Oil shale is a type of sedimentary rock that is rich in kerogen.

Kerogen is a part of rock that breaks down and releases

hydrocarbons when heated. Hydrocarbons are substances made entirely of hydrogen and carbon. Petroleum and
natural gas are probably the most familiar hydrocarbons. The hydrocarbons in oil shale can be used as an alternative
to petroleum or natural gas.

Like traditional petroleum, natural gas, and coal, oil shale and kerogen are fossil fuels. Fossil fuels developed from the
remains of algae, spores, plants, pollen, and a variety of other organisms that lived millions of years ago in ancient
lakes, seas, and wetlands.

When these organisms died and drifted to the seabed, they were buried under new layers of plants and sediment.
They encountered intense pressure and heat, decomposed, and slowly transformed into the waxy substance known as
kerogen.

There is not a consistent chemical composition of kerogen, because it has a variety of origins. Kerogen that formed
from land plants (called humic kerogen) usually has a higher oxygen content than kerogen formed from plankton
(called planktonic kerogen). However, all types of kerogen consist mainly of hydrocarbons; smaller amounts of sulfur,
oxygen, and nitrogen; and a variety of minerals.

Oil shale can be thought of as a precursor to oil and natural gas. With more pressure and over more geological time,
kerogen would heat to its oil window or gas window (the temperature at which it would release crude oil or natural
gas).

A sedimentary rock, oil shale is found all over the world, including China, Israel, and Russia. The United States,
however, has the most shale resources.

Spanning the U.S. states of Colorado, Utah, and Wyoming, the Green River formation is an underground oil shale
formation that contains as much as 1.8 trillion barrels of shale oil. Although not all of this can be extracted, it is more
than three times the proven petroleum reserves of Saudi Arabia.

Oil Shale, Shale Oil, and Oil-Bearing Shale

Oil shale, shale oil, and oil-bearing shale are three different substances. Oil shale is a sedimentary rock. As it reaches
its oil window, oil shale releases a liquid known as shale oil. Oil shale is the rock from which shale oil is extracted.

Shale oil is similar to petroleum, and can be refined into many different substances, including diesel fuel, gasoline, and
liquid petroleum gas (LPG). Companies can also refine shale oil to produce other commercial products, such as
ammonia and sulfur. The spent rock can be used in cement.

Oil-bearing shales are underground rock formations that contain trapped petroleum. The petroleum trapped within the
rocks is known as tight oil and is difficult to extract. Companies extracting tight oil often use hydraulic fracturing
(fracking), while companies extracting shale oil most often use heat.

The Bakken formation, for example, is made of oil-bearing shale. It is a series of layered shale rocks with a petroleum
reservoir trapped between the layers. The Bakken formation stretches from the province of Saskatchewan, Canada,
through the U.S. states of Montana and North Dakota. Improved drilling technologies have allowed companies to
extract oil from the Bakken formation, creating an economic boom in the region.

Classifying Oil Shales

Oil shales are often classified by their depositional history and mineral content. A sedimentary rocks depositional
history is the history of the type of environment in which the rock developed. The depositional history of an oil shale
includes the organisms and sediments that were deposited, as well as how those deposits interacted with pressure
and heat.

The van Krevelen Diagram

The van Krevelen Diagram is a method of classifying oil shales based on their depositional history. The diagram
divides oil shales according to where they were deposited: in lakes (lacustrine), in the ocean (marine), or on land
(terrestrial).

Oil shales from lacustrine environments formed mostly from algae living in freshwater, saltwater, or brackish water.
Lamosite and torbanite are types of oil shales associated with lacustrine environments. Lamosite deposits make up
some of the largest oil shale formations in the world. Torbanite deposits are found mainly in Scotland, Australia,
Canada, and South Africa.

Oil shales from marine environments formed mostly from deposits of algae and plankton. Kukersite, tasmanite, and
marinite are types of marine shales. Kukersite is found in the Baltic Oil Shale Basin in Estonia and Russia. Tasmanite
is named after the region in which it was discovered, the island of Tasmania, Australia. Marinite, the most abundant of
all oil shales, is found in environments that once held wide, shallow seas. Although marinite is abundant, it is often a
thin layer and not economically practical to extract. The largest marinite deposits in the world are in the United States,
stretching from the states of Indiana and Ohio through Kentucky and Tennessee.

Oil shales from terrestrial environments formed in shallow bogs and swamps with low amounts of oxygen. The
deposits were mostly the waxy or corky stems of hardy plants. Cannel shale, also called cannel coal or candle coal,
is probably the most familiar type of terrestrial oil shale. Cannel coal was used primarily as fuel for streetlights and
other illumination in the 19th century.

Classifying Oil Shales by Mineral Content

Oil shales are classified in three main types based on their mineral content: carbonate-rich shale, siliceous shale, and
cannel shale.

Carbonate-rich shale deposits have high amounts of carbonate minerals. Carbonate minerals are made of various
forms of the carbonate ion (a unique compound of carbon and oxygen). Calcite, for instance, is a carbonate mineral
common in carbonate-rich shales. Calcite is a primary component of many marine organisms. Calcite helps form the
shells and hard exteriors of oysters, sea stars, and sand dollars. Plankton, red algae, and sponges are also important
sources of calcite.

Siliceous shale is rich in the mineral silica, or silicon dioxide. Siliceous shale formed from organisms such as algae,
sponges, and microoganisms called radiolarians. Algae have a cell wall made of silica, while sponges and radiolarians
have skeletons or spicules made of silica. Siliceous oil shale is sometimes not as hard as carbonate-rich shale, and
can more easily be mined.

Cannel shale has terrestrial origins, and is often classified as coal. It is made up from the remains of resin, spores, and
corky materials from woody plants. It can contain the minerals inertinite and vitrinite. Cannel shale is rich in hydrogen,
and burns easily.

Using Oil Shale

People have been using oil shale for thousands of years. Ancient Mesopotamians used shale oil to pave roads and
caulk ships. Ancient Mongolians dipped the tips of their arrows in shale oil during battles, sending flaming arrows at
their enemies. In the Middle East, sticky shale oil was even a component of decorative mosaics.

The modern shale industry began in the 19th century. This industry used industrial processes to heat shale in order to
extract oil. Shale oil was used for a variety of products, including paraffin wax.

European countries, and later the United States, began extracting oil shale and shale oil and burning them as sources
of fuel. The first U.S. shale mining facilities were established in the Ohio River Valley in the states of Pennsylvania,
Ohio, West Virginia, and Kentucky.

Extracting and processing shale oil is an expensive and difficult process. Coal, petroleum, and natural gas are less
expensive to extract. Australia, Brazil, Switzerland, Sweden, Spain, and South Africa began mining oil shale in the 19th
and 20th centuries, but they all stopped production by the 1960s. The U.S. ceased production in the early 1980s.

Many nations, including Estonia, China, and Brazil, continue to rely on oil shale for fuel. It is burned to generate
electricity, is a component in chemical industries, and byproducts are used in cement production.

Extracting Shale Oil

Obtaining shale oil from oil shale involves heating kerogen in a process called pyrolysis. Pyrolysis is a form of heating
without the use of oxygen. At about 60-160 degrees Celsius (140-320 degrees Fahrenheit), kerogen reaches its
natural oil window. At 120-225 degrees Celsius (248-437 degrees Fahrenheit), kerogen reaches its natural gas
window. For production of oil shale, the temperatures are much higher.

Pyrolysis can either be done ex situ (above ground) or in situ (below ground).

Ex Situ
During the ex situ process, oil shale is first extracted from the earth by surface or underground mining. The rock is
crushed, and then retorted (heated) to release the shale oil. The shale oil is then refined of impurities, such as sulfur.

In Situ
In situ is a new, experimental method of extracting shale oil.

During the in situ process, oil shale is not mined or crushed. Instead, the rock is heated to its oil window while it is still
underground.
One technology used for in situ oil extraction is known as volumetric heating. In this process, the rock is heated directly
with an electric current. The heating element is injected either directly in a horizontal well or into a fractured area of the
rock, until the oil shale begins producing shale oil. The oil could then be pumped directly from underground.

Combined Technologies
Some methods are designed for both in situ and ex situ extraction.

The internal combustion process uses a combination of gas, steam and spent shale produced by ex situ processing.
These compounds are burned for pyrolysis. The hot gas is continually cycled through the oil shale, pyrolyzing the rock
and releasing oil.

Unfortunately, substances in the oil shale, such as sulfides, react with water to form toxic compounds that are harmful
to the environment and to us. Sulfides can cause effects from eye irritation to suffocation. Water containing toxic
substances is unusable, and expensive to decontaminate.

The process also produces heaps of ash. This ash can pollute ground, air, and water sources.

Another method that can be used either in situ or ex situ involves chemically reactive fluids. The fluids are injected
directly into the retort zone (where the rock is being heated). High-pressure hydrogen is one of the most common
chemically reactive fluids. It simultaneously heats the rock, removes sulfur, and upgrades the quality of the extracted
oil.

Environmental Effects

Mining for oil shale can have damaging effects on the environment.

When shale oil is combusted (heated), it releases carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. Carbon dioxide is a greenhouse
gas; it absorbs and retains heat in Earths atmosphere, a process called the greenhouse effect. The greenhouse
effect is essential to life on Earth because it helps insulate Earth and keep it at a warm, livable temperature.

The greenhouse effect helps maintain Earths carbon budget. Carbon is constantly being exchanged between the
ocean, the atmosphere, and the Earth itself. Carbon on the earth is contained in plants, soil, fossil fuels, and all living
thingsincluding us!

The carbon in fossil fuels (including coal, petroleum, natural gas, and oil shale) has been sequestered, or stored,
underground for millions of years. By removing this sequestered carbon from the earth and releasing it into the
atmosphere, Earths carbon budget is put out of balance. Burning fossil fuels releases carbon into the atmosphere at a
much quicker rate than the trees, water, and ground can reabsorb it. More carbon retains more heat in Earths
atmosphere, and contributes to rising temperaturesglobal warming, the current period of climate change.
Sometimes, climates can rise faster than organisms can adapt.

Another environmental disadvantage to extracting shale oil is the enormous amounts of freshwater required. Water is
necessary for drilling, mining, refining, and generating power. Some experts estimate that three litres (.8 gallon) of
water are required to produce just one litre (.3 gallon) of shale oil. Some of this water is contaminated by toxic
compounds, and is costly to decontaminate.

Mining can also contaminate groundwater. During in situ processing, toxic byproducts are left underground. They can
leach into other sources of water, making them unsafe for drinking, hygiene, or development.

Oil Shale and the U.S.

The United States has enormous proven deposits of oil shale. A source of oil in the United States would reduce the
need for importing oil from other countries. This would put people to work and make the U.S. less dependent on
foreign trade and fluctuating oil prices. However, not all of oil shale is recoverable. Oil shales distinct chemical
compounds and depositional history directly affect their energy content. This determines whether they are
economically worth recovering. For example, Australias oil shales are siliceous (silica-based). They have fewer
impurities and are less complex than the carbonate-based oil shales in the Western United States, and thus cost less
to extract and process.
Depositional history also matters: Oil shales that developed in wetlands or small lakes are very rich in energy.
However, these formations are usually small. Larger lakes created larger shale formations, although these usually yield
less oil.
The process of extracting shale oil is expensive, much more expensive than the process of extracting crude oil. Due to
this expense, the use of shale oil in the U.S. has fluctuated depending on the price of crude oil. Companies have only
mined for oil shale when the price of crude oil is high. Today, the price of oil is relatively high and extraction technology
is becoming more efficient and less expensive. The possibility of mining oil shale has again become a possibility.

Communities, governments, oil companies, and environmental organizations must weigh the cost of extraction with the
benefits of an oil resource.
November 10, 2014:
In an unexpected stroke of good luck for you, me and the country, the price of crude oil has fallen from $115 a barrel in June
all the way down to $84. This has meant cheaper petrol and diesel, and a lower subsidy bill for the Government. One big
factor responsible for this price fall is the unexpected increase in oil produced from shale in the US.
What is it?
Shale oil is essentially crude oil but an unconventional one at that. While the conventional fuel is usually found in porous
rocks such as sandstone, shale oil is trapped in shale rock formations that are not easily permeable and hence is tougher to
tap. So though its existence has been known for long, shale oil wasnt being extracted in large quantities.
But technological advancements horizontal drilling and fracturing (fracking) introduced and honed since the early part of
the century have enabled shale oil exploration and production on an industrial scale.
Most of the action in shale oil so far has been in the US where explorers have struck copious quantities of the black gold. It
has not been smooth sailing though. Environmentalists and local communities have been up in arms against the pollution
caused to land and water bodies by the chemicals used in the fracking process.
Nevertheless, shale oil produced in the country has grown by leaps and bounds over the years. So the dependence of the
US the largest oil consumer in the world on imported crude oil has fallen sharply. And this has added to the weakness
of global crude oil price in recent months.
Conventional crude oil producers such as Saudi Arabia have been cutting prices to maintain their market share and to drive
some of the high cost shale oil producers out of action.
But whether this will have the desired effect remains to be seen technological improvements are expected to push down
the cost of shale oil production.
Also, while Saudi Arabia might have the financial muscle to sustain low prices for quite some time, other conventional
producers such as Venezuela and Nigeria may likely find it difficult to hold out.
Why is it important?
Shale oil has the potential to be a massive game-changer in global energy supply and pricing with enormous geopolitical
implications. Its not just the US; countries such as Russia, China and Argentina are also believed to have vast stores of shale
oil. India too is taking baby steps to find and explore its shale assets potential.
Progress in other nations has been quite slow so far. But theres no saying when the inflection point will be reached. If
production continues to expand, countries such as the US could start exporting oil in a few years.
Why should I care?
For starters, more shale oil means lower petrol and diesel prices. So you spend less on travel.
Cheaper crude oil also reduces Indias current account deficit and subsidy bill and will also give a boost to the countrys GDP
that means more and better-paying jobs, and more profitable businesses. But shale oil production in India in the future
could also mean more environmental challenges. So the right trade-off needs to be made.
The bottomline
Hope all shale be well!

Shale gas policy -- a game changer or spoiler?

September 26, 2013
While policymakers consider exploring shale gas to meet energy security goals, questions are being raised if it will
drive India towards a serious water scarcity situation.
Indias move for exploiting shale gas resources in the country has been red-flagged by The Energy and Research Institute
(TERI) stating that in a water-stressed country like ours, rapidly approaching water scarcity conditions, the results might not
be as dynamic as it had proved for the U.S.
The latest policy brief Shale Gas in India: Look Before You Leap explores the question of shale gas being a game changer
in the context of India. It explains the nature of shale gas, the technology for its extraction from underground sources, and its
potential for India. It also highlights overseas acquisitions of this resource by Indian companies even before it is sourced
domestically, and then examines the viability of the technology in India. One of the key determinants of the viability of this
technology is the availability of large quantities of clean water. The policy brief points out that conventional gas can occur by
itself or in association with oil. Coal bed methane (CBM), which is extracted from coal beds, is also an unconventional gas
and, in terms of depth, occurs much closer to the land surface than other similar gases.
However, shale rock is sometimes found 3,000 metres below the surface. Therefore, after deep vertical drilling, there are
techniques to drill horizontally for considerable distances in various directions to extract the gas-rich shale. A mixture of water,
chemicals, and sand is then injected into the well at very high pressures (8,000 psi) to create a number of fissures in the rock
to release the gas. The process of using water for breaking up the rock is known as hydro-fracturing or fracking. The
chemicals help in water and gas flow and tiny particles of sand enter the fissures to keep them open and allow the gas to flow
to the surface. This injection has to be done several times over the life of the well.
The number of wells to be drilled for shale gas far exceeds the number of wells required in the case of conventional gas and
the land area required is a minimum of 80 to 160 acres.
The other interesting contribution to shale gas development in the U.S. is the export of guar gum from India, which helps in
improving the viscosity and flow of water in the fracking process. The gum is extracted from guar ki phalli, grown mainly by
farmers in Rajasthan and Haryana. Earlier, guar gum was used mainly as an additive in ice creams and sauces, but with the
discovery of its use in shale gas extraction, its production has risen enormously, earning almost $5 billion during the period
from April 2012 to January 2013.
The Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas (MoPNG) has identified six basins as potentially shale gas bearing. These are
Cambay, Assam-Arakan, Gondwana, Krishna-Godavari, Kaveri and the Indo-Gangetic plain. In a study conducted by the
United States Geological Survey (USGS), recoverable resources of 6.1 tcf have been estimated in three out of 26
sedimentary basins. India had also put out in 2012, a draft policy for the exploration and exploitation of shale gas, inviting
suggestions from the general public, stakeholders, environmentalists, etc.
Water issues
The policy is being considered by a group of ministers. The draft policy has identified some of the water issues in the
exploitation of shale gas. Optimal exploitation of shale gas/oil requires horizontal and multilateral wells and multi-stage
hydraulic fracturing treatments of stimulate oil and gas production from shale. This may require large volume of water 3-4
million gallons per well (11,000 to 15,000 cubic metres of water required for drilling/hydro fracturing depending upon the well
type and shale characteristics).
The water after hydraulic fracturing is flowed back to the surface and may have high content of Total Dissolved Solids (TDS)
and other contaminants (typically contains proppant (sand), chemical residue occur in many geologic formation, mainly in
shale). The possibility of contamination of aquifier (both surface and subsurface) from hydro-fracturing and fracturing fluid
disposal and the need for safeguarding the aquifer is the need of the hour.
The governments draft policy suggests that there should be a mandatory rainwater harvesting provision in the exploration
area, which trivialises the extent to which water will be required. It states, as far as possible, river, rain or non-potable ground
water only should be utilised for fracking and re-use/recycling of water should be the preferred method for water
management. The environmental concerns in using water for fracking have been considerably downplayed and their
significance underestimated. Further, enforcing legislation on environmental and water issues is a problem in India, and such
legislation has been more in breach than in observance.
India suffers from physical and economic water scarcity whereas the U.S. and Europe do not have the same water worries.
The website Indiawaterportal.org points out that in the next 12-15 years, while the consumption of water will increase by over
50 per cent, the supply will increase by only 5 to 10 per cent, leading to a water scarcity situation.
TERIs own study in 2010, Looking Back to Think Ahead, demonstrates that India is already a water-stressed country and is
fast approaching the scarcity benchmark of 1,000 m3 per capita with unabated growth in the irrigation sector; again, it is
evident that potential shale gas bearing areas, such as Cambay, Gondwana, Krishna-Godavari, and the Indo-Gangetic plains
are also areas that will experience severe water stress by 2030.
Shale gas basins
It points out that land acquisition is not covered in the shale gas policy, but will be a serious issue because of the large area
required for fracking and the consequent displacement of people. When the government invites bids, they are expected to
cover three major basins, i.e., Cambay, Krishna-Godavari, and Raniganj (Damodar basin). According to the Oil and Natural
Gas Corporation (ONGC), there are about 34 tcf of shale gas in the Damodar basin alone (compared to Indias total
conventional gas reserves of 47 tcf) of which 8 tcf are recoverable.
While the potential shale gas reserves overshadow those of conventional gas, we have a long way to go in identifying shale
gas rich basins and acquiring the necessary technology and experience to extract shale gas. Meanwhile, the water situation
will only get worse due to the reducing availability of fresh drinking water year by year, dropping groundwater levels, and the
increasingly polluted rivers and other water bodies. Unless, there is some revolutionary technological breakthrough, which
does not need the use of fresh water and chemicals, it is vital that we seriously ask ourselves this question: Should we further
endanger a rapidly depleting resource on which all life depends? The answer should be a resounding NO, and instead the
focus must be on removing the bottlenecks in CBM exploration and production while safeguarding the environment.

Can shale power India?

Shale has been a game-changer in the US. But replicating the success in India is easier said than done.

India is at a stage when people are looking for a magic wand to solve all of the countrys seemingly insurmountable problems.
One of the biggest is powering the 1.2 billion population 24x7.

A 2012 report by the US International Energy Agency (IEA) estimated that nearly 25 per cent of Indias population lacks basic
access to electricity, while electrified areas suffer from rolling electricity blackouts.

The Government seeks to balance the need for electricity with environmental concerns from the use of coal and other energy
sources used to produce that electricity. Coal is a hot topic in India today as, with huge reserves, the country still is fending off
private and foreign investors from accessing the lucrative sector. So, the next available and clean resource that can help
keep power plants running is natural gas.

Idle stations

Surprisingly, despite the country reeling under a power crisis, gas power stations are idling for lack of feedstock. Power
stations using gas accounted for nearly 10 per cent of Indias 225 gigawatts (GW) of electricity generated in June, while
coals share was nearly 60 per cent.

India has 64 gas-fired power stations, according to the Global Energy Observatory website. The Government has frozen the
construction of new gas plants until 2015-16 because of gas shortages, and existing plants are operating below capacity on
expensive imported liquefied natural gas (LNG).
Approximately 22,000 MW (megawatts) of gas-based power generation plants are at present idling, said Amulya Charan, an
independent adviser on energy infrastructure and finance in a Reuters interview recently.

Importing expensive LNG from countries such as Qatar and then subsidising power for households and agriculture is
obviously not a sustainable model.

So what can the country do apart from turning to coal at this crucial growth phase? Will shale gas save the economy like it did
in the US?

Many reports in the last month have suggested having an investor-friendly regime to invite international players to look for
shale in India. But is it going to be worth our while, or are we wasting our time here? Indias shale reserves, according to the
EIA (US Energy Information Administration), stands at 96 trillion feet, estimated to translate into around 26 years of the
countrys gas demand.

Technical expertise

Gas demand in the country is expected to jump to 473 million cubic metres a day (mmscmd) by 2016-17 from 286 mmscmd
in 2012-13. But shale gas can only be explored by state-owned oil and gas exploration agencies, who havent demonstrated
any particular technical expertise in drilling for shale. Shale gas exploration requires advanced technical expertise in hydraulic
fracking, the most commonly used method for recovery of the gas.

The technology was developed in the 1940s and has since helped produce more than 600 trillion cubic feet of natural gas
and 7 billion barrels of oil. The technique is used to create spaces in the rock pores deep underground to release oil and
natural gas so it can be brought to the surface.

Hydraulic fracking has been greatly successful in the USt mainly for two reasons.

One, in the US, the natural gas department is exempt from scrutiny for chemical injection in the ground (it exempts
companies from disclosing the chemicals used during hydraulic fracturing) and two, the citizen or resident owns the
resources that lie beneath the ground.

The US is a special case because in no other country is a citizen allowed to own the minerals that lie beneath the ground.

These favourable loopholes make it easy for companies to frack even close to residential localities, which could explain the
stupendous success shale gas operators in the US have found.

Other countries such as the UK and Saudi Arabia are pushing ahead with shale exploration but have had little or no success
so far. This is despite technology majors such as Halliburton and Schlumberger setting up technology centres in Saudi
Arabia. China, another power hungry nation, is struggling to commercialise its shale reserves.

Shale may have been a game-changer in the US but the technology and method for recovery are highly complex and, at
times, questionable.

What lies beneath

Hydraulic fracking, as the name suggests, requires millions of gallons of water for gas recovery. Indias environmental
agencies may not allow the usage of such large quantities of water. Besides, companies need expertise in the technology to
be able to recover shale gas profitably.

In India, if the legislation over the next couple of months does allow for hydraulic fracking, how is it going to done?

Where exactly are the shale gas deposits in India is the first obvious question to ask. There is not much publicly available
information on this.

It is only the EIA that throws some light on this: it says most shale gas could be in the basins of the Cambay and the Cauvery.

Overall, in upstream exploration, the Oil & Natural Gas Corp (ONGC) and Oil India Limited hold 356 blocks, of which 176
possibly could have shale gas deposits.
Are these companies going to invest in their own technology to look for shale? Are international oil majors who have had
limited success with shale in other countries barring the US going to show interest in Indias rather difficult shale terrain?

These are issues that require a lot of discussion over the next couple of months.

Given Indias rising energy demands, it seems a little naive to wait around for a shale gas boom when abundant coal
reserves lie literally beneath the ground.

(This article was published on September 18, 2013)

What Is Oil Shale?

The term oil shale generally refers to any sedimentary rock that contains solid bituminous materials (called
kerogen) that are released as petroleum-like liquids when the rock is heated in the chemical process of
pyrolysis. Oil shale was formed millions of years ago by deposition of silt and organic debris on lake beds and
O
sea bottoms. Over long periods of time, heat and pressure transformed the materials into oil shale in a process i
similar to the process that forms oil; however, the heat and pressure were not as great. Oil shale generally l
contains enough oil that it will burn without any additional processing, and it is known as "the rock that burns".
s
Oil shale can be mined and processed to generate oil similar to oil pumped from conventional oil wells; h
however, extracting oil from oil shale is more complex than conventional oil recovery and currently is more a
l
expensive. The oil substances in oil shale are solid and cannot be pumped directly out of the ground. The oil
e
shale must first be mined and then heated to a high temperature (a process called retorting); the resultant
liquid must then be separated and collected. An alternative but currently experimental process referred to as in
situ retorting involves heating the oil shale while it is still underground, and then pumping the resulting liquid to
the surface.
Oil Shale Resources

While oil shale is found in many places worldwide, by far the largest deposits in the world are found in the United
States in the Green River Formation, which covers portions of Colorado, Utah, and Wyoming. Estimates of the
oil resource in place within the Green River Formation range from 1.2 to 1.8 trillion barrels. Not all resources in
place are recoverable; however, even a moderate estimate of 800 billion barrels of recoverable oil from oil
shale in the Green River Formation is three times greater than the proven oil reserves of Saudi Arabia. Present
U.S. demand for petroleum products is about 20 million barrels per day. If oil shale could be used to meet a
quarter of that demand, the estimated 800 billion barrels of recoverable oil from the Green River Formation
would last for more than 400 years1.

More than 70% of the total oil shale acreage in the Green River Formation, including the richest and thickest oil
shale deposits, is under federally owned and managed lands. Thus, the federal government directly controls
access to the most commercially attractive portions of the oil shale resource base.

The Oil Shale Industry

While oil shale has been used as fuel and as a source of oil in small quantities for many years, few countries
currently produce oil from oil shale on a significant commercial level. Many countries do not have significant oil
shale resources, but in those countries that do have significant oil shale resources, the oil shale industry has not
developed because historically, the cost of oil derived from oil shale has been significantly higher than
conventional pumped oil. The lack of commercial viability of oil shale-derived oil has in turn inhibited the
development of better technologies that might reduce its cost.

Relatively high prices for conventional oil in the 1970s and 1980s stimulated interest and some development of
better oil shale technology, but oil prices eventually fell, and major research and development activities largely
ceased. More recently, prices for crude oil have again risen to levels that may make oil shale-based oil
production commercially viable, and both governments and industry are interested in pursuing the development
of oil shale as an alternative to conventional oil.

Oil Shale Mining and Processing

Oil shale can be mined using one of two methods: underground mining using the room-and-pillar method or
surface mining. After mining, the oil shale is transported to a facility for retorting, a heating process that
separates the oil fractions of oil shale from the mineral fraction.. The vessel in which retorting takes place is
known as a retort. After retorting, the oil must be upgraded by further processing before it can be sent to a
refinery, and the spent shale must be disposed of. Spent shale may be disposed of in surface impoundments, or
as fill in graded areas; it may also be disposed of in previously mined areas. Eventually, the mined land is
reclaimed. Both mining and processing of oil shale involve a variety of environmental impacts, such as global
warming and greenhouse gas emissions, disturbance of mined land, disposal of spent shale, use of water
resources, and impacts on air and water quality. The development of a commercial oil shale industry in the
United States would also have significant social and economic impacts on local communities. Other
impediments to development of the oil shale industry in the United States include the relatively high cost of
producing oil from oil shale (currently greater than $60 per barrel), and the lack of regulations to lease oil shale.
Surface Retorting

While current technologies are adequate for oil shale mining, the technology for surface retorting has not been
successfully applied at a commercially viable level in the United States, although technical viability has been
demonstrated. Further development and testing of surface retorting technology is needed before the method is
likely to succeed on a commercial scale.

In Situ Retorting

Shell Oil is currently developing an in situ conversion process (ICP). The process involves heating
underground oil shale, using electric heaters placed in deep vertical holes drilled through a section of oil shale.
The volume of oil shale is heated over a period of two to three years, until it reaches 650700 F, at which point
oil is released from the shale. The released product is gathered in collection wells positioned within the heated
zone.

Shell's current plan involves use of ground-freezing technology to establish an underground barrier called a
"freeze wall" around the perimeter of the extraction zone. The freeze wall is created by pumping refrigerated
fluid through a series of wells drilled around the extraction zone. The freeze wall prevents groundwater from
entering the extraction zone, and keeps hydrocarbons and other products generated by the in-situ retorting from
leaving the project perimeter.

Shell's process is currently unproven at a commercial scale, but is regarded by the U.S. Department of Energy
as a very promising technology. Confirmation of the technical feasibility of the concept, however, hinges on the
resolution of two major technical issues: controlling groundwater during production and preventing subsurface
environmental problems, including groundwater impacts. 1
Both mining and processing of oil shale involve a variety of environmental impacts, such as global warming
and greenhouse gas emissions, disturbance of mined land; impacts on wildlife and air and water quality. The
development of a commercial oil shale industry in the U.S. would also have significant social and economic
impacts on local communities. Of special concern in the relatively arid western United States is the large
amount of water required for oil shale processing; currently, oil shale extraction and processing require several
barrels of water for each barrel of oil produced, though some of the water can be recycled.

Coal-bed Methane (CBM) exploration and production project waiting to swallow Cauvery delta districts.It has been found
that the delta districts of Tamil Nadu and Pondichery, starting from Bagoor (coastal area of Pondichery),Neyveli,
Sirimushnam, Jayamkondan through southern part of Mannarkudi, has rich sources of lignite and methane. The assessed
figure of lignite is as follows: Areas around Bagoor 766 million tons; Areas around Neyveli, Jayamkondan and Veeranam
6835 million tons; Mannarkudi 19,788 million tons. Methane gas in this area is evaluated to be 98000 crorecubic feet.
License had been first provided to extract Methane gas.

Indian Governments Plan: The details on the license provided in order to fulfill the growing demand of fuel, to extract
methane, to Great Eastern Energy Corporation Limited (GEECL) on 29th July, 2010 is as follows.

Landscape to extract Methane gas:Thiruvidaimaruthur, Kumbakonam, Orathanadu, Papanasam taluk of Thanjavur district
and Kudavasal, Valangaiman, Needamangalam, Mannarkudi taluk of Thiruvarur district.

Total landscape: 691 sq. kilometers. Out of this, 24 sq. kilometers are allotted to extract lignite and the rest 667 sq.
kilometers (1,66,210 acres) is for methane extraction.

Action plan of GEECL

The company has told that they received the permit from Union ministry for environment and forests and Tamil Nadu
Pollution Control Board and prior permission from Tamil Nadu government to execute the CBM project. The company had
announced that it would start the latent well drilling activities before the end of 2012. Preliminary work on12 latent wells at
Thanjavur and 38 latent wells at Thiruvarur are scheduled to begin soon.

Green-field project : A false promise

Methane will increase the temperature of the environment. The company propagates that burning Methane will improve the
environmental conditions and Methane is a non-pollutant fuel. Therefore it falsely1 advertises that coal-bed methane
extraction is a green-house plan.

Steps to extract Methane

Coal-bed Methane gas is not found accumulated densely in a particular place. Its present between the pores or cracks or on
the surface of lignite rocks. At Mannarkudi region, underground coal seams are found from 500 ft. to 1650 ft.beneath the
ground water. The pressure from ground water does not allow the sparsely spread Methane from the coal-beds to escape. To
extract the gas, a steel-encased hole is drilled into the underground coal seams and dewatered through pumping, which
reduces pressure and releases trapped gases up to the well head. By such methods, ground level water around Cauvery delta
would go below 500 ft and underground water sources around the Mannarkudi area would also go dry. Above all salt water
from the Bay of Bengal will enter the Cauvery Delta. The transformation of the Cauvery Delta in to a salt mine will be the
impending disaster. In addition to that, salt water from the Bay of Bengal could enter the Cauvery delta, whichcauses
disaster making it a salt-rich environment. There are also chances for Earthquake and sink holes.

Adverse impact of the project

Ground water being pumped out through bore wells would be contaminated in many ways2. It may contain salt more than 5
times as of sea water. It also contains dissolvable salts like chloride, sodium, sulfate, bicarbonate, fluoride, iron, barium,
magnesium, ammonia, arsenic, and various other water soluble particles and radioactive waste materials.

Suppose if a well is being drilled for every 80 acre of land, then 2000 wells would be drilled. About 20000 gallon (75000
litres) of water will be taken out from each of the wells every day.The plan to pass such contaminated ground water through
the network of river canals which double as irrigation and water drains, is very dangerous. Implementing such a destructive
plan is a stupidity that will be disastrous for Tamil Nadu.

Plan to loot minerals demoting Cauvery delta a desert

The company would identify area to drill wells, would need pipes to connect wells, build roads and compressor stations,
need vacuum devices and bore well machines. It would need space to store all the required materials to implement the CBM
project, which will make the mineral rich Cauvery delta a trash filled dry area. On the one hand, the destruction of ground
water and on the other hand, the impact of salt rich waste water pollution will turn Cauvery delta into a desert. (Earthquakes,
land retreat and other natural disasters have happened in the areas where Methane is taken, in the United States of America).
Agriculture and the society dependent on agriculture will be ruined if this project is implemented. They are planning to
extract coal from underground using this chance to their best.

Disaster is not only for Mannarkudi, but also for entire Tamil Nadu.

If Mannarkudi of Cauvery delta is getting dry, other districts will also be affected. The entire linked ground water fountain
will be damaged. Ground water will no longer be available for drinking or agriculture purposes. Drinking water needs will
not be satisfied from Chennai through Rameswaram. Selling an enriched land (which is a livelihood for a great society, a
cultural monument, motherland for a number of animals and birds, and many other) to extract gas is equivalent to a
senseless brute selling his mother for his luxury.The feigned silence of Manmohans government to reject Tamils rights to
Cauvery water raises the suspicion that it consciously prevents water from reaching the Cauvery Delta.

Manmohan government which is always against Tamils rights on Mullaiperiyar, Cauvery and Paalaaru, taking full rights on
Cauvery delta, which is the mother land for Tamilars for thousands of years, and exchanging it to the companies for huge
profit is without base. Manmohan Singhs idea to let millions of agriculturalists seek other professions is against national
interest.
The freedom given to us by our ancestors, sacrificing their lives, is not to sell ourselves and our Nations resources to
companies. Lets save our Nation though it takes our life. We will not allow such company people to enter our Nation.

CONTENT IN GREY:

The Central Government of India had provided license to a company called Great Eastern Energy Corporation Limited
(GEECL) to extract Methane gas from the delta areas around Thanjavur and Thiruvarur. The state government has signed an
MOU permitting to dig the land and provide other related help including environmental approvals to extract methane in the
presence of M.K. Stalin on 04. 01. 2011.
Its been planned to extract Methane from 8 taluks in 2 districts. The coal-bed methane extraction plan of Indian
Government will lead to the depravity of Tamilars basic needs like food, water and shelter and may force people to move
out of the state as refugees. Itll spoil Tamilars cultural places of worship, and cultural icons.

Whats the urgent need for implementingmethane project?

What do we get by losing a vast landscape?

Area of land assigned to extract methane and coal: 691 sq. km. (1,71,190 acres).
Consider only 1,60,000 acres out of this:
Income from 2160 kg of production twice a year per acre for 30 years: Rs. 20,736.00crores
Income from production of pulses worthRs. 9000 per acre
for 30 years: Rs. 4,320.00crores
WoodTimber/firewood 2 tons per acre
@ Rs. 2000 per ton once in every 5 years: Rs. 384.00 crores
Suppose the number of cows doublingin five years.
Income from selling the cows (760000*4000*6): Rs. 1,824.00 crores
Suppose the number of goats doublingin two years.
Income from selling the goats (670000*2500*15): Rs. 2,512.5 crores
Total: Rs. 29,776.5 crores

Sugarcane and groundnut production, coconut farming, fisheries, handicrafts, small-scale production and other income
sources were not taken into account. The economic evaluation for the land that providesjobs and shelter to lakhs of people
wasalso not included.

Gas value

The company had told that only 60% of the available 0.98 trillion cubic feet of gas (i.e., 0.588 trillion cubic feet) can be
extracted.

Estimating the value as Rs. 30 per cubic meters of gas: Rs. 49,989.00 crores
Considering royalty and tax to be paid to the government as 20%,
maximum amount the government could get: Rs. 9,997.7 crores
Total: Rs. 10,000.00 crores

Compensation to be paid to common man/land owners

Money to be paid to the landowners:
Approx. Rs. 300000 lakhs per acre for 160000 acres: Rs. 4800 crores
Cost to build 400000 house(Rs. 200000 per house): Rs. 8000 crores
Cost to build 100000 cattle shed (Rs. 50000 per shed): Rs. 500 crores
Total:Rs. 13300 crores

Is it necessaryto extractmethane gas drilling till underworld?

No, its not necessary. Methane could be extracted from decomposed/waste materials as well.
Methane could be extracted in environment friendly ways from animal waste, bird waste, and human waste or from
decomposing leaves or plants. But Manmohansfavourite private companies or international companies will not come
forward to extract methane from these materials since they wont be able to get huge profit from such projects. We need to
decide whether it is Manmohans economy or national interest.

How much methane could be extracted from the decomposing/waste materials?

Lets take the waste materials from the Thanjavur, Thiruvarur and Naakai districts to account.

Methane could be extracted from animal waste or farm waste: 1084911

Fuel/gas that could be extracted per day: 1273360
Cow dung of 11 lakhs cows with 10 kg dung from each cow: 110.00 lakhs kg
76.00 lakhs kg
Waste of 12.75 lakhs goats with 2 kg per goat: 25.5 lakhs kg
Waste of 12 lakhs humans: 36.00 lakhs kg
Farm waste: 100.00 lakhs kg
Total:347.5 lakhs kg
Estimate of 0.03 cubic meter of gas per kg of waste: 10.425 lakhs cubic meters
Evaluating Rs. 30 per cubic meter of Methane per day: Rs. 312.75 lakhs
30 years worth of gas: Rs.34246.00 crores

If the techniques to use waste from Thanjavur, Thiruvarur and Naakai districts are learnt, the government can earn nearly 3.5
times more profit than the royalty and tax paid by Great EasternCompany. If the farmers are supported to grow
cattle/livestock, the profit could be doubled. Ample amount of electricity can also be generated with the methane from
villages. Production of dangerous/harmful to environment electricity from nuclear/thermalreactors can surely be avoided.
If livestock rearingis encouraged and wastes are purchased, themethane from villages could be made a growing source of
energy. Fertilizer companies are not required and could be closed.
(Just think about the waste that could be collected all over Tamil Nadu).

Indian government with everything in handrunningbehind Obama is a comic tragedy.The society that has grown with plenty
of ancient art symbols, temples, ponds, houses, small businesses grown from time to time, artists, instrumentation experts,
and knowledgeable persons would be treated with respect.

The decision to sell Mother India for just Rs. 10000 croresis Indian governments brutal cunningness and ignorance. The
governments activity supporting a foreign company for mineral theft isan unforgiveable offence.

The companies are rapidly approaching with attractive advertisements that they will provide compensation for the land and
jobs to all people. They are arrivingwith deceitful plans to move native people away from the land. Farmers/peasants have
had enough trusting false promises over the past 6 decades and lost their lands and life.

We will raise one voice.

Cauvery delta is our mothers lap.
We will protectCauvery delta even if last light of our lives fade.

End notes:

1) As with all carbon based fossil fuels, burning coal-bed methane releases carbon dioxide (CO2) into the atmosphere and
contributes to global warming. Proponents of the CBM industry argue that the amount of CO2 released per kilowatt of
energy produced is less than that produced by traditional coal burning power stations, and so is a partial improvement.

CBM (Coal-bed Methane) production also involves release of methane into the atmosphere, often referred to as fugitive
methane. Recent studies have found that fugitive release may be as high as 4 to 9% of the total produced by a project.
Methane is rated as having 72 times more effect on global warming than CO2 over 25 years, so there are significant
concerns about the ultimate effect of CBM production.

2) CBM wells are connected by a network of roads, pipelines, and compressor stations. Over time, wells may be spaced
more closely in order to extract the remaining methane. Additionally, the produced water may contain undesirable
concentrations of dissolved substances. Depending on aquifer connectivity, water withdrawal may depress aquifers over a
large area and affect groundwater flows.