brave move on the part of Azuero, HayHerrn Treaty, the United States decided to support
which lived in fear of Colonel Jos Pedro Antonio de the Panamanian independence movement.[19]
Fbrega y de las Cuevas (17741841), and with good rea-
son. The Colonel was a staunch loyalist and had all of the In November 1903 Panama proclaimed its
[20]
isthmus military supplies in his hands. They feared quick independence and concluded the HayBunau-
retaliation and swift retribution against the separatists. Varilla Treaty with the United States. The treaty granted
rights to the United States as if it were sovereign in a
What they had counted on, however, was the inuence of zone roughly 16 km (10 mi) wide and 80 km (50 mi)
the separatists in the capital. Ever since October 1821, long. In that zone, the U.S. would build a canal, then
when the former Governor General, Juan de la Cruz administer, fortify, and defend it in perpetuity. In 1914
Murgen, left the isthmus on a campaign in Quito and the United States completed the existing 83-kilometre-
left the Veraguan colonel in charge, the separatists had long (52-mile) canal. The early 1960s saw the beginning
been slowly converting Fbrega to the separatist side. So, of sustained pressure in Panama for the renegotiation of
by November 10, Fbrega was now a supporter of the this treaty.
independence movement. Soon after the separatist dec-
laration of Los Santos, Fbrega convened every organi- The US intention to inuence the area, especially the
zation in the capital with separatist interests and formally Panama Canal's construction and control, led to the
declared the citys support for independence. No military separation of Panama from Colombia in 1903 and its es-
repercussions occurred because of the skillful bribing of tablishment as a nation. The United States intensively en-
royalist troops. couraged the Panamanian separatist movement.[21] From
1903 to 1968, Panama was a constitutional democracy
dominated by a commercially oriented oligarchy. During
the 1950s, the Panamanian military began to challenge
2.3 Post-colonial Panama
the oligarchys political hegemony.
See also: PanamaColombia separation; HayBunau- Amid negotiations for the RoblesJohnson treaty,
Varilla Treaty; Panamanian general election, 1968; and Panama held elections in 1968. The candidates were
History of Panama (196477)
In the rst 80 years following independence from Spain, Dr. Arnulfo Arias Madrid,Unin Nacional (Na-
Panama was a department of Colombia, after voluntarily tional Union)
joining it at the end of 1821. The people of the isthmus
made several attempts to secede and came close to suc- Antonio Gonzlez Revilla, Democracia Cristiana
2.3 Post-colonial Panama 5

Parallel to this, the military began a policy of repression

against the opposition, who were labeled communists.
The military appointed a Provisional Government Junta
that was to arrange new elections. However, the National
Guard would prove to be very reluctant to abandon power
and soon began calling itself El Gobierno Revolucionario
(The Revolutionary Government).

2.3.1 Post-1970

Construction work on the Gaillard Cut of the Panama Canal,

1907

(Christian Democrats)
Omar Torrijos (right) with farmers in the Panamanian country-
engineer David Samudio, Alianza del Pueblo (Peo- side. The Torrijos government was well known for its policies of
ples Alliance) who had the governments support. land redistribution.

(see Pizzurno Gels and Araz, Estudios sobre el Panam

During Omar Torrijos's control, the military regime
republicano 508).[22]
transformed the political and economic structure of the
Arias Madrid was declared the winner of elections that country by initiating massive coverage of social security
were marked by violence and accusations of fraud against services and expanding public education. The constitu-
Alianza del Pueblo. On October 1, 1968, Arias Madrid tion was changed in 1972. For the reform to the constitu-
took oce as president of Panama, promising to lead a tion, the military created a new organization, the Assem-
government of national union that would end the reign- bly of Corregimiento Representatives, which replaced the
ing corruption and pave the way for a new Panama. A National Assembly. The new assembly, also known as the
week and a half later, on October 11, 1968, the National Poder Popular (Power of the People), was composed
Guard (Guardia Nacional) ousted Arias and initiated the of 505 members selected by the military with no par-
downward spiral that would culminate with the United ticipation from political parties, which the military had
States invasion in 1989. Arias, who had promised to eliminated. The new constitution proclaimed Omar Tor-
respect the hierarchy of the National Guard, broke the rijos the Maximum Leader of the Panamanian Revolu-
pact and started a large restructuring of the Guard. To tion, and conceded him unlimited power for six years, al-
preserve the Guards interests, Lieutenant Colonel Omar though, to keep a faade of constitutionality, Demetrio B.
Torrijos Herrera and Major Boris Martnez commanded Lakas was appointed president for the same period (Piz-
the rst military coup against a civilian government in zurno Gels and Araz, Estudios sobre el Panam repub-
Panamanian republican history.[22] licano 541).[22]
The military justied itself by declaring that Arias In 1981 Torrijos died in a plane crash. Torrijos death
Madrid was trying to install a dictatorship, and promised altered the tone of Panamas political evolution. Despite
a return to constitutional rule. In the meantime, the the 1983 constitutional amendments, which proscribed a
Guard began a series of populist measures that would gain political role for the military, the Panama Defense Forces
support for the coup. Among them were: (PDF), as they were then known, continued to dominate
Panamanian political life. By this time, General Manuel
Price freezing on food, medicine and other goods[23] Noriega was rmly in control of both the PDF and the
until January 31, 1969 civilian government.
rent level freeze In the 1984 elections, the candidates were
legalization of the permanence of squatting families
in boroughs surrounding the historic site of Panama Nicols Ardito Barletta Vallarino, supported by the
Viejo[22] military in a union called UNADE
6 2 HISTORY

nounce the regime. He revealed details of the elec-

toral fraud, accused Noriega of planning Torrijoss death
and declared that Torrijos had received 12 million dol-
lars from the Shah of Iran for giving the exiled Iranian
leader asylum. Hd also accused Noriega of the assassina-
tion by decapitation of then opposition leader Dr. Hugo
Spadafora.[22]
On the night of June 9, 1987, the Cruzada Civilista
(Civic Crusade) was created and began organizing ac-
tions of civil disobedience. The Crusade called for a
general strike. In response, the military suspended con-
stitutional rights and declared a state of emergency in
the country. On July 10, the Civic Crusade called for
U.S. President Jimmy Carter shakes hands with General Omar
a massive demonstration that was violently repressed by
Torrijos after signing the Panama Canal Treaties.
the Dobermans, the militarys special riot control unit.
That day, later known as El Viernes Negro (Black Fri-
Dr. Arnulfo Arias Madrid, for the opposition union day), left six hundred people injured and another six
ADO hundred detained, many of whom were later tortured and
raped.
ex-General Rubn Daro Paredes, who had been
United States President Ronald Reagan began a series of
forced to an early retirement by Noriega, running
sanctions against the military regime. The United States
for Partido Nacionalista Popular PNP (Popular Na-
froze economic and military assistance to Panama in the
tionalist Party)
middle of 1987 in response to the domestic political cri-
Carlos Ivn Ziga, running for Partido Accin Pop- sis in Panama and an attack on the U.S. Embassy. Yet
ular (PAPO) meaning Popular Action Party these sanctions did little to overthrow Noriega but instead
severely damaged Panamas economy. The sanctions hit
the Panamanian population hard and caused the Gross
Barletta was declared the winner of elections that had
Domestic Product (GDP) to decline almost 25% between
been clearly won by Madrid. Ardito Barletta inherited
19871989 (see Acosta n.p.).[26]
a country in economic ruin and hugely indebted to the
International Monetary Fund and the World Bank. Amid On February 5, 1988, General Manuel Antonio Noriega
the economic crisis and Barlettas eorts to calm the was accused of drug tracking by federal juries in Tampa
countrys creditors, street protests arose, and so did mili- and Miami.
tary repression. In April 1988, the U.S. President Ronald Reagan in-
Meanwhile, Noriegas regime had fostered a well-hidden voked the International Emergency Economic Powers
criminal economy that operated as a parallel source of Act, freezing Panamanian government assets in all U.S.
income for the military and their allies, providing rev- organizations. In May 1989 Panamanians voted over-
enues from drugs and money laundering. Toward the end whelmingly for the anti-Noriega candidates. The Noriega
of the military dictatorship, a new wave of Chinese mi- regime promptly annulled the election and embarked on
grants arrived on the isthmus in the hope of migrating to a new round of repression.
the United States. The smuggling of Chinese became an
enormous business, with revenues of up to 200 million
dollars for Noriegas regime (see Mon 167).[24]
The military dictatorship, at that time supported by the
United States, perpetrated the assassination and torture
of more than one hundred Panamanians and forced at
least a hundred more dissidents into exile. (see Zrate
15).[25] Noriega also began playing a double role in Cen-
tral America under the supervision of the CIA. While
the Contadora group conducted diplomatic eorts to
achieve peace in the region, Noriega supplied Nicaraguan
Contras and other guerrillas in the region with weapons
and ammunition.[22]
On June 6, 1987, the recently retired Colonel Roberto
Daz Herrera, resentful that Noriegas broke the agreed The aftermath of urban warfare during the U.S. invasion of
Torrijos Plan of succession that would have made him Panama, 1989
the chief of the military after Noriega, decided to de-
2.4 Post-intervention era 7

2.3.2 U.S. invasion (1989)

Further information: United States invasion of Panama

The United States government said Operation Just Cause,

which commenced on December 20, 1989, was neces-
sary to safeguard the lives of U.S. citizens in Panama, de-
fend democracy and human rights, combat drug track-
ing, and secure the neutrality of the Panama Canal as re-
quired by the TorrijosCarter Treaties" (New York Times,
A Transcript of President Bushs Address n.p.).[27] Hu- The skyline of Panama City near Cinta Costera
man Rights Watch wrote in the 1989 report: Washing-
ton turned a blind eye to abuses in Panama for many years
until concern over drug tracking prompted indictments Calderon.
of the general [Noriega] by two grand juries in Florida
in February 1988.[28] The U.S. reported 23 servicemen During its ve-year term, the often-fractious government
killed and 324 wounded, with Panamanian casualties es- struggled to meet the publics high expectations. Its new
timated around 450. Described as a surgical maneuver, police force was a major improvement over its predeces-
the action led to civilian deaths whose estimated numbers sor but was not fully able to deter crime. Ernesto Prez
range from 400 to 4,000 during the two weeks of armed Balladares was sworn in as President on September 1,
activities. This surgical maneuver represented the largest 1994, after an internationally monitored election cam-
United States military operation to that date since the end paign.
of the Vietnam War (Cajar Pez 22)[29] The United Na- Perez Balladares ran as the candidate for a three-party
tions put the Panamanian civilian death toll at 500, while coalition dominated by the Democratic Revolutionary
other sources had higher statistics.[30] The number of U.S. Party (PRD), the erstwhile political arm of military dic-
civilians (and their dependents), who had worked for the tatorships. Perez Balladares worked skillfully during the
Panama Canal Commission and the U.S. Military, and campaign to rehabilitate the PRDs image, emphasizing
were killed by the Panamanian Defense Forces, has never the partys populist Torrijos roots rather than its associa-
been fully disclosed. tion with Noriega. He won the election with only 33% of
On December 29, the UN General Assembly approved a the vote when the major non-PRD forces splintered into
resolution calling the intervention in Panama a agrant competing factions. His administration carried out eco-
violation of international law and of the independence, nomic reforms and often worked closely with the U.S. on
sovereignty and territorial integrity of the States.[31] The implementation of the Canal treaties.
resolution was vetoed by the United States, the United On September 1, 1999, Mireya Moscoso, the widow of
Kingdom, and France.[32] former President Arnulfo Arias Madrid, took oce after
The urban population, with many living below the poverty defeating PRD candidate Martin Torrijos, son of Omar
level, was greatly aected by the 1989 intervention. As Torrijos, in a free and fair election. During her admin-
pointed out in 1995 by a UN Technical Assistance Mis- istration, Moscoso attempted to strengthen social pro-
sion to Panama, the bombardments during the invasion grams, especially for child and youth development, pro-
caused the displacement of 20,000 people. The most tection, and general welfare. Moscosos administration
heavily aected district was impoverished El Chorrillo, successfully handled the Panama Canal transfer and was
where several blocks of apartments were completely de- eective in the administration of the Canal.
stroyed. El Chorrillo had been built in days of Canal The PRDs Martin Torrijos won the presidency and a leg-
construction, a series of wooden barracks which easily islative majority in the National Assembly in 2004. Tor-
caught re under the United States attack.[33][34][35] The rijos ran his campaign on a platform of, among other
economic damage caused by the intervention has been es- pledges, a zero tolerance for corruption, a problem en-
timated to be between 1.5 and 2 billion dollars. n.p.[26] demic to the Moscoso and Perez Balladares administra-
Many Panamanians supported the intervention.[28][36] tions. After taking oce, Torrijos passed a number of
laws which made the government more transparent. He
formed a National Anti-Corruption Council whose mem-
2.4 Post-intervention era bers represented the highest levels of government and
civil society, labor organizations, and religious leader-
Panamas Electoral Tribunal moved quickly to restore ship. In addition, many of his closest Cabinet ministers
the civilian constitutional government, reinstated the re- were non-political technocrats known for their support for
sults of the May 1989 election on December 27, 1989, the Torrijos governments anti-corruption aims. Despite
and conrmed the victory of President Guillermo Endara the Torrijos administrations public stance on corruption,
and Vice Presidents Guillermo Ford and Ricardo Arias many high-prole cases, particularly involving political or
8 3 GEOGRAPHY

business elites, were never acted upon. North of the Pacic Ocean. Panamas total area is
2 [2]
Conservative supermarket magnate Ricardo Martinelli 74,177.3 km .
was elected to succeed Martin Torrijos with a landslide The dominant feature of Panamas geography is the cen-
victory in the May 2009 presidential election. Mr. Mar- tral spine of mountains and hills that forms the continental
tinellis business credentials drew voters worried by slow- divide. The divide does not form part of the great moun-
ing growth due to the world nancial crisis.[37] Standing tain chains of North America, and only near the Colom-
for the four-party opposition Alliance for Change, Mr. bian border are there highlands related to the Andean sys-
Martinelli gained 60% of the vote, against 37% for the tem of South America. The spine that forms the divide is
candidate of the governing left-wing Democratic Revo- the highly eroded arch of an uplift from the sea bottom,
lutionary Party. in which peaks were formed by volcanic intrusions.
On May 4, 2014, Juan Carlos Varela won the 2014 pres- The mountain range of the divide is called the Cordillera
idential election with over 39% of the votes, against the de Talamanca near the Costa Rican border. Farther east
party of his former political partner Ricardo Martinelli, it becomes the Serrana de Tabasar, and the portion of
Cambio Democrtico, and their candidate Jos Domingo it closer to the lower saddle of the isthmus, where the
Arias. He was sworn in on 1 July 2014. Panama Canal is located, is often called the Sierra de Ve-
raguas. As a whole, the range between Costa Rica and
the canal is generally referred to by geographers as the
3 Geography Cordillera Central.
The highest point in the country is the Volcn Bar, which
rises to 3,475 metres (11,401 feet). A nearly impenetra-
ble jungle forms the Darin Gap between Panama and
Colombia where Colombian guerrilla and drug dealers
are operating with hostage-taking. This and forest pro-
tection movements create a break in the Pan-American
Highway, which otherwise forms a complete road from
Alaska to Patagonia.
Panamas wildlife holds the most diversity of all the coun-
tries in Central America. It is home to many South Amer-
ican species as well as North American wildlife.
A map of Panama

Main article: Geography of Panama

Panama is located in Central America, bordering both

The Chagres River

La Palma, Darin. 3.1 Waterways

the Caribbean Sea and the Pacic Ocean, between Main article: Panama Canal
Colombia and Costa Rica. It mostly lies between latitudes
7 and 10N, and longitudes 77 and 83W (a small area Nearly 500 rivers lace Panamas rugged landscape.
lies west of 83). Mostly unnavigable, many originate as swift highland
Its location on the Isthmus of Panama is strategic. By streams, meander in valleys, and form coastal deltas.
2000, Panama controlled the Panama Canal which con- However, the Ro Chagres (Chagres River), located in
nects the Atlantic Ocean and the Caribbean Sea to the central Panama, is one of the few wide rivers and a source
3.3 Climate 9

of enormous hydroelectric power. The central part of 2,210,720 TEU in 2009, second only to the Port of San-
the river is dammed by the Gatun Dam and forms Gatun tos, Brazil, in Latin America.
Lake, an articial lake that constitutes part of the Panama Excellent deep water ports capable of accommodating
Canal. The lake was created between 1907 and 1913 by large VLCC (Very Large Crude Oil Carriers) are located
the building of the Gatun Dam across the Ro Chagres. at Charco Azul, Chiriqu (Pacic) and Chiriqu Grande,
When it was created, Gatun Lake was the largest man- Bocas del Toro (Atlantic) near Panamas western bor-
made lake in the world, and the dam was the largest earth der with Costa Rica. The Trans-Panama pipeline, run-
dam. The river drains northwest into the Caribbean. The ning across the isthmus with a length of 131 kilometres
Kampia and Madden Lakes (also lled from the Ro Cha-
(81 miles), has been operating between Charco Azul and
gres) provide hydroelectricity for the area of the former Chiriqu Grande since 1979.[40]
Canal Zone.
The Ro Chepo, another source of hydroelectric power,
is one of the more than 300 rivers emptying into the Pa- 3.3 Climate
cic. These Pacic-oriented rivers are longer and slower
running than those of the Caribbean side. Their basins Main article: Climate of Panama
are also more extensive. One of the longest is the Ro Panama has a tropical climate. Temperatures are uni-
Tuira, which ows into the Golfo de San Miguel and is
the nations only river navigable by larger vessels. Panama map of Kppen climate classication

3.2 Harbors
The Caribbean coastline is marked by several good natu-
ral harbors. However, Cristbal, at the Caribbean termi-
nus of the canal, had the only important port facilities in
the late 1980s. The numerous islands of the Archipilago
de Bocas del Toro, near the Beaches of Costa Rica, pro-
vide an extensive natural roadstead and shield the banana
port of Almirante. The over 350 San Blas Islands, near
Colombia, are strung out for more than 160 kilometres
(99 miles) along the sheltered Caribbean coastline.
Panama map of Kppen climate classication.

Coln Harbor, 2000

Currently, the terminal ports located at each end of the

Panama Canal, namely the Port of Cristobal and the
Port of Balboa, are ranked second and third respec-
tively in Latin America in terms of numbers of contain- A cold climate is usual near and in the Panamanian highlands.
ers units (TEU) handled.[38] The Port of Balboa covers
182 hectares and contains four berths for containers andformly highas is the relative humidityand there is lit-
two multi-purpose berths. In total, the berths are over tle seasonal variation. Diurnal ranges are low; on a typical
2,400 metres (7,900 feet) long with alongside depth of dry-season day in the capital city, the early morning min-
15 metres (49 feet). The Port of Balboa has 18 super imum may be 24 C (75.2 F) and the afternoon maxi-
post-Panamax and Panamax quay cranes and 44 gantry mum 30 C (86.0 F). The temperature seldom exceeds
cranes. The Port of Balboa also contains 2,100 square 32 C (89.6 F) for more than a short time. Temperatures
metres (23,000 square feet) of warehouse space.[39] on the Pacic side of the isthmus are somewhat lower than
The Ports of Cristobal (encompassing the container ter- on the Caribbean, and breezes tend to rise after dusk in
minals of Panama Ports Cristobal, Manzanillo Interna- most parts of the country. Temperatures are markedly
tional Terminal and Colon Container Terminal) handled cooler in the higher parts of the mountain ranges, and
10 4 POLITICS

frosts occur in the Cordillera de Talamanca in western tory for all citizens 18 years and older. National elections
Panama. for the executive and legislative branches take place ev-
Climatic regions are determined less on the basis of tem- ery ve years. Members of the judicial branch (justices)
perature than on rainfall, which varies regionally from are appointed by the head of state. Panamas National
less than 1,300 millimeters (51.2 in) to more than 3,000 Assembly is elected by proportional representation in
millimeters (118.1 in) per year. Almost all of the rain xed electoral districts, so many smaller parties are rep-
falls during the rainy season, which is usually from April resented. Presidential elections do not require a simple
to December, but varies in length from seven to nine majority; out of the four last presidents only one, incum-
bent president Ricardo Martinelli, was elected with over
months. In general, rainfall is much heavier on the [41]
Caribbean than on the Pacic side of the continental di- 50% of the popular vote.
vide. The annual average in Panama City is little more
than half of that in Coln. Although rainy-season thun-
derstorms are common, the country is outside the hurri-
cane belt. 4.1 Political culture
Panamas tropical environment supports an abundance of
plants. Forests dominate, interrupted in places by grass- In December 1989 the United States invaded Panama to
lands, scrub, and crops. Although nearly 40% of Panama depose the dictator Manuel Noriega. Since the U.S. in-
is still wooded, deforestation is a continuing threat to the vasion, and resulting end to the 21-year military dictator-
rain-drenched woodlands. Tree cover has been reduced ship, Panama has successfully completed four peaceful
by more than 50% since the 1940s. Subsistence farm- transfers of power to opposing political factions. The po-
ing, widely practiced from the northeastern jungles to the litical landscape is dominated by two major parties and
southwestern grasslands, consists largely of corn, bean, many smaller parties, many of which are driven by indi-
and tuber plots. Mangrove swamps occur along parts vidual leaders more than ideologies. Former President
of both coasts, with banana plantations occupying deltas Martin Torrijos is the son of dictator Omar Torrijos.
near Costa Rica. In many places, a multi-canopied rain He succeeded Mireya Moscoso, the widow of Arnulfo
forest abuts the swamp on one side of the country and Arias. Panamas most recent national elections occurred
extends to the lower reaches of slopes in the other. on May 4, 2014 with Incumbent Vice-President Juan
Carlos Varela declared the victor.

4 Politics
4.2 Foreign relations
Main article: Politics of Panama
Panamas politics take place in a framework of a Further information: Foreign relations of Panama
The United States cooperates with the Panamanian gov-

The National Assembly of Panama.

presidential representative democratic republic, whereby Panamas President Juan Carlos Varela and Vice President
the President of Panama is both head of state and head Isabel Saint Malo with U.S. Secretary of State John Kerry
of government, and of a multi-party system. Executive
power is exercised by the government. Legislative power ernment in promoting economic, political, security, and
is vested in both the government and the National Assem- social development through U.S. and international agen-
bly. The judiciary is independent of the executive and the cies. Cultural ties between the two countries are strong,
legislature. and many Panamanians come to the United States for
For all people national elections are universal and manda- higher education and advanced training.
 11

4.3 Military Cocl

Further information: Panamanian Public Forces Coln

Darin
The Panamanian Public Forces are the national security
Herrera
forces of Panama. Panama is the second country in Latin
America (the other being Costa Rica) to permanently Los Santos
abolish standing armies. Panama maintains armed police
and security forces, and small air and maritime forces. Panam
They are tasked with law enforcement and can perform West Panam
limited military actions.
Veraguas

4.4 Administrative divisions Regions

Ember
Guna Yala
Ngbe-Bugl Comarca
Kuna de Madugand
Kuna de Wargand

5 Economy
Main article: Economy of Panama
Bocas del Toro According to the CIA World Factbook, as of 2012
Cocl
Coln
Chiriqu
Darin
Herrera
Los Santos
Panam
West Panam
Veraguas
Guna Yala
Comarca Ember-Wounaan
Comarca Ember-Wounaan
Ngbe-Bugl Comarca A Panamax ship in transit through the Miraores locks, Panama
Kuna de Madugand Canal.
Kuna de Wargand
Panama had an unemployment rate of 2.7%.[9] A food
Main article: Provinces and regions of Panama
surplus was registered in August 2008. On the Human
Development Index, Panama ranked 60th in 2015. In re-
Panama is divided into ten provinces with their respec- cent years, Panamas economy has experienced a boom,
tive local authorities (governors), which are divided into with growth in real gross domestic product (GDP) aver-
districts and corregimientos (townships) and has a total aging over 10.4% in the 20062008 period. Panamas
of ten cities. Also, there are ve Comarcas (literally: economy has been among the fastest growing and best
Shires) populated by a variety of indigenous groups. managed in Latin America. The Latin Business Chron-
icle predicted that Panama would be the fastest growing
Provinces economy in Latin America during the ve years period
201014, matching Brazils 10% rate.[42]
Bocas del Toro The expansion project on the Panama Canal and the free
trade agreement with the United States are expected to
Chiriqu boost and extend economic expansion for some time.
12
Despite Panamas upper-middle per capita GDP, it re-
mains a country of stark contrasts. Perpetuated by dra-
matic educational disparities, over 25% of Panamas pop-
ulation lived in national poverty in 2013 and 3% of the
population lives in extreme poverty, according to latest
reports by the World Bank.[43][44]
The Marine bridge viaduct
5.1 Economic sectors
Panamas economy, because of its key geographic loca-
tion, is mainly based on a well developed service sec-
tor especially commerce, tourism, and trading. The han-
dover of the Canal and military installations by the United
States has given rise to large construction projects.
A project to build of a third set of locks for the Panama
Canal A was overwhelmingly approved in referendum
(with low voter turnout, however) on October 22, 2006.
The ocial estimated cost of the project is US$5.25 bil-
lion. The canal is of major economic importance be-
cause it provides millions of dollars of toll revenue to
the national economy and provides massive employment.
Transfer of control of the Canal to the Panamanian gov-
ernment completed in 1999, after being controlled by the
US for 85 years.
Copper and gold deposits are being developed by foreign
investors, to the dismay of some environmental groups, as Tourism in Panama is rapidly growing. It has maintained
all of the projects are located within protected areas.[45] its growth over the past ve years due to government tax
5.1.1 Panama as a tax haven
Main articles: Panama as a tax haven and Panama Papers interest for these visitor incentives.[49] 2,200,000 tourists
Since the early 20th century, Panama has gained a repu-
tation worldwide for being a tax haven. In 2016, the re-
lease of the Panama Papers caused a huge global nancial
scandal.
5 ECONOMY
Tocumen International Airport, Central Americas largest airport
5.2 Transportation
Main article: Transport in Panama
Panama is home to Tocumen International Airport, Cen-
tral Americas largest airport. Additionally there are more
than 20 smaller airelds in the country. See list of airports
in Panama.
Panamas roads, trac and transportation systems are
generally safe, though night driving is dicult and in
many cases, restricted by local authorities. This usu-
ally occurs in informal settlements.[46] Trac in Panama
moves on the right, and Panamanian law requires that
drivers and passengers wear seat belts.[46] Highways are
generally well-developed for a Latin American country.
Currently, Panama has modern buses known as
Metrobuses,[47] along with a Metro line.[48] Formerly,
the system was dominated by colorfully painted diablos
rojos, with some remaining. A diablo rojo is usually
customized or painted with bright colors, usually
depicting famous actors, politicians or singers. Panama
Citys streets experience frequent trac jams due to
poor planning for the now extensive private vehicle eet.
5.3 Tourism
and price discounts to foreign guests and retirees. These
economic incentives have caused Panama to be regarded
as a relatively good place to retire in the world. Real es-
tate developers in Panama have increased the number of
tourism destinations in the past ve years because of the
arrived in 2012.
The number of tourists from Europe grew by 23.1%
during the rst nine months of 2008. According to
the Tourism Authority of Panama (ATP), from Jan-
uary to September, 71,154 tourists from Europe entered
5.5 International trade 13

5.5 International trade

The high levels of Panamanian trade are in large part

Panama City as seen from the Corredor Sur highway.
Panama, which is 13,373 more than gures for same pe-
riod the previous year. Most of the European tourists
were Spaniards (14,820), followed by Italians (13,216),
French (10,174) and British (8,833). There were 6997
from Germany, the most populous country in the Euro-
pean Union. Europe has become one of the key markets
to promote Panama as a tourist destination.
In 2012, 4.345.5 million entered into the Panamanian
economy as a result of tourism. This accounted for 9.5%
of gross domestic product in the country, surpassing other
productive sectors.
Panama enacted Law No. 80 in 2012 for the promotion of
foreign investment in tourism. Law 80 replaced an older 6.1 Demographics
Law 8 of 1994. Law 80 provides 100% exemption from
income tax and real estate taxes for 15 years, duty-free Main article: Demographics of Panama
imports for construction materials and equipment for ve Panama recorded a population of 3,405,813 in its 2010
years, and capital gains tax exemption for ve years.[50]
from the Coln Free Trade Zone, the largest free trade
zone in the Western Hemisphere. Last year the zone ac-
counted for 92% of Panamas exports and 64% of its im-
ports, according to an analysis of gures from the Colon
zone management and estimates of Panamas trade by the
United Nations Economic Commission for Latin Amer-
ica and the Caribbean. Panamas economy is also very
much supported by the trade and export of coee and
other agricultural products.
The Bilateral Investment Treaty (BIT) between the gov-
ernments of the United States and Panama was signed on
October 27, 1982. The treaty protects US investment and
assists Panama in its eorts to develop its economy by
creating conditions more favorable for US private invest-
ment and thereby strengthening the development of its
private sector. The BIT was the rst such treaty signed
by the US in the Western Hemisphere.[52] A Panama -
United States Trade Promotion Agreement (TPA) was
signed in 2007, approved by Panama on July 11, 2007
and by US President Obama on October 21, 2011, and
the agreement entered into force on October 31, 2012.[53]
6 Society

5.4 Currency

The Panamanian currency is ocially the balboa, xed

at a rate of 1:1 with the United States dollar since Pana-
manian independence in 1903. In practice Panama is
dollarized: US dollars are legal tender and used for all pa-
per currency, while Panama has its own coinage. Because
of the tie to US dollars, Panama has traditionally had low
ination. According to the Economic Commission for
Latin American and the Caribbean, Panamas ination in Panamas population, (19612003).
2006 was 2.0% as measured by weight Consumer Price
Index (CPI).[51] census.[4] The proportion of the population aged below
The balboa replaced the Colombian peso in 1904 after 15 in 2010 was 29%. 64.5% of the population were aged
Panamas independence. Balboa banknotes were printed between 15 and[54]65, with 6.6% of the population being 65
in 1941 by President Arnulfo Arias. They were recalled years or older.
several days later, giving them the name The Seven Day More than half the population lives in the Panama
Dollar. The notes were burned by the new government, CityColn metropolitan corridor, which spans several
but occasionally balboa notes can be found in collections. cities. Panamas urban population exceeds 70%, mak-
These were the only banknotes ever issued by Panama ing Panamas population the most urbanized in Central
and U.S. notes have circulated both before and since. America.[55]
14 6 SOCIETY

6.2 Ethnic groups

In 2010 the population was 65% Mestizo (mixed white,

Native American), 12.3% Native Americans, 9.2%
Black/mulattoes and 6.7% White.[9]
Ethnic groups in Panama include Mestizo people, who
are a mix of European and native ancestry. Black,
or Afro-Panamanians account for 1520% of the pop-
ulation. Most Afro-Panamanians live on the Panama-
Coln metropolitan area, the Darien Province, La Palma,
and Bocas Del Toro. Neighborhoods in Panama City Panama City, Panamas capital.
that have large black populations include; Curundu, El
Chorrillo, Rio Abajo, San Joaqun, El Maran, San
Miguelito, Coln, and Santa Ana. Black Panamanians are 6.5 Religion
descendents of African slaves brought to the Americas on
the 1500 Atlantic Slave Trade. The second wave of black Main article: Religion in Panama
people brought to Panama came from the Caribbean dur- The government of Panama does not collect statistics on
ing the construction of the Panama Canal. Panama also
has a considerable Chinese and Indian (India) popula-
tion. They were brought to work on the canal during its
construction. Most Chinese-Panamanians reside in the
province of Chiriqu. Europeans and white-Panamanians
are a minority in Panama. They are descendents of the
people who colonized Panama, worked on the canal, and
who moved to the country. Panama is also home to a
small Arab community that have Mosques to practice
Islam.
The Amerindian population includes seven ethnic groups:
the Ngbe, Kuna (Guna), Ember, Bugl, Wounaan,
Naso Tjerdi (Teribe), and Bri Bri.[56]
Plaza de la independencia, Panama City.

the religious aliation of citizens, but various sources es-

6.3 Languages
Further information: Panamanian Spanish
Spanish is the ocial and dominant language. The Span-
ish spoken in Panama is known as Panamanian Spanish.
About 93% of the population speak Spanish as their rst
language, though many citizens who hold jobs at interna-
tional levels, or who are a part of business corporations
speak both English and Spanish. Native languages, such
as Ngbere are spoken throughout the country, mostly in
their native grounds. Over 400,000 Panamanians hold
their native languages and customs.[57] Some new statis-
tics show that as second language, English is spoken by
8%, French by 4% and Arabic by 1%.
timate that 75% to 85% of the population identies itself
as Roman Catholic and 15%25% as Protestant.[58][59]
The Bah' Faith community of Panama is estimated at
2.00% of the national population, or about 60,000[60] in-
cluding about 10% of the Guaym population.[61]
The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints
(LDS Church) claim more than 40,000 members.[62]
Smaller religious groups include Seventh-day Adven-
tists, Jehovahs Witnesses, Episcopalians with between
7,000 and 10,000 members, Jewish and Muslim com-
munities with approximately 10,000 members each,
Hindus, Buddhists, and other Christians.[59] Indigenous
religions include Ibeorgun (among Kuna) and Mamatata
(among Ngobe).[59] There are also a small number of
Rastafarians.[59]

6.6 Education
6.4 Largest cities
Main article: Education in Panama
Further information: List of cities in Panama
These are the 10 largest Panamanian cities and towns. Originally, during the 16th century, education in Panama
Most of Panamas largest cities are part of the Panama was provided by Jesuit priests. Public education, as a na-
City Metropolitan Area. tional and governmental institution, began in 1903. The
7.1 Handicraft 15

principles underlying this early education system were

that children should receive dierent types of education
in accordance with their social class and therefore the po-
sition they were expected to occupy in society.
Public education began in Panama soon after the sep-
aration from Colombia in 1903. The rst eorts were
guided by an extremely paternalistic view of the goals
of education, as evidenced in comments made in a 1913
meeting of the First Panamanian Educational Assembly,
The cultural heritage given to the child should be de-
termined by the social position he will or should occupy.
For this reason education should be dierent in accor-
dance with the social class to which the student should be A couple dancing Panamanian Cumbia.
related. This elitist focus changed rapidly under United
States inuence.[63]
In 2010, it was estimated that 94.1% of the population haitiano (compas), jazz, blues, salsa, reggae, and rock
was literate (94.7% of males and 93.5% of females).[58] music performances.
Education in Panama is compulsory for the children of
age group between 6 and 18. In recent decades, school
enrollment at all levels, but especially at upper levels, has
increased signicantly. Panama used to participate in the
PISA exams but due to debts and unsatisfactory exam re- 7.1 Handicraft
sults is postponing participation until 2018.[64]
Outside Panama City, regional festivals take place
throughout the year featuring local musicians and
7 Culture dancers. Panamas blended culture is reected in tradi-
tional products, such as woodcarvings, ceremonial masks
and pottery, as well as in Panamas architecture, cuisine
Main article: Culture of Panama and festivals. In earlier times, baskets were woven for
See also: Music of Panama utilitarian uses, but now many villages rely almost exclu-
The culture of Panama derived from European mu- sively on the baskets they produce for tourists.

An example of undisturbed, unique culture in Panama is

that of the Guna who are known for molas. Mola is the
Guna word for blouse, but the term mola has come to
mean the elaborate embroidered panels made by Guna
women, that make up the front and back of a Guna
womans blouse. They are several layers of cloth, varying
in color, that are loosely stitched together, made using a
reverse appliqu process.

7.2 Holidays and festivities

Pollera.
sic, art and traditions brought over by the Spanish to
Panama. Hegemonic forces have created hybrid forms
of this by blending African and Native American culture
with European culture. For example, the tamborito is a
Spanish dance that was blended with African rhythms,
themes and dance moves.[65]
Dance is a symbol of the diverse cultures that have cou-
pled in Panama. The local folklore can be experienced
through a multitude of festivals, dances and traditions
that have been handed down from generation to gener-
ation. Local cities host live reggae en espaol, reggaeton,
Further information: Public holidays in Panama
The Christmas parade, known as El desle de Navidad,
is celebrated in the capital, Panama City. This holiday is
celebrated on December 25. The oats in the parade are
decorated with the Panamanian colors, and the women
dress in dresses called Pollera while the men dress in the
traditional Montuno. In addition, the marching band in
the parade, consisting of drummers, keeps the crowds
entertained. In the city, a big Christmas tree is lit with
Christmas lights, and everybody surrounds the tree and
sings Christmas carols.[66]
16 7 CULTURE

7.3 Traditional cuisine where the females and males do a traditional dance. Fe-
males do a gentle sway and twirl their skirts, while the
Further information: Panamanian cuisine men hold their hats in their hands and dance behind the
females.
Panamanian Cuisine is a mix of African, Spanish, and
Native American techniques, dishes, and ingredients, re- 7.5 Literature
ecting its diverse population. Since Panama is a land
bridge between two continents, it has a large variety of Further information: Panamanian literature
tropical fruits, vegetables and herbs that are used in na-
tive cooking.
According to Professor Rodrigo Mir, the rst story
Typical Panamanian foods are mild-avored, without about Panama was written by Gonzalo Fernndez de
the pungency of some of Panamas Latin American and Oviedo y Valds and published as part of the Historia
Caribbean neighbors. Common ingredients are maize, General y Natural de Las Indias in 1535. Some poets
rice, wheat our, plantains, yuca (cassava), beef, chicken, and novelists born in Panam are:
pork and seafood.
Manuel Mara Ayala (17851824)
Amelia Denis de Icaza (18361911)
7.4 Traditional clothing
Daro Herrera (18701914)
Panamanian mens traditional clothing consists of white
Ricardo Mir (18831940)
cotton shirts, trousers and woven straw hat.
The traditional womens clothing is the pollera. It origi- Gaspar Octavio Hernndez (18931918)
nated in Spain in the 16th century, and by the early 1800s Demetrio Korsi (18991957)
it was a typical in Panama, worn by women servants, es-
pecially wet nurses (De Zarate 5). Later, it was adopted Ricardo Bermdez (19142000)
by upper-class women.
Mario Augusto Rodriguez (19172008)
A pollera is made of "cambric" or ne linen (Baker
177). It is white, and is usually about 13 yards of ma- Jos Mara Snchez (19181973)
terial. Ramn H. Jurado (19221978)
The original pollera consists of a rued blouse worn o Carlos Francisco Changmarn (1922 )
the shoulders and a skirt is on the waistline with gold but-
tons. The skirt is also rued, so that when it is lifted up, Joaqun Beleo (19221988)
it looks like a peacocks tail or a mantilla fan. The de-
Tristn Solarte (1924 )
signs on the skirt and blouse are usually owers or birds.
Two large matching pom poms (mota) are on the front Pedro Rivera (1939 )
and back, four ribbons hang from the front and back on
the waist line, ve gold chains (caberstrillos) hang from Moravia Ochoa Lpez (1941 )
the neck to the waist, a gold cross or medallion on a black Gloria Guardia (1940 )
ribbon is worn as a choker, and a silk purse is worn on the
waistline. Earrings (zaricillos) are usually gold or coral. Dimas Lidio Pitty (1941 )
Slippers usually match the color of the pollera. Hair is
Roberto Fernndez Iglesias (1941 )
usually worn in a bun, held by three large gold combs
that have pearls (tembleques) worn like a crown. Qual- Jarl Ricardo Babot (1946 )
ity pollera can cost up to $10,000, and may take a year to
complete. Manuel Orestes Nieto (1951 )

Today, there are dierent types of polleras; the pollera Moiss Pascual (1955 )
de gala consists of a short-sleeved rue skirt blouse, two
Hctor Miguel Collado (1960 )
full-length skirts and a petticoat. Girls wear tembleques
in their hair. Gold coins and jewelry are added to the David Robinson Orobio (1960 )
outt. The pollera montuna is a daily dress, with a blouse,
a skirt with a solid color, a single gold chain, and pendant Katia Chiari (1969 )
earrings and a natural ower in the hair. Instead of an o- Carlos Oriel Wynter Melo (1971 )
the-shoulder blouse is a tted white jacket with, shoulder
pleats, and a ared hem.[67] Jos Luis Rodrguez Pitt (1971 )
Traditional clothing in Panama can be worn in parades, Sofa Santim (1982 ).
7.7 Climate change 17

7.6 Sports Daley, a 10-year captain and showman of the Harlem

Globetrotters.
Other popular sports include volleyball, taekwondo, golf,
and tennis. A long-distance hiking trail called the
TransPanama Trail is being built from Colombia to Costa
Rica.
Other non-traditional sports in the country have had great
importance such as the triathlon that has captured the at-
tention of many athletes nationwide and the country has
hosted international competitions. Flag football has also
been growing in popularity in both men and women and
with international participation in world of this discipline
being among the best teams in the world, the sport was
introduced by Americans residing in the Canal Zone for
veterans and retirees who even had a festival called the
Turkey Ball. Other popular sports are American football,
rugby, hockey, softball and other amateur sports includ-
ing skateboarding, BMX and surng, because the many
beaches of Panama such as Santa Catalina and Venao that
have hosted events the likes of ISA World Surng Games.
Long jumper Irving Saladino became the rst Panama-
nian Olympic gold medalist in 2008. In 2012 eight dif-
ferent athletes represented Panama in the London 2012
Olympics: Irving Saladino in the long jump, Alonso Ed-
ward and Andrea Ferris in track and eld, Diego Castillo
in swimming, and the youngest on the team, Carolena
Carstens who was 16 competing in taekwondo. She was
the rst representative to compete for Panama in that
Panamanian baseball catcher Carlos Ruiz during 2007 Spring sport.
Training.

The U.S. inuence in Panama can be seen in the countrys 7.7 Climate change
sports. Baseball is Panamas national sport and the coun-
try has regional teams and a national team that represents Panama was one of the few countries that didn't enter an
[69][70]
it in international events. At least 140 Panamanian play- INDC at COP21.
ers have played professional baseball in the United States,
more than any other Central American country.[68] No-
table players include Bruce Chen, Rod Carew, Mariano 8 See also
Rivera, Carlos Lee, Manny Sanguilln, and Carlos Ruiz.
In boxing, four Panamanians are in the International Index of Panama-related articles
Boxing Hall of Fame: Roberto Durn, Eusebio Pe- Outline of Panama
droza, Ismael Laguna and Panama Al Brown. In August
2016 Panama had two reigning world boxing champions: Water supply and sanitation in Panama
Guillermo Jones and Anselmo Moreno.
Since the end of the 20th century, football has become
a popular sport for Panamanians, the national league 9 References
and the national team has featured a good progress,
their legendary players are such as Luis Ernesto Tapia, [1] Panama. CIA World Factbook.
Rommel Fernndez, the Dely Valdes Brothers: Armando, [2] Datos generales e histricos de la Repblica de Panam"
Julio and Jorge; and recent players as Jaime Penedo, (PDF) (in Spanish). INEC. Retrieved 22 December 2015.
Felipe Baloy, Luis Tejada, Blas Perez, Roman Torres and
Harold Cummings. [3] File POP/1-1: Total population (both sexes combined) by
major area, region and country, annually for 19502100
Basketball is popular in Panama. There are regional (thousands). World Population Prospects: The 2015 Revi-
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10 Further reading
Buckley, Kevin, Panama, Touchstone, 1992. ISBN
0-671-77876-5
Diaz Espino, Ovidio, How Wall Street Created a Na-
tion, Four Walls Eight Windows, 2001. ISBN 1-
56858-196-3
Harding, Robert C., The History of Panama, Green-
wood Publishing, 2006.
Harding, Robert C., Military Foundations of Pana-
manian Politics, Transaction Publishers, 2001.
ISBN 0-393-02696-5
Joster, R.M. and Sanchez, Guillermo, In the Time of
the Tyrants, Panama: 19681990, W.W. Norton &
Company, 1990.
Mellander, Gustavo A.; Nelly Maldonado Mellan-
der (1999). Charles Edward Magoon: The Panama
Years. Ro Piedras, Puerto Rico: Editorial Plaza
Mayor. ISBN 1-56328-155-4. OCLC 42970390.
Mellander, Gustavo A. (1971). The United States
in Panamanian Politics: The Intriguing Formative
Years. Danville, Ill.: Interstate Publishers. OCLC
138568.
Porras, Ana Elena, Cultura de la Interoceanidad:
Narrativas de Identidad Nacional de Panama
(19902002), Editorial Carlos Manuel Gasteazoro,
2005. ISBN 9962-53-131-4
Serrano, Damaris, La Nacin Panamena en sus
Espacios: Cultura Popular, Resistencia y Global-
izacin, Editorial Mariano Arosemena, 2005. ISBN
9962-659-01-9
Villarreal, Melquiades, Esperanza o Realidad: Fron-
teras de la Identidad Panamena, Editorial Mariano
Arosemena, 2004. ISBN 9962-601-80-0
20 11 EXTERNAL LINKS

Weeks, John and Gunson, Phil, Panama. Made in

the USA, 1992. ISBN 978-0-906156-55-1

11 External links
Government of Panama

Panama at DMOZ

Panama from UCB Libraries GovPubs

Panama. The World Factbook. Central Intelli-
gence Agency.
Panama from the BBC News

Wikimedia Atlas of Panama

 21

12 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

12.1 Text
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Sbfw, Razorame, Philip200291, Call of cthulhu, Michael.palomino-at-gmx.ch, Canguizola, Frozen4322, Jellabob, Redblue32, Mickey
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Buzzp1, Johnuniq, SoxBot III, Beefcake8888, Apparition11, Vanished user uih38riiw4hjlsd, Ostinato2, NERIC-Security, PanamaNick,
Sunquanliangxiuhao, DumZiBoT, Abdullah727, A.h. king, Darkicebot, Gmricart, RexxS, BarretB, M.cheerleader7949, XLinkBot, Fresh-
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Jlcoving, Badgernet, Alexius08, Noctibus, Mm40, Eleven even, Turtle926, Mattypants94, Pfriel445, Good Olfactory, Jimmy Slade, US,
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Cxz111, Lordoliver, Willking1979, Some jerk on the Internet, Prattlement, Tcncv, Landon1980, Non-dropframe, Lithoderm, M.nelson,
Panama2008, Tanhabot, Ronhjones, TutterMouse, Drachir44, Startstop123, Costhiraius, Gerry2082, Cheney123, Vishnava, CanadianLin-
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Iaki Salazar, Isinbill, Maypigeon of Liberty, Lateg, Unendingfear, Redsquirrelonre, Hessite, Gigsher, The Nut, Subtropical-man, Alpha
Quadrant (alt), Evanex, Adam1adam1adam, H3llBot, Xxkirabaybeexx, Footwiks, SporkBot, AManWithNoPlan, Zap Rowsdower, Lebron-
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Donner60, LibertyOrDeath, Ruth0001, EddieZomb, Damirgrati, ElockidAlternate, Gum, Hazard-Bot, ChuispastonBot, AndyThe-
Grump, Peter Karlsen, Guate-man, DASHBotAV, 28bot, Samurai2002, Davey2010, Ana232, Sonicyouth86, Petrb, Turtleman7, ClueBot
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Eemctee, ScottSteiner, Puerto 8245, Widr, Delivernews, JenBearz2, Leroy kareem owers, Vibhijain, Feroang, AlternoBreak, DBigXray,
BG19bot, Georey Leonard V, Gwydion12, Northamerica1000, Lescobar, Yuri Mattheus, PhnomPencil, Graham11, HIDECCHI001,
12.2 Images 23

Krschopp, Wiki13, Xhavnak, MusikAnimal, Amp71, Heyheyhye, Nipunbayas, Compfreak7, Cocktail88, Thebestlover2008, Queen of
Awesome, Gatorman63, Tyranitar Man, Ernio48, Glacialfox, Isaiah993, Minsbot, Klilidiplomus, Achowat, Roy careys cats, Socialist-
guy, 4Jays1034, Shredder2012, BattyBot, SimmeD, Pickles4ever, Hp1522, Nguyn Quc Vit, MahdiBot, Gins90, Kailee101, Cyberbot
II, Ricktreks, Kdsman1, IceBrotherhood, Stumink, JYBot, Dad3550, Treemapper, Rene152005, Dissident93, Profpremrajpushpakaran,
Natuur12, Master88383, Alburzador, Vogone, Mogism, Pablo Jaramillo, Paraloco, TwoTwoHello, Jruerman, Lugia2453, Jbamrud,
Jemappelleungarcon, Graphium, Brokenforty, Jamesx12345, Jonlut, Sriharsh1234, Troller0612, Corinne, Jameszick, Tebax, Panamaex-
pert, Spanish Philippines, Danielmotta17, Knorr2012, Faizan, Epicgenius, CsDix, Candycanelover, AmaryllisGardener, Eyesnore, The
Anonybot, Hanfu, Praemonitus, EvergreenFir, Luisrparker, Brinkley34, Narwall101, DavidLeighEllis, Paradissi, WattBlair, Ragstorigh-
teous, Jazzpty, Vonderjase, TacticalMouse, LieutenantLatvia, Junglepanda, Mandruss, JWNoctis, Jackmcbarn, Manul, Noyster, Human.,
AbelM7, K9re11, Ali Zifan, ThecentreCZ, N0n3up, Balbalablskdjhfakjs, Cleanlyknight42, Curryfacemcpunjabi, JaconaFrere, Ander-
butt, Tttt, Hamlsj, Aegh2003, ColRad85, Savvyjack23, Monkbot, Zumoarirodoka, AKS.9955, Iraqjak, SantiLak, TheBoulderite, Ed-
its7531, Khairi Ahmad, Donn53, Scarlettail, Kaempact, Taxisitapty, Alegrevilla, Monopoly31121993, NativePride98, Ocane Marchand,
CreamyTheGoodness, Sinedtreglih, Chrisanchez, H12345678910, ZYjacklin, Myles1193, Cafecafe 99, , Cirow, Parisgirl23, Crys-
tallizedcarbon, Morinoko7, Julietdeltalima, Zppix, ArcaneLIama62, Collebud88, GianUmanzor, MoreTomorrow, IBGenius, AquilaXIII,
Mll mitch, Dash9Z, Tb43qewf, Promdog, Kelly121219, Epicrock98, Marenysl98, KasparBot, Aedicul, Zocrasta, MusikBot, Richard-
ford28, Trerojo, Supersnack, Winter Waters, Mr.Wiser, Steven Rich in Panama, Albert Dumbstein, Douglas1234567891875, CAPTAIN
RAJU, Babymissfortune, Amax1701, NashManshor98, Flagellis, Informationrenewal, BushelCandle, Deeeznutzz, CLCStudent, Ableto17,
J34jhon, Incendiary Iconoclasm, Quentinquilly, Retention7, Cambo213, Ryanthefatboy, Pokkelkie, ZfJames, LaPerraTaichiPanamea,
Designmartians, Cheef Editer, Apairofpears, KGirlTrucker81, Mingisdumb, Kailey 2001, Ejohn319, Googoyou, MGeorge64, Pyrusca,
Bender the Bot and Anonymous: 2983

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tors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Asamblea_Nacional_de_Panam.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/38/Asamblea_Nacional_de_
Panam%C3%A1.JPG License: CC0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Ayaita
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File:Ciudad_Coln,_Panam.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9a/Ciudad_Col%C3%B3n%2C_
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File:Coat_of_Arms_of_Panama.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/30/Coat_of_arms_of_Panama.svg
License: CC0 Contributors: Own work
Semblanza biogrca de Max Lemm
Escudo correcto
Escudo de Armas
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nal artist: ?
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SA-3.0 Contributors: svg version of Image:Compass-rose-pale.png, made to look similar to Image:Reinel compass rose.svg. Original artist:
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main Contributors:
Decrease2.svg Original artist: Decrease2.svg: Sarang
File:Divisin_Poltica_de_Panam.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/81/Divisi%C3%B3n_Pol%C3%
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24 12 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

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tors: DarkEvil. Original artist: DarkEvil
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A1.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Ayaita
File:Exclusa_Miraflores_Canal_de_Panama_Panorama.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/93/
Exclusa_Miraflores_Canal_de_Panama_Panorama.jpg License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Mario Roberto Duran
Ortiz Mariordo
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tributors: Drawn by User:Madden Original artist: see below
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domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: The source code of this SVG is <a data-x-rel='nofollow' class='external text'
href='//validator.w3.org/check?uri=https%3A%2F%2Fcommons.wikimedia.org%2Fwiki%2FSpecial%3AFilepath%2FFlag_of_
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cense: Public domain Contributors: Own work based on: <a data-x-rel='nofollow' class='external text' href='https:
//docs.google.com/viewer?a=v,<span>,&,</span>,q=cache:tRiqYRg_YJ4J:www.casc.gob.ni/index.php?option%3Dcom_
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Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
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Own work Original artist: Sarang
File:Jimmy_Carter_and_General_Omar_Torrijos_signing_the_Panama_Canal_Treaty.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/
wikipedia/commons/8/87/Jimmy_Carter_and_General_Omar_Torrijos_signing_the_Panama_Canal_Treaty.jpg License: Public domain
Contributors: This media is available in the holdings of the National Archives and Records Administration, cataloged under the ARC
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e4/John_Kerry_con_Juan_Carlos_Varela_e_Isabel_Saint_Malo.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: https://www.flickr.com/photos/
statephotos/14571223763/ Original artist: U.S. Department of State
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cense: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Erandly
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License: Public domain Contributors: According to an original draught by H. Moll G. 1729. Original artist: H.G. Moll
File:North.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/44/North.svg License: Public domain Contributors: DarkEvil.
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cense: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Cropped version of Wikimedia Commons le Location North America.svg Original artist: Keepscases
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BY 2.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
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Original artist: H.C. White Co.
12.3 Content license 25

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JPG License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: I took the photo myself. Carlos Colina, jewbask@gmail.com
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Contributors: Own work Original artist: Nico2panama
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